MAC 405 – Documentary Film Production Note

Introduction.

You are welcome to MAC 441: Documentary Film Production. This course is
designed for communication students in the school of Arts and Social Sciences.
It is designed to help you acquire knowledge in the area of film production,
especially on how to handle documentary films. Students who have gone through
this course would be able to know the meaning of film or motion picture. They
would also be expected to trace the history or origin of films. Students would also
be exposed to the various types of films before delving finally into the
Documentary aspect of films. All issues in Documentary films – the technical
and non – technical members, production details, editing etc will all be x-rayed
in this course.

At the end of the course, the students will therefore be expected to have mastered
the crucial elements of Documentary film production. Due to the nature of this
course, the students are expected to produce one Documentary film as evidence
of their mastery of the course. This is because the course is more practical than
theoretical in nature.

This course guide provides you with the necessary information about the contents
of the course and the materials you need to be familiar with for proper
understanding of the subject matter. It also provides you with the knowledge on
how to undertake your Tutor – Marked Assignments (TMAs).

In all, this module will help students appreciate the principles underlying all
aspects of film especially, the Documentary film and how to produce one. This
is because the course will aim at exposing students to all the basic details involved
in film production. Students will therefore acquire the skills needed to be
successful film producers, directors, actors and actresses, as well as good film
editors.
Learning outcomes: what you will learn in this course.

Documentary film production is a course designed to equip you with the basic
principles of film production. The course will first of all help you understand the
meaning of film, the history of film and how film came to Nigeria. This is what
the first module will contain. In this first part, you will know the notable
individuals behind the invention of film and how film finally became a medium
of mass communication. Other modules look at types of films, and examples of
films before specifically delving into the Documentary aspect of films.
Production principles will be handled in the last modules since one cannot go into
this area without a proper understanding of the basics of film. As have been
mentioned earlier in this section, you are expected to produce a Documentary
film at the end of the course. You cannot therefore complete this course without
showing a well-produced Documentary film as evidence that you have been
taught this course.

Study Units.

MAC 441 is a 3 – credit unit 400 level course for mass communication students.
There are five modules in this course and each module is made up of five units.
Thus, there are twenty-five units in the whole text. The five modules and the five
units in the course are detailed as follows:

Module 1: Take Off Point

Unit 1: Meaning of film

Unit 2: History of film

Unit 3: Principles of film form and film style

Unit 4: Classifications of film

Unit 5: Components of film

Module 2: Understanding Documentary Film

Unit 1: Defining the documentary film

Unit 2: Types of documentary films

Unit 3: Purpose of documentary films

Unit 4: Developing ideas for documentary films Unit 5:

Developing the documentary outline.

Module 3: Documentary Film Production

Unit 1: Documentary film production methods

Unit 2: Documentary film production requirements

Unit 3: Writing the documentary film script

Unit 4: Production personnel for the documentary film

Unit 5: Getting set for a documentary film production

Module 4: Editing in Documentary Film Production

Unit 1: Meaning/definition of editing

Unit 2: Modes of editing

Unit 3: Functions of editing

Unit 4: Editing principles

Unit 5: Basic effects in editing of films

Module 5: Performing Criticism of a Documentary Film

Unit 1: Understanding film criticism

Unit 2: Types of criticism

Unit 3: Functions of the film critic

Unit 4: Tips for film criticism

Unit 5: Writing the criticism: the three basic steps

Each module has a listing of the units introduction, a listing of the objectives,
main content including self – Assessment Exercises (SAEs) and one Tutor-
Marked Assignment (TMA).
Text Books and References

There is a list of relevant reference materials at the end of each unit. You are
expected to consult as many relevant materials as possible because this will help
you in attempting the given exercises.

Assessment
Self – Assessment Exercise (SAEs) and Tutor – Marked Assignments are the two
types of assessments required in this course. Your answers to SAEs are not meant
to be submitted. They are designed to help you assess and acquaint yourself with
the contexts of each unit. They are therefore important for your understanding of
the course content. The Tutor-Marked Assignments (TMAs) on the other hand,
should be answered and kept in your file for submission and marking. This will
count for 30% of your total score in the course.

Tutor – Marked Assignment

At the end of every unit, there is a Tutor – Marked Assignment which you should
answer as instructed, and be kept in your assignment file for submission.
However, this Course Guide does not contain any Tutor – Marked Assignment
questions. They are provided from unit 1 module 1 to unit 5 module 5.

NOTE

Definition of film/motion picture

Film is an art with a long standing history. It could be defined as a record of an

image upon a sensitive material called cellulose through the action of light
(Kogah, 1999). It is a medium of mass communication whose main component
of production technology are the camera and editing equipment; the film
projector being the main reception technology, (Anunike, 2005). To Uwakwe
(2010), film comprises of individual frames which when shown in rapid
successions gives the viewer the illusion of motion.

Components of Film

All films tell stories. And for the stories to be understood, they must be woven
around the basic film components of theme, plot, characters, language and
setting. These components are discussed in details as follows:

Theme

The theme is the main or the central idea which the film writer wants to
communicate through the script. This theme could be overtly or covertly
presented through dialogue directions, description of characters and setting.
There is need for film critic to comment on the theme of the film he/she writes
on.

Plot

The plot is story that the scriptwriter tells. More than that, it is the structure, the
plan of the story, the arrangement of the shots, scenes, episodes, incidents, acts
and the overall film. It has the following elements: exposition, conflict,
complication, crisis, climax, flashback, point of attack, suspense etc. every good
plot has a beginning, middle and end. A film critic includes, in the work, a plot,
a summary of the film in about a page. He looks at the plausibility or otherwise
of the plot, the sequence and knitting to achieve a synergy.

Characters

The characters in a film are the characters about which a story is told. They
include human beings, gods, spirits, animals etc. character essentially means
character’s idiosyncrasies, distinctive qualities, desires that he/she exhibits
through actions, dialogue, language, and scriptwriter’s directions. Character can
be portrayed or delineated through its external, internal and objective
characteristics (Mgbejume, 2002). The two major characters in a film are the
protagonist (the lead character) and the antagonist (any character that stands
against the protagonist). Others are seen as minor characters.

Language

This refers to the scriptwriter’s way or method of communicating his/her work to

the viewers. This could come in the following ways: diction, semantic, syntax
uses, proverbs, idioms, adages, symbols, gestures, dialogue, aside, monologue
etc. It also concerns or refers to thought, appreciate choice of words easily spoken
of (Duraku, 1997).

Setting

Film setting refers to the representative of the natural location, locale of the film.
It is the habitat of the characters. Setting has three elements namely:

(a) Physical setting of the script

(b) General significant occurrence, which grows out of a character’s social,
moral, and cultural intercourse within each of the settings and
(c) The atmosphere, which embodies the emotional characteristics of each
setting, (Mgbejiume, 2002).

Documentary Film

Introduction

Documentary films could be described as an integral aspect of television

programmes. Documentaries are aired almost on daily basis in most
television status. This is why they are important in every stations
programme schedule because they provide in depth analysis and
interpretation of events in the society and are used in educating,
entertaining, informing, and in retaining the attention of audiences of most
broadcast stations.

This module is therefore divided into five units as follows:

Unit 1: Defining the documentary film

Unit 2: types of documentary films

Unit3: purpose of documentary film Unit 4:

developing ideas for documentary films

Unit 5: developing the documentary outline.

Defining the Documentary Film.

Documentary film is an aspect of a film genre. Under the categories or

classifications of films, documentary film is one of the most commonly
produced film which is aired for most television audiences all over the
world. This is due to the nature of documentary films. They are used to
depict the prevailing trends in the society whether negative or positive and
are based purely on factual events, not fictions. Real events, real people and
real places are portrayed in the film. For this reason, documentary films are
important aspects of every television programme schedule. The essence of
this unit is basically to help you understand what a documentary film means.

Definition/Meaning of a Documentary Film.

The word, “documentary” was first coined by John Grierson, popularly

known as the father of the British documentary. He used the word to
describe Robert Flaherty’s film “Moana” produced in 1962. But the word,
documentary, comes from a French word “documentaire”, which is a term
used by the French to refer to “travel” (movie) pictures. John Grierson
described documentary as the creative treatment of actuality.
So basically speaking, documentary is a term that can be applied to all
non-acted films. They are films based on actualities. Hence the earliest
films which had no story lines were considered documentaries, (Kogah,
1999).

Documentary Films, strictly speaking, are non-fictional, "slice of life" factual

works of art – and sometimes known as cinema verite.

A documentary film, properly defined is a film hinged on actualities,

and based on actual facts, (Anunike, 2003). As defined by Nworgu (2010),
a documentary is a non-fiction programme which suggest reality. It could,
however, use dramas which provide fictional accounts of real events (docu-
drama). This involves the dramatization of real events. A documentary
could also be described as a creative treatment of actuality or creative
interpretation of actuality. Some scholars describe documentaries as current
historical accounts. A look at Nwanwenne’s definition of what a
documentary is, shows that documentaries are not just historical accounts.
This scholar defines documentary as:

All methods of recording on celluloid, any aspect of actuality

interpreted either by factual shooting or by sincere and
justifiable reconstruction so as to appeal either to reason or to
emotion for the purpose of stimulating the desire for and the
widening of human knowledge, and understanding and of
truthfully posing problems and their solution in the spheres of
economic, culture and human relations.

All documentaries, no doubt, have dramatic appeals. They also develop and
reveal characters. They therefore offer insights and revelations about people
and the world about us.

Differentiating a documentary from a feature film.

A feature film is primarily designed for entertainment purposes. This does
not preclude in all entirety some elements or traces of information and
education. The feature film runs for over seventyfive minutes usually
between ninety and one hundred and twenty minutes. They can also be
distributed to cinema houses. All feature films are fictional in nature, using
professional actors to drag home some points. Although feature films are
relatively fictional in nature, they still may be based on real lives of people
or an actual events, contemporary or historical. But a documentary film is
basically based on facts. It uses ordinary people and real places and events.
Staged events are not used in the story line. They are therefore, all non-acted
films, (Kogah, 1999)

In documentaries, the filmmaker is attempting to interpret his/her subject for

the viewers, rather than ordinarily showing a pictorial record of things,
people or places of interest. The main object of a documentary is analysis.
Such analysis is based on real events as recorded by the camera lens.
Granted that a documentary presents a kind of truth, since it is said to be the
presentation of actual events, such a truth is the one as shaped by the
filmmaker. The professional film man does this job through his/her
approach to photography, editing, sound recording, narration and all other
skills of his/her trade.

Types of Documentary Films

Documentary films are categorized into several types depending in the

nature of issues treated in the film. But no matter the category into which a
documentary film belongs, it must be a creative treatment of actuality or
creative interpretation of actuality. They are facts about how people or
animals live in their various environments. It revolves around plants,
animals, human beings and how they interact with beings or objects in their
immediate environment.
Documentaries as emphasized by Owuamalam (2007) are artistic
productions made for the consumption of broadcast audience. They are
produced for the screen medium. Kogah (1999) give five classes of
Documentaries as naturalist, realist, newsreel, propagandist and the cinema
verite documentaries. A detailed discussion of these classes of
documentaries is provided as follows:

The Naturalist Documentary

These are the documentaries that make use of their natural surroundings and
everyday scenery. The naturalist film makers make drawings and symbols
of the mountains, rivers, deserts, erosion gullies, sand dumes and forests of
all kinds so as to tap natural emotional values. The essence of using these
natural phenomena is simply to depict nature. Two of the most
representative films in this category most representative films in this
category are the “Nanook of the North” and “Man of Arah”.

The “Nanook of the North” was written and directed by Robert J. Flaherty
in 1922. Flaherty used the film to capture the daily lifestyle of the people of
Nanook. The film which was made in the rugged icy regions of Canada
portrays a hardy nomadian and his family struggling against nature and
travelling from place to place in search of food and shelter. They survived
against all odds just like the cattle nomads of the Northern Nigeria and the
fish settlers of the Niger Delta who follow the movement of the fish.
Flaherty’s creative treatment of the film subject brought him fame and made
the technical aspect of documentary film making very popular.

Two other personalities like John Grierson and Walter Ruttman, followed
Flaherty’s lead in making films from naturally existing situations.

The Realist Documentary

The use of photographs to high light contradictions of life in the cities and
rural areas produced the realist tradition in documentary film making. The
film maker would show the poor and the rich, clean and dirty environments,
as well as other points and counter-points which are prevalent in urban and
rural areas, to drag home a point.

Albert Calvanti is one of the most recognized film directors in the realist
tradition. Alberto’s “Rien que les Heures” (Nothing Passes time” produced
in 1926, broke new ground as he attempted to show what the passing of time
is like in the city of Paris. David Griffith and his other colleagues see the
film as the first attempt to express creativity in the life of people in a city
and urban environments.

The Newsreel Documentary

A film that presents the events of the day in a straight forward manner, with
little or no elaboration for effect, is in the newsreel tradition. A typical
newsreel filmmaker has no special viewpoint, an approach quite different
from that of most documentary filmmakers who portray events for a special
purpose. Whereas newsreel reportage does not take much time and may be
accomplished without much thought, the documentary requires full
contemplation.

The present day investigative or specialized reporting and the usual bare
news reporting are typical examples of documentary film approach in the
newsreel filmmaking. But the investigation reporting takes pretty time to
accomplish while the normal bare news reporting can be done with
minimum time and concentration.

The propagandist Documentary

The use of film as a persuasive instrument to elicit a particular effect on an

audience is the key to the propagandist tradition. Propaganda, according to
Harold Lasswell in Agbanu (2005) in this regard, refers to the management
of collective attitudes by the manipulation of significant symbols such as
clinched fist, elevated eye brow, sophisticated gestures, powerful words and
body movements. The propagandist uses various strategies including
arguments and persuasion.

Soviet filmmakers were among the first to use film for political propaganda.
For instance, the rise of communist ideology in the Soviet Union coincided
with the perfection of the documentary. It was therefore natural that the
young nation used film to promote its special view of the world. Communist
ideology has remained indelible in the minds of most Russian citizens
despite the splitting of the former Soviet Union into different states.

Sergei M. Eisentein’s “October” produced in 1928 and V.I Pudvokin’s

“Deserter” produced in 1939 are the two notable films that used familiar
images and persons to create a unique propagandist impact. The propaganda
film probably reached its peak during the Second World War. On one part,
the German film makers were earger to influence the masses in support of
the Third Reich. On the other hand, American and British filmmakers told
the world of the exploits and heroics of the “Allied Troops” against the
German war machine, (Kogah 1999: 36).

Cinema Verite Documentary

The rise of cinema verite brought a boom to documentary films. Films in

this category reveal the power of an event to speak for itself. Frederick
Wiseman is perhaps the most effective member of the cinema verite school.
Wiseman’s fascination is with institutions and his emphasis was on editing
rather than planning in order to document factually without intrusion of
social and political narration.
The film maker dispenses with the narrator’s voice and allows the situation
itself to tell the story.

Frederick wiseman achieves his objectives by allowing the camera to rove

much as the human eye would naturally do with little or no preplanning.
Wiseman’s “High school” produced in 1965, his “Titical Follies” of 1967,
his “Law and Order” of 1969 and his “Hospital” produced in 1970, all
explored every aspect of the functioning of traditional institutions. What
makes cinema verite popular in recent times is the portability of camera
equipment plus audiences distaste for the preaching films.

In cinema verite, the film maker is able to gather all the evidence needed to
communicate a message. In the contemporary society, the documentary
filmmaker continues with the tradition of presenting a viewpoint with a
naturally occurring phenomenon.

Form of Documentaries

Documentary films have comprised a very broad and diverse category of films.
Examples of documentary forms include the following:
1. Biographical' films about a living or dead person
2. a well-known event
3. a concert or rock festival
4. a comedy show
5. a live performance
6. an expose including interviews
7. a sports documentary
8. a compilation film of collected footage from government sources
9. an examination of a specific subject area (e.g., nature- or science-related
themes, or historical surveys, such as The Civil War, Jazz, Baseball, or
World War II, etc.)
 10. spoof documentaries, termed 'mockumentaries'
11. Nature related documentary

Documentary Film Formats

This connotes the film’s physical characteristics such as the size, the
packaging and whether it is silent or sound film. The size of film can be
measured in millimaters (mm). This is the standard measurement. Film sizes
range from 8mm, normally used for domestic purposes, to gigantic 70mm,
which is used on some wide screen feature films. For television film
production, only three sizes are used. They include 35mm, 16mm and super
8mm. 16mm is the most common among the three while 35mm is mainly
for professional productions, (Kogah, 1999).

The 35mm is used in the prime time entertainment programmes. The size of
this format produces exceptionally beautiful pictures.

However, it is rarely used for most video film productions since only the
network and a handful of television stations have 35mm projection
capability.

The 16mm format is the industry standard for local television film
production and projection. It is less expensive than 35mm, yet the various
professional film stocks available in 35mm are also present in 16mm. Again,
16mm production equipment is completely professional and comparable to
the quality of 35mm equipment. Finally the 16mm equipment is comparably
lighter and more portable.

Super 8mm is increasingly becoming very popular in view of its low cost
alternative to 16mm. Consequently, it is used by relatively smaller stations
and production studios. Although the 16mm is less expensive than the
35mm films, it is no doubt an expensive and costly medium in comparism
with the super 8mm film. Granted that the super 8mm does not in any way
compare fovaourably with 16mm, both in picture quality and production
flexibility, it does not however produce acceptable pictures as in the case of
its superior 16mm film. In spite of this draw back, the super 8mm find good
use with satisfactory results at smaller stations and production studios. This
is based primarily on its simplicity and low cost of the equipment.

Purpose of Documentary Films

Documentary films are not just produced in a haphazard manner for the fun
of it. They are well thought of and organized in a manner that must
communicate something of significance to the viewer. For this reason, every
documentary film has key objectives or purpose why it is produced. This
unit aims at discussing the purposes for the production of documentary
films. The importance of documentary films were also x-rayed.

A documentary filmmaker sets forth “not simply to register events and

circumstances, but to find the most moving examples of them” (Bluem,
1972:10). It is so because every documentary is dramatic. It adds an artistic
dimension to journalistic and societal aims. It aims at one or more of the
following objectives or purposes:

• To provide socially useful information or basically to inform the

audience. The essence may be to arouse human interest to take a
remedial action, on the observed lapses in the human environment.
The documentary provides relevant information through
compelling pictures and images. It deals with the focused subject so
that the issue raised would be appreciated and understood. For
instance, the weekly news presentation on the Nigerian Television
Authority (NTA) network service on Saturdays titled “week-end
file” mirrors an aspect of the Nigerian society that requires public
attention and consideration. One of the editions as captured by
 Owuamalam (2007) dealt with the fate of the textile industry in
Nigeria. It showed how the industry has virtually collapsed with the
decline in the number of textile factories, from more than 200 in the
1990s to less than 40 in 2006, how the workforce has reduced from
more than 300,000 workers to less than 20,000 within the same
period. It also showed how the cotton farms have been neglected
and the yarn machines abandoned. It explains why the scarcity of
finished Nigeria prints has led to the smuggling of textiles and
fabrics, even now that the materials are currently banned for
importation into the country. It brings the travails of the industry to
the fore and advocates a socio-economic actions that can return the
industry to its prerions glorions moments of boom.

Other purposes of documentaries include

• To persuade the audience to take remedial action and to inspire or

lift.
• To convince people to accept a new idea or to develop a new opinion
or attitude.
• To persuade the audience to carry out a specific course of action.

A given documentary can accomplish one or more of the above objectives.

If however it is well organized, it will be primarily aimed at accomplishing
one of them, (Willis, 1967)

Importance of Documentaries

The documentary film is important and very crucial to broadcasters and

media professionals for many reasons. Firstly, it gives them a chance to use
the broadcast media to explore the significant issues in their immediate
environments, rather than expanding their resources on what may be
frivolous and ephemeral.
Secondly, it provides opportunities for experimentation and the exercise of
one’s ingenuity not often possible in such formulaobsessed fields as drama
and comedy.

Thirdly, it allows broadcasters the opportunity to re-experience creativity,

outside the realm of typologies often associated with specific production
formats. It allows the freedom to explore the various attributes of
performance, as a communication strategy, designed specifically for the
audiovisual medium.

Developing Ideas for Documentary Films.

The documentary film, as has been emphasized in the previous unit, follows
a well thought out pattern. It does not follow a haphazard approach. The
ideas are carefully chosen and organized to suit the purpose and achieve the
objectives for the documentary. This unit is therefore designed to help you
understand the importance of organizing ideas for the documentary and
more importantly on how to develop ideas for documentary films.

Developing Ideas for the Documentary Film.

Ideas for the documentary film according to Nworgu (2010) can be

generated through any of the following:

• Personal experience.

We experience sad, happy, bitter, sweet and memorable moments everyday

both in our offices, homes, street or anywhere we find ourselves. These
experiences can form the basis for a documentary programme.

• Historical events or figures

A documentary idea could emanate from historical accounts about

celebrities or celebrations. Most historical documentary is made up of partly
fiction and factual things.
 • Strong feelings for or against the society or events.

Bad or good feelings can form basis for a documentary idea.

• A change in the societal values, norms, and social order can form
material for a documentary script.

Also, the political, economic and social standard can be used for a
documentary programme

• The inspiration to produce a documentary programme could also

emanate from newspapers, magazines, novels, short stories, drama
series etc which one has read.

Research for the Documentary

The place of research in the documentary film, just like in any other aspect
of mass communication cannot be over emphasized. Research provides the
basic information needed to produce the documentary.

Research for a documentary programme can be divided into three. Pre-

documentary project research, on – the – documentary project research and
post – documentary research.

Pre-documentary research is the first research carried out to ascertain basic

information concerning the documentary. This is the general phase in which
the subject is explored to establish the dimensions of the programme and
define areas that need further investigation. General reading is the main tool
in this exploratory phase of the research.

The second phase of the research is carried out when the documentary
project has been embarked on. This is the stage in which the research seeks
answer to specific questions that arise during the period of the general
research. This may go on throughout the preparation of the programme. This
is because the writer often discovers after he has started his/her script that
he/she needs further information before he/she can continue writing the
script.
Interview is often carried out in this stage.

The last phase of research is the post-documentary project research. It is

done to ascertain how far the documentary project writer has farred in
his/her work. Question on how far the purpose of the documentary has been
achieved is also ascertained at this stage. What is the attitude of the viewers
towards the documentary? Are there areas that need to be improved on in
future productions and are there areas where the documentary derived its
strengths form? These questions are very necessary if the person(s) behind
the documentary would excel in this trade.

Research is therefore important in documentary programme production

because of the following reasons:

• It helps in developing the point of view for the documentary

• It helps the script writer to be conversant with the subject matter
• It helps in ascertaining the budget for the documentary
• It helps in finding who is to be interviewed, and how the interview is
to be carried out.
• It is through research that the actual resources – both human and
material – that will be used in the production are ascertained.

Developing the Documentary Outline.

An outline is like a blue-print that guides the production of a documentary.

The success of the documentary therefore depends on how the outline is
designed. A well laid down outline also makes it very easy to carryout the
documentary without mistakes. This unit is designed to help you know what
an outline means with regards to documentary and how to develop a good
documentary outline.

Meaning and Functions of a Documentary Outline

A documentary outline according to Nworgu (2010) and Owuamalam

(2007) could be described as the presentation of the documentary story in a
straight forward simple story format without the technical jargons, like light
and camera movements. The scriptwriter presents the dramatic element of
the story in a coherent manner and usually in present tense. Documentary
outline brings out all the unity of the whole story and also the main points.
However, documentary outline is not the final working script but the
scriptwriter’s script containing the storyline. It is like a proposal, which tell
us what the documentary is all about. It is a simple presentation made to
potential producer or sponsor. After the presentation of this script or outline,
the producer or director now prepares a script for the production.

Production script, on the other hand, should then have technical jargons like
instructions for lighting and camera movements. The director’s or
producer’s script contains conceptualization, visualization and pictorization
of the ideas for either radio or television document production. This means
that the director adds life or images to the ideas presented in the outline by
the script writer.

The functions of the outline given by Nworgu (2010) are as follows:

• Makes clear the direction of the script

• Gives the story some flesh and

• Adds some emotions to the story, thereby injecting excitement
which the audience will likely experience after watching the film.
Question that Guide the Development of the Documentary Outline
Kogah (1999) maintains that the first step in creating an outline is to write
down the ideas of the programme in a list without giving any particular
thought to order or arrangement. The list should then be guided by the
following questions:

• What are the main ideas to be explored in the documentary?

• What is the subordinate points?
• What is clearly the supporting material?

The responses to these questions will guide the writer in setting down the
outline. For instance, a documentary “Exodus from Africa” on CNN, shows
the inexplicable desperation of African youths, in passing through avoidable
difficulties, simply because they desire and seek euphoria of “paradise” in
the western world, which in real terms may not be the case. The
documentary shows political instability, joblessness and a craven quest for
affluence, as the factors that have contributed to the mass exodus of African
youths from their countries. It shows the harrowing experience which the
youths pass through to achieve their desires, which in most cases come with
death, misery and penury in squalor and sordid living conditions. The illegal
immigrants most times are repatriated from the countries, where they
arrived illegally. The documentary sought to ask the youths in particular,
whether the risk involved is worth the trouble (Owuamalam, 2007).

From this short outline of what the documentary “Exodus from African” is
all about, you can ascertain whether the three guiding questions in the
development of a documentary outline have been answered.

There are certain patterns that are followed while developing an outline. The
writer, according to Kogah (1999 :45) may discover that his/her material fits
into one of the following patterns of organization of an outline:
 • Write the outline in complete sentence because incomplete or
single words mask muddy thinking and fail to reveal, that some
ideas which seem to be related are not really related after all.
• Make certain that the ideas of the programme are set down in such
a way as to reveal their tone relationships. Use a consistent set of
symbols to reveal which ideas are the main prints, which are
subordinate, and which are equal to one another.
• Restrict the number of main points to a reasonable number. Most
programmes should have no fewer than two main points and no
more than five.
• Be sure that the outline does not omit an essential step in the
development of the main idea. The writer should also make certain
that he/she has enough supporting material to establish his/her main
prints adequately.

• Avoid the use of compound or multiple idea sentence. There should

be only one simple sentence after each symbol in the outline.
• Express points as positive statements and not as questions. When a
point is introduced in the actual programme, it may be worded as a
question. It has already been pointed out that such questions in
outlines may hide juzzy thinking or faulty structure.

Documentary Film Production Methods.

documentary films are carefully planned before they are produced. The
production follows a carefully designed pattern because it involves the
record of activities that are of interest to the audience (Nworgu, 2005).
Usually it starts with a treatment to the production of a shooting script, while
adequate provision are made for budget. No matter the type of documentary
produced, four methods standout as the production methods. This is the
essence of this unit. It is designed to help you understand the methods
involved in the production of documentary films.

Production Methods in Documentaries

There are four methods that can be adopted while producing a documentary
film. They are discussed as follows:

• Studio – Produced Programmes

Kogah (1999) emphasized that documentaries produced in television or film

studios from completely written scripts were common just after the World
War II. Since then, they have been largely replaced by programmes made
of tapes or films recorded in the location where the events being portrayed
actually took place. This is what documentary represents: capturing real
events in the actual places where the events happened. Although
documentaries were produced in studios, this is no longer the trend now
since most documentaries are recorded in the actual environments where the
events happened.

• Existing Film Tape

Many television documentaries are made up in whole or in part from film

obtained from government archives, newsreel cuttings or other sources. In
this regard, they are termed existing tapes. Programes with a historical focus
are the ones most likely to use this type of material. A film on the Nigerian
Civil war can best be made using reviewed episodes in the civil war. In like
manner, programs dealing with the lives of historical figures such as
Nnamdi Azikiwe and Obefemi Awolowo, are also compiled largely from
existing film, much of it being produced originally for newsreels at a time
they were making powerful speeches at political rallies, during symposia,
parliamentary debates, or even budget speeches. There may also be film on
the independence day celebration and the accompanying important speeches
by the then President of Nigeria.

• Specially-Produced Film

One other major ingredient in television documentaries is film specially

produced for the programme. Many documentaries are composed entirely
of material made to order in this way. People who were eye witnesses to
great events may be brought before a camera or microphone to record their
comments. A typical example may be the Nigerian Constitutional
Conference organized by the late Abacha regime. In some instances a
camera or tape recorder is taken into the field to picture scenes or to capture
people in situation acting just as they would, where no recording is being
made. This brings to the fore, the word, actuality, which is a term often used
to designate this type of documentary. In order to permit natural responses
in the situation even though the artificial element of a camera has been
introduced, producers developed the cinema verite technique, which makes
the cameraman part of a given situation for a relatively long period of time
and requires that he/she uses his/her camera unobstrusively as possible.

• Still Pictures

Some television documentaries utilize a succession of still images as the

primary visual element. Biographies of prominent international figures like
Abraham Lincoln and others have been presented in this way. Still pictures
have also been employed as a secondary element in a number of
programmes. Van Gogh’s paintings were effectively used to tell part of that
great artist’s story. Still pictures can even be made to move through
manipulation of camera trigger and use of special camera like boulex and
proper application of Roget’s theory of persistence of vision which gives an
illusion of motion based on the standard rate a given number of picture
frames can be passed in a second.
The Place of Story and Treatment in the Document Film Production
Process

The story is the basis of most films because every film starts from a story.
It is the message of the film. The storyline therefore, is the representation of
a plot in a cohesive and progressive manner. It introduces the subject, deals
with its details and draws a reasonable conclusion from the events,
emanating from the events, (owuamalam, 2007). It is a creative construction
of events in a logical manner, designed to enhance believability and
acceptance, from the consumer of the artistic product. A story line simply,
represents the plan through which actions and activities are executed and
appreciated, in a creative work of art. But treatment describes the characters,
the setting and of course, the actions. It is the first stage of a screen story.

The shooting script contains both the treatment and the story line. It is the
responsibility of the director to prepare the shooting script out of the story
line given to him/her by the script writer.

Documentary film production Requirements

A documentary is a properly researched story of a subject matter, event or

person. There are therefore some requirements that aid the production of a very
good documentary. This unit is designed to help you understand those things
you need to produce a good documentary.

Requirements for a Documentary Film Production.

Onyechi (2010:239) outlines the basic things needed by the producer for the
execution of a documentary film. They include:

• Research into the viewership of the medium where the documentary

is to be aired. The audience of the programme must be known because
their likes, dislikes, attitude, opinion etc should be considered while
deciding on the nature of documentary to be produced for them. A
 thorough research should also be carried out on the subject matter and
on the nature of interview to be conducted. This will help in
ascertaining who the interviewees will be and how to reach them on
the appropriate time.
• Scripting by the producer to cover 1/3 of duration with catchy title
should also be made available.
• Interviews, interviewees and schedule for meetings should be
identified and booked early for recording. Written questions should
be given to the resource persons in advance.

• Back to base, the producer may need to adjust the script, creating
spaces for an information obtained from the field e.g input from
resource persons.
• To secure a good narrator, and select good theme, and bridge music
as well as visual inputs, actors and actresses may required to re-enact
the unrecorded events (archival materials not available) or events of
pre-era or a docu-drama.
• A virgin tape of excellent quality should be obtained for actual
production in the studio. Script (shooting script) and the production
crew (graphic artist, floor manager, act or interview clips, archival
library shots, location, visuals etc) should also be made handy.
• Finally, the unedited documents which have been recorded, should
be edited, captioned and made ready for airing.

Features to be Included in the Documentary

Onyechi (2010) gave a list of four major features to be included in a

documentary film. They include:

• Narration:
The success of most documentaries depend on the narration. A good narrator
must be hired to voice the documentary where necessary. A narrative, which
deals with the soft aspect of news with some elements of drama, is
necessary. The narrator, with a good voice quality, is the main character in
a documentary. Actor’s voice and music effects are also used to play the
parts of people who are already dead or too faraway to be recorded.

• Entertainment

Facts must be selected, refined, ordered, organized and dramatically

presented to the audience. Music, serialized drama, comics, songs etc should
be included as light entertainment elements. This will help to win and
sustain the interest of the audience thereby popularizing the station and the
producer.

• Sound Effects

Apart form the narrator’s voice, other forms of sound and human (actuality)
lyrics, verses etc should be added to add glamour and improve the aesthetic
quality of the documentary.

• Actors and Actresses must be used where necessary.

This will help to re-enact dialogues which actually took place.

Writing the Documentary Film Script.

Writing the Documentary Script

The actual writing of a documentary script may be a major or minor job

depending on the nature of the programme. If it is composed of film shot in
the field or interviews with authorities, little work will be required. The
creative work is done mainly by the production team. In any case not
withstanding the approach taken, the documentary script is a manual
conveying the programme idea. It is a broadcast script that contains both the
dialogue, presentation style and the instructions that will aid in the
production of the documentary
(Nworgu, 2010)

Principles of a Documentary Script

Script writing entails a creative presentation of an idea that brings

conceptions to the bare for the mutual benefit of the source and the receiver.
There are principles to be adopted and adhered to if the scriptwriter wants
to deliver a script that will vividly tell the story.
These principles as outlined by Kogah (1999) are as follows:

• Gaining Attention:

How can the scriptwriter gain the attention of audience through the script?
It is through depicting the subject of the documentary in the most powerful
terms he/she can device. He/she must make it vital and meaningful to an
average viewer. There must be an aura of excitement and suspense in the
story line. The teaser technique is frequently used in documentaries to focus
the attention of the audience on the problem. The teaser may be a brief
dramatic scene, or an exciting sequence excerpted from the body of the
documentary.

It may yet be a statement by a person whose name and face are attention
getting in themselves. Celebrities are not the only ones who can gain
attention. Sometimes, the so-called “common-man” can do it if he is
presented in the right way. Miscarriage of justice or abuse of human rights,
for instance, can catch attention effectively by opening with a man telling
the audience in a simple yet poignant way that he has spent ten years in
prison for a crime he did not commit.

• Introducing Conflict
The documentary form does not provide an obvious opportunity to use
conflict for holding attention as drama does. However, a creative and an
alert scriptwriter can make use of this principle to build interest in the
documentary. One method is to alternate interview with people who hold
clashing opinions on a subject. Another method is to provide face-to-face
confrontation between opponents. This particular method permits the
development of the highest degree of conflict. It is however not so easy to
control when compared to the conflict that arises from interviews recorded
separately.

• Introducing Emotional Appeals or Values

The principal means of arousing emotional appeals to a documentary is to

present the issues as they affect individuals. A writer who is content by
merely making general statements is likely to leave his/her audience
involved. A good example would be the ugly incidence of kidnappings in
the south-Eastern part of the country. Instead of mere telling about the
consequences of kidnapping, the scriptwriter can depict it through the eyes
of a survivor who narrowly escaped being killed, even after the family has
paid the demanded ransom. He could be pictured walking down the scene
of the incident where he was kidnapped, while two or three actors could
dramatize how he was kidnapped, while his voice recorded over the scene,
tell the horrible event, his pleas and cries and moans as they kicked him into
their car and zoomed off. It must be a pathetic and memorable moment.

• Narration

Narration in this instance is written after the editing process is completed.

This is because only then can the writer know what material needs narrative
support. Narration can reinforce the effect of a documentary in a number of
ways (a) it can clarify the meaning of the tape and pictures especially if the
film was shot silent, that is, without sound (b) it can provide explanation but
the writer should avoid saying too little or saying too much, (c) it may also
provide interpretation which enriches the contribution of a filmed or taped
excerpt, (d) it serves as the transition from one idea in the documentary to
another; (e) finally it also enhances the emotional effect of a scene or a taped
insert with a vivid sentence or an appropriate quotation.

Synopsis Versus the Shooting Script

The synopsis as captured by Owuamalam (2007) could be likened to an

abstract which summarizes the entire creative work, in an impressive form,
structure and sequence. But the shooting script, captures and consists of shot
numbering, camera instruction, action to be formatted and the anticipated
accompanying sound.

“Never Again” is a

Storyline adapted from Owumalam (2007:137) showing example of a

script.

NEVER AGAIN

The world can be peaceful, in the absence of robbers, bandits, terrorists and
brigands. Mark was once a humble boy, who grew in the high brow area of
Duke form. He lived at Bon Plaza on the 4th street. His parents are wealthy.
So, Mark lacked nothing. He always shows generosity to the less privileged
members of the community. One day, Mark met Alice and John who led
rascal lives that offend society. They talked Mark into smoking. They even
brought alcohol for Mark and took him to clubs and casinos. They told him
the benefit of belonging to secret cults and the essence of becoming a “big-
boy” or even a “boss” peer.

Mark followed their directions at home where he smoked behind closed

doors, and in toilets. At school, he joined a cult group of his choice. Some
evening’s he went to club with Jane. The difference was a continuous one
for Mark who has just turned 25 years of age.

Suddenly, Jane’s parents become worried that their daughter was frequently
sick and vomited mornings. Jane had started being absent from school,
while their examination was fast approaching. Her teacher was worried and
asked other students why Jane was no longer regular at school.

Six months later, Jane was discovered to be pregnant. The school expelled
her. Mark was involved in robbery. He was caught and paraded before the
press and the community. His father fled town, blaming Mark’s woes on his
mother who was always protective of their son.

Three months later, Mark was convicted of armed robbery and sentenced to
death by a firing squad. His mother was heartbroken. She watched her only
son in chains, as he was taken away by the police.

Jane delivered her baby in a squalor, after being isolated and abandoned
by her parents. There was no Mark to rest her shoulders. Her child wept
ceaselessly, of deprivation as hunger set in to tell the story.

3.3.2 “Never Again” as a Synopsis

“Never again” by Emman-owums Owuamalam, is a social documentary on

societal plot. The film is a story of petting, romance and self-deceit, which
blossoms into deviant behavior, unwanted pregnancy and crime. It is an
irony of Mark’s sheltered life, which affected his response to the peer group
influence of John and Alice, resulting in unwanted pregnancy, for Jane and
his involvement in brutal crimes. It is a tragedy, which society should strive
to eradicate in today’s youths, who will be the leaders of tomorrow.

3.3.3 Shooting script for “Never Again”

Camera Action Sound
01 CUT CAM.1. People and cars Usual Street
pos. “A” L.S. passing. BON noise
BON PLAZA, PLAZA
Pan left to
Right.
02 CUT CAM.2 pos. Car parked in
“B” M.S. BON front of the
PLAZA beautiful
environment of
a duplex where
Mark lives.
03 CUT CAM. Pos. Mark and Clogging of
“C” CU Marks parents cutleries
parlour. Zoom eating at
into dinning the dinning room.
room.
It could be noted that each camera has a specific role, which it has to play
in imaging and provision of the appropriate audio-visual experience. The
nature of shots expected are indicated as LS (Long shot) M.S (medium shot)
and CU (close up shot). The transitional devices of cut, fade, dissolve and
wipe, for instance, enable the movement from one picture frame to another.

Production Personnel For the Documentary Film

Production department is an essential department in any television station.

It is often headed by men and women who are talented and are professionals
in various fields in film production. This unit is designed to provide you
with the details of who these men and women are, their job titles and
responsibilities in film production.

Production Personnel in Film Production

The production personnel refer to the people charged with the

responsibilities of producing the film. Basically, two categories of artistic
charge in the production process of every film. They are the technical
(Below-theline) and non-technical (Above-the-line) artists or personnel.
Non-technical or above the line personnel consists of those who create or
enable the development of the plot as the basis for an artistic production.
They are therefore conceptual artists. The artists in this category are the
scriptwriter, the producer and the director. The director also belongs to the
technical group, reasons for this will emerge as we give deailed explanation
of the functions of each of these artists.

• The Scriptwriter

The scriptwriter is the person who conceives the idea for the film
production. The scriptwriter, guided by the objectives for the film
production, writes the script that will guide the entire production process
and gain the attention of his/her audiences. The Producer

The producer is responsible for the business and financial aspects of the
film. But in recent times, the producer is often responsible for the entire
organization of the film including selecting the script, sourcing for fund for
the production and choosing the director, crew and cast. From all
indications, a producer is normally regarded as the owner of the production,
be it feature, documentary or any other type of film production. He is
responsible for everything about the production starting from day one to the
final stage, (Kogah, 1999).

• The director

The director as has been mentioned, belongs to both technical and non-
technical groups. As a non-technical artist, the director acts as a conceptual
artist who creates movements in the production, assigns roles to performers
and animates the script. As a technical artist, the director acts as the
interpreter of the production idea, through plot and script interpretation.
 • In summary, the major functions of the above – the – line or non-
technical artists include: production planning, performance
supervision, production monitoring, product publicity and promotion
as well as presentations (Owuamalam, 2007)
• The technical crew members include the scenic designer, lighting and
sound specialists, camera-men, make-up artists and wardrobe
managers, talents and other production assistants.

The scenic designer as the name implies is responsible for various scenes
that will be used in the production while the job of the lighting and sound
specialists is to provide appropriate equipment that will be used in the
production like microphones, cameras and sound systems.

• The camera – man liases with the light and sound specialist in the
selection of cameras, and other gadgets that will help in the shooting
of the film.
• The job of the make-up artist and the wardrobe managers include
making sure that the costumes of the talents depict the mood and
characterization of the entire film. Talents refer to actors/actresses or
the stars featured in the film. They are the ones who pass direct
messages and covey the theme of the film to the audiences.

Problems Associated with Documentary Film Production.

The following are the problems experienced by the production personnel

while executing the production of a documentary film. These problems, as
captured by Nworgu (2010) pose as challenges that may mar the entire
production process if not handled effectively.

They include:

• Lighting Problems
In documentary shooting, especially for television, light is needed in the
right proportion whether it is for outside studio shooting or for interior
shooting. There is need to provide adequate lighting equipment. Power
failure or irregular supply of electricity by government agency in charge of
supply of electricity in Nigeria, should be anticipated. For this reason,
provision should be made for a stand-by generator.

• Personnel

Personnel in documentary as described in this unit under section 3.1 refer to

the talents available for production. For every documentary production, the
two categories of personnel are needed. Both belowthe-line and above-the-
line artists are required for a successful shooting. Getting the right talent for
a documentary has been a problem to many producers. Since documentary
involves real life situations, it is necessary that real people are used in
natural setting.

• Outside Services Problem

This problem may arise when the need to obtain certain services arises.
There may be a need to obtain such services as editing, shooting, sound
recording and track, projecting facilities etc.

• Costume

As a producer, there may be a need to obtain or design the necessary

costume for the talents. Costumes are selected to match the mood or events
or scenes involved in the documentary.

• Library Materials

There are times when one may experience scarcity of books or tapes needed
for the successful execution of the production. It is therefore advisable to
include this when embarking on the pre-production research. The reference
materials not found in this stage, may be difficult to get at other times.

• Shooting Schedule

This problem arises when the shooting script or outline is not made available
before shooting is commenced. There may also be the problem of not
acquiring appropriate shooting locations. Some actors/actresses may also
come late to the locations of the shooting time-table is not strictly adhered
to. There is therefore the need to make talents time conscious by giving them
the shooting schedule on time and by adhering to the time-table.

Getting Set for a Documentary Film Production

Having gone through module 1, units 1- 5, module 2, units 1 – 5 and now

module 3, units 1 – 4; this last unit in module 3 is to guide you in the actual
practice of what you have been taught so far in this course. The essence of
this unit is therefore to guide you on how you can produce a documentary
film.

Getting Set for a Documentary Film Production

The essence of this course is to put you through the actual processes of
documentary film production. Your expertise is not what matters now but
your ability to practice what you have been taught. I therefore urge you to
contribute your own knowledge during the process of documentary
production by your study group.

Your class tutor or even the class representative or course representative

should help in dividing the class into five or ten groups consisting of three
or five students at most. Each group will produce a documentary. Here are
tips on how you can do that.

• Assemble together and think of one issue to be handled.

• It must be an issue in your immediate environment.

• You can decide on either “Garri making process in your state, palm-
wine tapping in Enugu State, Bead-making, menace of erosion,
indecent dressing among undergraduates, Nature of Federal
Government Roads in your state, State of Public Primary or
Secondary schools in your area, or any other subject that may interest
your group.
• Each person in your group should be given a deadline on the
submission of a script based on the subject or theme of the
documentary. The script should be both the story line, synopsis and a
shooting script for the documentary.
• Assemble together and read and study all the scripts by each member.
Select the best script that best describes what you want to do.
• Decide whether an interviewee is needed and decide on how to
contact him/her and book appointment with the person.
• Decide on the shooting of the film. Will a professional be hired to do
the shooting for you. One person in your group must be the narrator.
• You can use any smart phone to do the recording, both for audio and
video recording. Decide on the locations to be used. You must select
yourselves as actors/actresses where necessary.
• Do the recording with your phone. In the case of Garri-making or
palm-wine tapping, you must go to where the action is taking place,
involve in the process with the assistance of the women who are
involved in the garri making process. You can interview one or two
of them for an elaboration on how to process garri starting from the
harvesting of cassava tubers from the farm until you have the finished
product, up to the point where a student will be shown eating the garri
with soup or “drinking the garri” as the case may be.
 • Allow the camera of the phone or any other device, to tell the story
while the narrator lays emphasis where necessary.

Editing the Shot Scenes

There may be unnecessary scenes or mistakes made while recording. Don’t

worry about editing the shots. You are still an amateur at this stage and the
mistakes you make now will definitely be stepping stones for better
productions in future.

Submit the recorded shots in your phones to any good studio or even an
experienced compugraher in a business centre. They will synchronize
sounds with pictures and “burn” it into a VCD. Label your documentary
with the names of students in your group and then submit to your class tutor.

NB: the class tutor will then fix a date when all the submitted tapes will be
viewed in the class by all the groups. A provision should be made for a VCD
machine, TV monitor and a stand by generator. The class tutor will then
point out mistakes where editing is necessary and point out other errors in
the production. Students will then be instructed on how to improve in the
next production.

Editing in Documentary Film Production

Meaning and Definition of Editing

Meaning/Definition of Editing

Editing is also referred to as the cutting of film. It is defined as the process

of selecting the parts of the shots that are good and that serve the needs of
the film and eventually discarding the rest, (Mamer, 2009). It therefore
requires extensive knowledge of the mechanics of cutting. It is the process
of choosing creative materials that fit a subject matter and the blending of
various photographed frames of a film, in a convincing manner, in order to
transmit the message to the audience of the artistic work, (Owuamalam,
2007).

Each scene must have generally been photographed and recorded several
times with each filming being regarded as a take. During the filming
exercise or shooting exercise, the director decides which takes are good
enough to print. The printed takes therefore form a work print with which
to work with during editing (Kogah, 1999).

Film editing involves the use of plot in arranging the presentational

sequence of the story line. The strategy enables the idea of the creative work,
as conceived, to be actualized, through a technical process. The process
requires the use of equipment, and script, to match the interpretative
capacity of the editor. The editor applies skill, knowledge and experience,
to produce the synergy called film.

Three Decision Making Areas in Cutting a Film

Mamer, (2009:347) outlined three decision making areas in cutting a film.

They include cutting picture, cutting sound, and determining optical effects
like dissolves, fade, special effects etc.

For pictures, editing entails going through the shots and determining their
specific order, then deciding on the precise transition point from one shot to
the next. The order of shots may be predetermined in a narrative film,
through that order may not be as rigid as first assumed. In documentary and
experimental film, you may have to devise the order yourself.

Cutting or editing sound includes a number of approaches such as cutting

sync tracks in conjunction with the picture, determining the relationship
between music and picture and building complicated , layered sound effects
after the picture is mostly or completely cut. Optical effect indicated a
graphic effect that is created in the lab. Optical effects include split screens,
keyholes, freeze-frames, spines, wipes and a host of other effects executed
by the lab at the filmmaker’s instruction and done prior to the final printing.
They are difficult to get right and may take several tries to obtain the precise
effect.

Modes/Process Of Editing A Film

Editing involves the process of carefully selecting those shots that are good,
that will help the director or the producer in achieving the major objectives
of going into the documentary film production. It therefore involves a
thorough knowledge of the mechanics of cutting. This unit is designed to
help you understand the modes or processes of editing a documentary film.

Modes /Process of Editing a Film

Editing involves the use of plot in arranging the presentational sequence of

the story live. The strategy enables the idea of the creative work, as
conceived, to be actualized, through a technical process. These process or
modes as outlined by Owuamalam (2007) are real time editing and post-
production editing. Real time editing mode makes it possible to present line
shows and programmes as the events happen. The editing process involves
the use of materials from various sources and blending them synergically to
produce the screen experience, known as film. For example, the news
coverage of the visit of president Jonathan to Anambra State in 2012, to
flag-off the formal opening of Orient Petroleum in the State and to Launch
the inclusion of Anambra State among oil Producing States in Nigeria, can
show the following arrival ceremonies, as a live Programme: the
Presidential jet is seen touching down the airport runway; another scene is
shown where government officials are waiting in front of a red carpet, laid
for the president; activities inside the VIP lounge, showing journalists in the
front seat, where the president is to address them, traditional or cultural
dance troupe outside the arrival hall, entertaining the crowd etc. It is a blend
of the various scenes and sound, as a package, that produces the live
programme, which is enjoyed on the television screen.

Post-Production Editing deals with the arrangement of shots or picture

frames, obtained from a performance. It is an afterperformance production,
designed to match the plot and storyline with what the audience is expected
to watch on the screen. It is not as time-pressured as the real time editing,
which happens simultaneously as the event is recorded for transmission. It
takes a longer time to achieve them real time editing. It is therefore time
determined so that the edited version of the film fit into a specific time
frame, as desired by the director, without losing any major aspect of the
work.

Types of Film Editing

There are two basic types of film editing. They originate from the equipment
and process that are applicable in realizing the editing objective. The type
considered and used, is a matter of convenience and available technology.
The two types or forms of editing are linear and non- linear editing.

In linear editing, video tapes are used for playbacks and recording. It is a
tape-based recording system, whether analog or digital. The sequence of
review is orderly and Progressive. Continuality of events takes place in a
specific order, which is not to be altered. In linear Editing System (LES)
two videotape recorders (VTR) are required. One plays back the recorded
tape while the other is used in recording selected shots from the former,
according to the editing plan. The shots to be selected can be identified from
the recorded tape, using the tape counter to find the exact location of the
said shot, in the produced tape. The editor notes the numbers and arranges
them according to the takes, desired to produce the finished product. The
editor uses two monitors-the preview monitor and the final view monitor.
The preview monitor is used to watch and select shots or takes, from the
review VTR. It is the pictures on this monitor that enable the editor to pause
the review tape and select shots. The other monitor, shows the recorded
images from the editing VTR. It is the picture shown on this screen that tells
the editor if the plot and storyline have been followed as indicated by the
technical desire of the director and the expectation of the producer.

The Linear Editing System is largely manual in operation. It follows a

considerable analogy format in reviews and selection. Also, the location of
pictures, based on the numbering plan, can be digitized. The editing system
does not allow for the jumping of any shot, in order to get at any other
desired one. There is therefore, no random access to shots, as produced on
the tape. It insists on guided access which selects shots from tape, in the
order of recording, onto another, as may be desired. The system copies the
desired shots in a specific order and places them, in a predetermined
sequence on another tape. The linear editing system therefore, is copy
oriented.

The Non-Linear Editing (NLE) system is disk based. It uses the computer
for storage, reviews and the editing of video and audio data files. The system
allows one to jump from one shot or take, to the other, irrespective of the
location of the desired shot in the file. One can jump from, say shots 1 to 7,
without assessing the shots in between the shots 2,3,4,5, and 6. The
capability of random access is created since one can jump and access any
desired shot at will.

In the NLE, the programme to be edited is converted digitally into electronic

signals and recorded in a disk. The disk is loaded into a computer’s disk
drive, which enables the system to accept and respond to commands. The
shot identification takes place, within the shortest imaginable time frame. It
provides one, the opportunity of taking editing decisions that enable the
shots to relate and blend with each other, to produce a thrilling synergy,
which tells the story of the plot.

Functions of Editing

The functions of editing in a film cannot be overemphasized, No film is ever

produced and shown to the audience exactly the way it was shot. Some
scenes may be omitted and others added in error, editing makes it possible
to add the missing scene and remove unwanted ones, even after the
production has been completed. This unit is designed to expose you to the
functions of editing as well as the purposes of editing any film.

Functions of Editing

Owuamalam (2007) gave the under listed points about the functions which
the act of editing performs in any film as follows:

• Editing facilitates the removal of film footage that can destroy

society, like racial or ethnic inciting scenes; derogatory gender
scenes, offensive stereotyping; obscene and lurid scenes; that debase
morality and legally blamable scenes. It enables the producer to
correct impressions that could affect the image and reputation of the
production adversely.

• Editing trims the footage to fit into a specific duration as dictated by

the medium of presentation (television or film theatre/cinema).
• Editing combines shots in a spectacular way, in order to achieve an
understanding of the film. It brings discretely shot scenes together, in
a convincing manner, through the use of appropriate transition
devices, in order to express an idea convincingly.
• Editing enables a film to be constructed from various sources and
camera takes. For example, a documentary about say, “Iraq after
Sadam Hussien,” can be built from various video and audio sources.
 A portrait of Sadam Hussein as a still photograph, in his days as the
president of Iraq can be shot and obtained on a tape; his trial,
conviction and death, can be obtained as video clips, the increase in
American causalities in Iraq as well as the insurgence in that country,
can also be obtained as video clip, (Owuamalam, 2007:219). The
editor can use a myriad of takes from various sources, as shot in
different countries of the world, particularly in Iraq and United States
of American to show life in Iraq, before, and after Saddam Hussein.
The editing process will address the combination of the various
scenes in a specific manner and order, so as to articulate the major
idea of the plot and tell the story, in a convincing and believable
manner.
• Editing eliminates waste and overshoots and makes the creative
composition to remain, within the provision of the storyline, in a lucid
and comprehensible manner.
• Finally, editing serves as a structural transformer, which provides the
salient aspect of a work, in a clear and focused way, within a specific
length of the film, adjusted to suit viewership interest.

Purposes of Editing a Film

Editing is basically done to fit film images or shots together. One can create
beautiful image, but if there is no plan to their organization and employment,
the outcome will generally be flat and uninvolving, (Mamer, 2009).

It is carried out to correct any observed mistake in previous takes, prior to

the final production and to organize the whole shots in a meaningful order
that will convey the message of the film.

Editing Principles
A number of principles influence both shooting and editing. These
principles as enumerated by Mamer (2009) merit discussion. This is the
essence of this unit. It is designed to enumerated and discuss those principles
which are considered while editing a film.

General Editing Principles

The general editing principles refer to a number of factors that affect

shooting and editing. They are therefore considered very important since
they influence the decisions taken by the editor while editing a film. Such
principles as enumerated and discussed by Mamer (2009:
348) include the following:

• Transitions

This term is used to describe shots that bridge one setting to another or that
mark the passage of time. The term covers a wide range of approaches, but
often transitional shots have the added burden of being establishing shots as
well. The common approach is to show a setting, establishing both the place
and, by extension, the time of day.

There are many ways of handling transitions but editors are advised to find
those that are effective but not predictable.

• Economy and Pace

These terms refer to employing each of the individual shots for the shortest
time possible i.e their economy while still allowing them to achieve their
purpose. This is because each individual film, scene and shot demands its
own pace. Achieving economy and pace is attained through control of the
physical lengths of the shots, though many other elements affect the sense
of a film’s internal rhythm. Usually, it is a question each individual piece of
film should be on screen. For instance, if a point cannot be made in two
seconds, it certainly does not need to seconds devoted to it. But some film
makers like Late Italian director Michelangelo Antonioni, as described by
Mamer (2009:349) exploited both a slower pace and the psychological
intensity of the close-up. The long-lingering close-up shot of the main
character can be used to force the viewer to identify or experience some
contemplative and environmental effects that emphasize spaces in between
dialogue. But a film can be kept lean and efficient depending on the desired
visual presentation and amount of weight the scene should have in terms of
the rest of the film.

Basic Rules in Editing

Some films are cut so that their editing is as seamless as possible. This is
what is known as invisible editing. In his approach, any cut that is abrupt or
calls attention to itself is considered a bad cut. The rules that guide editing
of films have their genesis in this conventional method. The rules apply not
only to editing but also to how the shooting of a scene is approached. They
are as follows:

• There must be a reason for a cut.

This is the great overriding, unbreakable rule. When you cut from one image
to another, you must have a purpose for that choice. It may be show a
response or to emphasize an action or to keep shots from being too long or
too static.

• The 30-degree rule

The 30-degree rule says that if you want to cut to a closer shot of a subject,
the second shot should vary by at least 30 degrees from an axis drawn from
the original camera position to the subject. The bottom line is that you
should not move the camera toward the subject in a straight line, the
possibility of a disagreeable jump is great if you do.
 • Emphasis

Cutting on a subject or an action exaggerates the significance of that subject.

In essence, the implicit message is that this subject is important enough to
warrant more than a single perspective. If there is a shot of an object on a
table –say a knife-followed by a cut to a close-up of the knife, the
implication is that the knife is an important element.

• Visual interest

In the whole film, there must be shots that are not visually interesting . if
you film a dance rehearsal, for example, there will be parts in which the
dancer is turned from the camera or is framed poorly or parts in which the
action is just not engaging select the segments in which what was in front
of the camera interrelates with the film frame in a visually exciting way.

• Variety

Your shots must employ a variety of approaches. Vary between closeups

and long shots , low angles and eye level shots, images with different
balances of compositional interest , moving and static camera, and so on. In
other words, use the camera resources available to you.

If a film is composed entirely of long shots, it risks becoming visually dull

and predictable. If the area of interest in all of the compositions is in the
same part of the frame, the same problems can occur. Obviously there are
exceptions. Several films that were done largely in long shot have been
successful and also some films shot exclusively in close-up shots were
successful. But few of them are exceptions. They do not represent the kind
of explorations and experiments that provide useful learning experiences for
beginners.

Basic effects in Editing

There are some terminologies that are referred to as effects in the process of
editing a film. Many of these effects can be created in camera but the norm
is to plan them in editing and have them executed by the lab in the final
print. This unit is designed to expose you to these effects.

Effects in film editing

There are some actions that are taken with the aid of camera, computer,
optical printer etc that aim at achieving some kind of effects in the film.
These effects as discussed by Kogah (1999) and Mamer (2009) are
enumerated as follows:

Fade-out and fade-in.

A fade-out is simply an effect in which the scene is gradually taken out or

the picture fades to black. It is usually followed by a fade-in during which a
new scene gradually becomes bright enough to be seen clearly. Fade-out
and Fade-ins are used as transitional devices, either to get from one location
to another or to signify the passage of time. Occasionally, filmmakers fade
to shades and colours other than black.

• Dissolve

This is a technique in which one shot is faded out while the next shot is fade
in on top of it. In this process, the screen is not completely dark as one scene
replaces another. This is used to signify a change of time or place, just as in
fade-out. Dissolve is not used frequently because it is mainly used to soften
an otherwise terrible shot.

• Superimposition

This is composed of one shot overlaid on another. It can be achieved in the

camera while shooting or, more common, during editing and final printing
process.
 • Optical effect

These refer to all graphic effects created in the lab. Optical effects include
split screens, keyholes, freeze frames, spins, wipes, etc. They were produced
on an optical printer prior to the digital age. The optical printer is a projector
that has a camera shooting straight into it. Both the projector and camera
can be advanced one frame at a time. The camera can also be repositioned
to focus on specific parts of the projected frame. The projected image can
be manipulated in terms of both coloration and the speed of the film going
through the gate. The camera and projector can be controlled separately in
order to allow frames to be repeated, skipped, run in reverse, or held for
many frames, an effect known as freeze-frame. The optical printer can
equally be used to enlarge or reduce a particular film guage depending on
the desire of the filmmaker. The digital non linear editing (NLE) has made
it possible to achieve any effect and completely eliminate generation
problem but the optical printer is still used in creating many visual effects
and can be an exciting tool for beginning filmmakers.

Distinguishing Optical Sound Track from Magnetic Sound Track

The optical sound track is produced photographically and used on all

standard print. At one edge of the film, a close observation will reveal some
wavy lines or variations in the density of the film strip depending on the
particular process that was used when the film was manufactured.

Inside the projector also is a sound head which has a photo electric cell and
an exciter lamb. The film is threaded in such way that the optical sound track
passes between the exciter lamp and the photo cell. The light falling on the
cell varies according to pattern on the sound track thereby creating an
electric current which, when amplified, reproduces the original sound.
The magnetic sound on the other hand, uses a specially produced film stock
with a sound strip running along the edge of the film. The sound strip
consists of the same iron oxide particles always used in audio recording.
The recording and reproduction processes are identical with those used for
audio tape.

Tiny recording head inside the camera selectively magnetizes particles on

the sound track during filming. Inside the projector also, an identical head
figuratively reads the track as the film runs. At the same time, it generates
tiny electrical signal which when amplified, is an exact reproduction of the
originally recorded sound. Both are faithful to each other.

Performing Criticism of the Documentary Film.

The main aim of this module is to provide you with a through knowledge of
how to assess, review or evaluate a film. Criticism in a work of art,
especially film is a scholarly endeavour and so, requires your attention. It is
therefore necessary to begin tutorials in this module with a quick look at
what film criticism is all about.

This module is made up of five units. You will be introduced to the concept
of film criticism, types of film criticism, functions of a film critic and
actually, who a film critic is. The five units that make up this unit are linked
together. At the end of this module, you would have acquired enough
knowledge in the general concept of film review or how to assess a work of
art. The units that make up this module are as follows:

Understanding Film Criticism.

Film criticism is an important aspect of the filmic experience. This is

because the audience of a film expects to derive enjoyment from the content
and presentation of the film. This enjoyment or satisfaction is derivable from
the emotional and intellectual assessment of the work. It therefore implies
that there is a template which the individual uses to appraise a work of art,
so that a valid judgment, from a rational perspective, can be made.

Defining Film Criticism

There are various definition offered by some scholars on criticism. Nwosu

(2001:137) defines it as “the appraisal of a literary work by a critic”. This
definition, though relevant, concerns itself with literary work mostly.
Okenwa (1998:13-14) sees it as “the act or art of analyzing and judging the
quality of literary or artistic work”. Okunna and Omenugha (2002:196)
define it as “the act of making judgment concerning art, literature and a
variety of other creative productions like drama, film, fine arts etc” .World
book Encyclopedia sees criticism as analyzing, interpreting evaluating and
communicating ones responses to a work of art. Criticism as noted by
Anunike (2005) is not meant to soil the work of an artist, but to discuss the
negative and positive aspects of it. It is not to attract, pull down or single
out for ridicule the pitfalls in any work of art.

These definitions, show that criticism of any literary work, deals with
principles which underline creative activities in artistic presentations, like
films. It considers rules of structural unity of the work, based on specific
established norms of presentation and rules of production. It comments on
compliance or conformity to established standards. The essence is to ensure
that an objective commentary is made on works of art, since the basis of
such judgments can be ascertained, analyzed and verified.

Who is a Film Critic

The critic is a person who deals with a work of art as a concept. He/She
investigates the appropriate use of production elements, in order to achieve
an understanding of the work and enhance aesthetic appreciation, in the
production and uses specific templates, as standard, to evaluate work.
He/she therefore, sees artistic composition and presentations very clearly,
records and evaluates them meticulously, (Owuamalam, 2007)

The critic is a technically proficient commentator on artistic performance.

He/she understands the theatre and its production principles. A critic knows
the structural outlay of plots and their classification, as genres, based on
observed specific characteristics. He/she must therefore understand the
significance of a production and the essence of direction as a co-ordination
of the various aspects of the performance. He or she is knowledgeable about
postproduction exercises, like editing and previews and understands how
artistic performance should blend in a production to produce the intended
message that will help in work. His/her major concern is to see how the
work conforms or deviates from known, defined and acceptable standards.

Types of Film Criticism

Introduction.

There are many ways of categorizing the class into which a specific critique
fits. It shows the approach which a critic many adopt in the execution of the
creative exercise of criticism. This unit is aimed at discussing two major
types of criticism.

Types of Film Criticism

Classification of the approach which a critic may adopt while evaluating a

film is based on the perspective adopted while treating the artistic work.
Based on this, there are two major types of criticism, prescriptive and
descriptive criticism.
 • Prescriptive criticism is based on the fact that specific rules and laws
guide activities and actions. The law may be that of nature, like the
use of canoes and boats, as transportation modes in riverine areas. For
instance, the rule stipulates that people must paddle the canoe, if
movement is to be achieved in the river. The rule explains why
walking on the river is abnormal and can only be achieved through a
supernatural approach, which may pass as a miracle.
• Descriptive criticism on the other hand, deals with a detailed account
and evaluation of the work, so that vital and valuable information
about the film can be achieved and obtained. It gives an insight into
the reason behind actions. It is designed to articulate how the
elements of artistic composition have been presented to produce a
synergy, called the film.

Characteristics of Film
The characteristics of prescriptive criticism as listed by Omuamalam
(2007:291), is as follows:

• It lays down rules of artistic performance and rises the rules to assess
how the work has conformed or deviated from them. It therefore uses
rules to set the boundary of compliance as the index for evaluation.
• It evaluates the logic of structural and organic unity, based in the
reasoned deductions. In this way, the sequence, progression and
development of plot, character and language are reviewed and
assessed.
• It assesses the activities of characters, to deduce if their actions can
be rationalized in a logical manner.
 • It is authoritative and command based, since it deals with order and
compliance to given instructions.
• It evaluates the work of the director in the film, using knowledge of
production principles.
• It relies on the characteristics of the genre, as the template for
classifying works and assessing their conformity to the class.

Descriptive criticism has the following characteristics as well:

• It deals with genre classification to see how the film fits into a film
type.
• It organizes detailed information about the film in a sequential order,
as contained in the film, so that strong line becomes appreciable.

• The presentation of the critique adopts a systematic approach, so that

the audience can access useful and reliable information necessary for
the rationalization of artistic decisions.
• It lays emphasis on the structural unity of the various artistic elements
evident in the work. It believes that a disorganized structure makes
the work incoherent and confusing.
• It substantiates organic unity in content, based in character and
language. The approach observes the consistency of characters in the
plot and their language use, through their motives and consequences
of their activities.

Functions of a Film Critic

The critic is a technically proficient commentator on artistic performance

who understands the theatre and its production principles. The critic knows
the structural outlay of plots and their classification based on observed
specific characteristics. These are the few reasons why a critic is important
in the world of films. This unit is therefore designed to expose you to the
specific functions which a critic performs in the world of films. These
functions as xrayed by Owuamalam (2007:303) no doubt will help you
appreciate the importance of the art of criticism in films.

Functions of a Film Critic

The functions which a film critic performs are outside the theatre. His/her
duties involve creative imaginations, in the mental realm. The critic
produces an evaluative report, which facilitates an understanding of the
work and provides the information, which the audience uses to discuss the
work. The critic performs three basic rules of: (a) evaluating the film based
on specific standards (b) of assessing the film and (c) reviewing the film.
Details of these roles are discussed in the next sub-heading.

Three Basic Roles of Film Critic

A film critic performs the three basic roles of evaluating assessing and
reviewing of a film.

• As an evaluator, the critic uses the rhetorical approach to deal with

issues pertaining to evaluations. He/she considers the methods and
techniques as vital strategies for the realization of the objective of a
production and as approaches through which the communication
intent of the work is achieved. He/she applies the theory and practice
of argumentation, which facilitate a better understanding of a work of
art, so as to enhance aesthetic appreciation. For instance, as an
evaluator, the critic sees how the scriptwriter has been able to create
a message about life and living conditions, through actions and
activities of the characters in the film. He/she notes how the
systematic approach of the film guides role assignment and
performance, in the accomplishment of the activities permitted by
situations and circumstances in the film.
 • As an Assessor, the critic uses theme, subject or topic of discourse,
to assess a film. He/she ascertains the theme as indicated by the
scriptwriter. It is his/her job to observe how a plot fits the theme and
how the characters perform, in order to achieve the import of the
theme. The critic uses the theme to ascertain the significance and
relevance of the work to the society. The order of the events in the
film, the arrangement and use of language and action, are important
in the determination of the value of a work.
• As a reviewer, the critic expresses opinions, based on rational
reasoning, as deduced from the performance. This is because, a
review simply means a commentary made after matching or seeing
an artistic performance. It is an assessment of the film, as perceived
at the time of presentation. He/she analyses the film to discuss the
issues like conflicts, ironies, suspense, surprise, dilemma and other
plot strategies, that can excite and retain audience appreciation or
patronage of the film. As a reviewer, he/she provides artisitcs
information about a film, in an entertaining and educating manner.
He/she is therefore a guide to aesthetic appreciation of film.

Tips for Film Criticism

Bordwell (2004) gave a summary of tips for film criticism. The tips and
guides are recommended for all film critics. This unit is designed to expose
you to the tips for effective critique of a film.

Tips for film criticism

Film criticism as emphasized by Bordwell (2004:15) is “a judgment about

the value or worth of a film, giving enough information to support your
judgment”. The following tips serve as a guide to critics while performing
the act of film criticism:
 • Avoid extreme judgment e.g “the film is totally bad “or “the film is
extremely good.” The critic is expected to take and expose both the
good and bad aspects of the film into account in his/her job.
• Always give brief plot/synopsis, suggesting the main conflicts and
character developments in the film.
• Mention striking aspects of the film e.g impressive set, costumes,
colour, design, music, sound effect, editing, with a particular
attention to acting.
• Compare the film with other films that belong to the same genre,
which are made by the producer or director or which raise similar
thematic issues.
• There is need for brevity. Two or five pages of double line spacing is
recommended.

Questions that Guide Film Criticism

The film is a visual medium of communication which uses light and shade
as well as words and music to create an effect, (Wainwright, 1982). The
critic must therefore answer certain questions that throw light on the leading
roles and how well or otherwise they are portrayed, (Baldock, 1996). These
questions as summarized by Bordwell (2004:17) include the following:

• Have you somewhere indicated your judgment of the film?

• Have you provided brief plot, or synopsis of the film which support
judgment?
• Have you described these quickly and vividly, using concrete
language and metaphor?
• Have you qualified your judgment by balancing positive and negative
aspects of the film?
• Have you started the criticism with an attention-grabbing opening?
• Have you concluded it with a striking statement?
Writing the Criticism: Basic Steps.

Basic Steps to Criticism Writing

Kernodle cited in Anunike (2005:61) lists three basic steps for film criticism
as follows:

• Begin with asking what the film sets out to do. This entails unraveling
the purpose or objective of the film.
• Then ask how it had done or achieved the set objectives.
• Finally ascertain how well it was worth doing.
• Under the first step, the critic explains what the scriptwriter and the
director attempt to do in the film and the directorial
approach/interpretation respectively. Secondly, the critic goes into
personal appreciation as to what extent the filmmaker, actors,
actresses and director have succeeded in what each set out to do. In
the third step, the critic makes personal judgment as to the value or
worth of the film.

It is pertinent that the critic at the first paragraph gives his/her overall
impression or assessment of the film. This is followed with comment on plot
and performance at the body of his/her work. He/she finally writes the final
impression in the film in the last paragraph.

Indices for Film Criticism.

Omanney and Schanker in Anunike (2005:61) gave designed questions that

help in assessing a film. These questions are treated under the indices used
in the critique of a film.

They are as follow:

• The Theme.

The theme is the central idea which is communicated in the film.

These questions need be answered concerning the theme:

(a) Is the fundamental idea true or false in its concept of life?

(b) Is the theme adversely affected by warped or limited experience of

life?

(c) Does seeing the film add something positive to your understanding
and experience?

(d) Are you in agreement with the philosophy of the film?

(e) Do you think the film is consistent with the setting and plot and
characters in the film?

(f) Should the general public be encouraged to watch the film, should it
have been produced?
 The plot

The plot is the story structure, the plan, arrangement of the shots, scenes, episodes,
incidents, acts in the film. These questions show what is expected in the plot:

(a) Is the arrangement of events in the film clear?

(b) Does the plot rise to a strong climax?

(c) Do you think the suspense held until the end?

(d) Are you satisfied with the final outcome or do you think another would be
more satisfactory?

(e) Which do you find more interesting, the events, the people, the style or the
shock value of the film?

(f) Is the story emotionally stirring?

Characters

Characters are the human beings gods, spirits, animals etc about which a story is told
(Mgbejume, 2002). These questions aid the understanding of the role of characters in the
film.

(a) Do you consider the character credible and true to life?

(b) Do the actions of the characters fall in line with their motives?

(C) Do the characters fit into the social and geographical background of the story?

(d) Do the characters arouse sympathy, amusement, affection, disgust, admiration or

hatred?

Language
Language refers to the scriptwriters method of communicating the film to the viewers
(Duruaku, 1997). These questions should be asked about the language use:

(a) Is the language brilliant and entertaining?

(b) Do you consider the language consistent with the characters and setting?

(c) Does the language advance the plot?

(d) Do you think people of the social class represented by the characters in the film
would speak that way in real life?

Acting

The actors /actresses are assessed based in the following questions:

(a) Do you believe the actors interpreted their roles well?

(b) Has the actor made the character living individuals?

(c) Do you think the actor is natural or artificial?

(d) Does the acting grip emotionally?

(e) Is the actor’s voice pleasing?

(f) Does the actor distinguish between the character depicted and himself/herself?

(g) Is the actor consistent in character

(h) Does the actor relate well with others in the film?

(i) Does the actor fit into style of the film?

Design Elements

The design elements are evaluated based in the following questions:

(a) Do you consider the set, costume, make-up, lighting, prop etc proper in the film?

(b) Does any of the design elements draw attention to itself?

(c) Do you consider the design elements conducive to the emotional reaction of the
film?

(d) Are the costumes, make up and props in harmony with the background?

(e) Is the setting proper for the social class or other classes of people depicted in the
film?