Beetle Adam Dodd - Downloadable PDF 2025

[Link]

Visit [Link] today to download the complete set of

ebooks or textbooks
Here are some recommended products that we believe you will be
interested in. You can click the link to download.

How to Restore Volkswagen Beetle Jim Tyler

[Link]
tyler/

The Rough Guide to Tokyo Jan Dodd

[Link]

Using SI Units in Astronomy 1st Edition Richard Dodd

[Link]
edition-richard-dodd/

Adam Smith Review Volume IV The Adam Smith Review 1st

Edition Vivienne Brown

[Link]
smith-review-1st-edition-vivienne-brown/
Give and Take Adam Grant

[Link]

Ladainian Tomlinson 1st Edition Adam Woog

[Link]
woog/

Focused for Rugby 1st Edition Adam Nicholls

[Link]
nicholls/

Epilepsy and Memory 1st Edition Adam Zeman

[Link]
zeman/

Krakow An Ecobiography 1st Edition Adam Izdebski

[Link]
adam-izdebski/
Beetle Adam Dodd Digital Instant Download
Author(s): Adam Dodd
ISBN(s): 9781780234885, 1780234880
Edition: Paperback
File Details: PDF, 4.55 MB
Year: 2016
Language: english
Beetle
Animal
Series editor: Jonathan Burt

Already published
Albatross Graham Barwell · Ant Charlotte Sleigh · Ape John Sorenson · Badger Daniel Heath Justice
Bear Robert E. Bieder · Bee Claire Preston · Beetle Adam Dodd · Beaver Rachel Poliquin
Bison Desmond Morris · Camel Robert Irwin · Cat Katharine M. Rogers · Chicken Annie Potts
Cockroach Marion Copeland · Cow Hannah Velten · Crocodile Dan Wylie · Crow Boria Sax
Deer John Fletcher · Dog Susan McHugh · Dolphin Alan Rauch · Donkey Jill Bough
Duck Victoria de Rijke · Eagle Janine Rogers · Eel Richard Schweid · Elephant Dan Wylie
Falcon Helen Macdonald · Flamingo Caitlin R. Kight · Fly Steven Connor · Fox Martin Wallen
Frog Charlotte Sleigh · Giraffe Edgar Williams · Goat Joy Hinson · Gorilla Ted Gott and Kathryn Weir
Guinea Pig Dorothy Yamamoto · Hare Simon Carnell · Hedgehog Hugh Warwick · Horse Elaine Walker
Hyena Mikita Brottman · Kangaroo John Simons · Leech Robert G. W. Kirk and Neil Pemberton
Leopard Desmond Morris · Lion Deirdre Jackson · Lobster Richard J. King · Monkey Desmond Morris
Moose Kevin Jackson · Mosquito Richard Jones · Moth Matthew Gandy · Mouse Georgie Carroll
Octopus Richard Schweid · Ostrich Edgar Williams · Otter Daniel Allen · Owl Desmond Morris
Oyster Rebecca Stott · Parrot Paul Carter · Peacock Christine E. Jackson · Penguin Stephen Martin
Pig Brett Mizelle · Pigeon Barbara Allen · Rabbit Victoria Dickenson · Rat Jonathan Burt
Rhinoceros Kelly Enright · Salmon Peter Coates · Scorpion Louise M. Pryke · Seal Victoria Dickenson
Shark Dean Crawford · Sheep Philip Armstrong · Skunk Alyce Miller · Snail Peter Williams
Snake Drake Stutesman · Sparrow Kim Todd · Spider Katarzyna and Sergiusz Michalski
Swallow Angela Turner · Swan Peter Young · Tiger Susie Green · Tortoise Peter Young
Trout James Owen · Vulture Thom van Dooren · Walrus John Miller and Louise Miller
Whale Joe Roman · Wolf Garry Marvin
Beetle

Adam Dodd

reaktion books
For all the beetles, past, present and future

Published by
reaktion books ltd
Unit 32, Waterside
44–48 Wharf Road
London n1 7ux, uk
[Link]

First published 2016

Copyright © Adam Dodd 2016

All rights reserved

No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval

system or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic,
mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise without the prior
permission of the publishers

Printed and bound in China by 1010 Printing International Ltd

A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library

isbn 978 1 78023 488 5

 Contents

1 Coming to Terms with Beetles 7

2 Sacred Beetle 41
3 Scientific Beetle 72
4 Managing Beetles 110
5 Popular Beetle 143
Timeline 168
References 170
Select Bibliography 180
Associations and Websites 182
Acknowledgements 183
Photo Acknowledgements 184
Index 188
1 Coming to Terms with Beetles
I have my own views about Nature’s methods, though I feel
that it is rather like a beetle giving his opinions upon the
Milky Way.
Sir Arthur Conan Doyle, The Stark Munro Letters

In the early 1980s, the entomologists Darryl Gwynne and David

Rentz were conducting some fieldwork near the small town of
Dongara, about 350 km (217 miles) northwest of Perth, Western
Australia. On the side of the road they noticed the usual assortment
of empty bottles and cans, many thrown from the windows of pass-
ing vehicles. But they noticed something else, too. Some of the
small, brown beer bottles – known colloquially in Australia as ‘stub-
bies’ – were beset by brown, male jewel beetles (Julodimorpha
bakewelli). Since the male beetles are known to harbour no fondness
whatsoever for beer, but do exhibit a long-standing affection for
the females of their own species – who are larger, brown and covered
in a dimpled coating not dissimilar to that found on the bases of
stubbies – it was almost immediately apparent to Gwynne that the
beetles were, however unlikely it may seem, attempting to mate
with the beer bottles.
Gwynne and Rentz published their observation in 1983, noting
that a photograph of a male jewel beetle attempting to copulate
with a stubbie had previously been published in 1980 in Athol M.
Douglas’s book Our Dying Fauna: A Personal Perspective on a Chang-
ing Environment, and that they had now found this to be a common
occurrence in the Dongara area. The male beetles of this species
Variability in
typically fly 1 to 2 m (3 to 6 ft) above the ground, seeking out the beetles, Staatliches
flightless females. Numerous males were observed upon beer bottles Museum.

7
(the beetles ignored wine bottles) with their genitalia everted and
attempting to insert the aedeagus (essentially an insect’s penis).
The beetles would not move from the bottles unless physically
forced to do so, and at least one was seen to display such dedication
to the cause that, even upon being attacked by numerous ants,
which proceeded to bite at the soft portions of his genitalia, he
would not be deterred. A dead male, covered with said ants, was
located just a few centimetres from the same bottle.1 Anyone who
has attempted a picnic on the grass where ants are active will know
how quickly and efficiently they can converge on a food source.
This predicament did not look good for the beetles at all.
Despite the humorous novelty of this observation, it was an
unsettling sign of a larger, more serious problem. The stubbies
were not just cluttering the landscape – they were acting as ‘super-
normal releasers’. The male beetles, ‘programmed’ to follow up on
particular kinds of visual stimuli which have not substantially
changed in millions of years, have no way of knowing that a new,
strangely familiar yet synthetic object has entered their world. Even
more problematic, they are compelled to act on their instinct even
in the face of perpetual dissatisfaction, genital mutilation and
death. This discovery ultimately led to a redesign of the beer bottles
in question, once it was recognized that the beetle’s reproductive
success might be at stake. In 2011, 30 years after their initial
observation, Gwynne and Rentz were awarded the Ig Nobel Prize
for Biology – Harvard University’s recognition of ‘improbable
research’ and discoveries which ‘make us laugh, then think’.
This brief episode in the long history of insect–human relations
illustrates how intimately we are involved with beetles, yet how
vastly we seem set apart from them. Like all insects, beetles are
living curiosities, appearing to us as extraordinary containers of
opposites and contradictions, while maintaining a relative indif-
ference to human beings and our affairs. Beetles seem to provoke

8
 A Nuttall’s blister
beetle (Lytta
nuttalli) eats the
flowers of the
milkvetch plant.

our attention and scrutiny with their often colourful and iridescent
hues, and their remarkable, sometimes destructive habits. Yet they
refuse to give up their mysteries entirely – most beetles, owing to
their camouflage, minuscule size and geographic isolation, remain
unseen by human eyes. We might not be able to see them all, but
we know that a world without beetles would be quite a different
world altogether, because this order of insects is a pervasive, per-
manent and necessary fixture in ‘nature’ as we know it today. Beetles
(like many insects) play a vital role in breaking down dead and
decaying organic matter, and many are important pollinators –
their everyday labour fertilizes the environment upon which our
own existence depends.
Although they may not be at the forefront of our daily, increas-
ingly urban lives, few of us go through life without experiencing
at least one beetle encounter, even if we aren’t aware that we’re in
the presence of a beetle per se. This might take the form of an
unwanted and ugly confrontation with weevils in the pantry, or
something much more enchanting – such as a flurry of fireflies at

9
 night. My own childhood in the sugar cane city of Bundaberg,
Australia, was regularly marked by beetles as indicators of good
things to come. For example, ‘Christmas’ beetles (Anoplognathus
pallidicollis), most about 2 to 3 cm (1 in.) in length, would clumsily
hover in large numbers towards the lights of our family home
during the humid late spring and summer evenings of the festive
period, typically arriving after the first heavy rains of the season.
Some buzzed brazenly through the open windows, bouncing them-
selves repeatedly against the irresistible luminescence of the lighting
fixtures. Others made it only as far as the fly-screen door, where
they joined others clutching desperately to the wire latticework,
often remaining there, aimless and ‘hung-over’, into the sunlit
hours of the following morning. And some, of course, ended up
on their backs, struggling hopelessly to right themselves.
Perhaps what makes benevolent and benign beetle encounters
so endearing is that, for urban, industrialized societies, the diversity
of ‘nature’ seems to be receding from our everyday, tactile lives
into the more abstract realms of imagery, memory and extinction.
Yet these are realms which intrude into our experience of nature,

A beetle trapped in
a purple pitcher
plant.

10
 Euchirus macleayi,
found in northeast
India.

rather than remaining on the periphery. Indeed, our relationship

with nature, including our understanding of what ‘nature’ actually
is, has probably never been more complicated, especially as images
of nature bring us closer to it, while simultaneously evoking a dis-
tance and often a longing. The sentimentality with which nature
is now frequently portrayed speaks to this tension, even while the
very lives of many species are at stake.
This is a process from which beetles are not immune. The
Wielangta stag beetle (Lissotes latidens) of Tasmania, for example,
has been included in the Commonwealth list of endangered species
since 2002. One of the rarest animals in Australia, it has been recorded
less than 40 times, within an area of just 280 sq km (108 square

11
 miles), since it was first documented in 1871. Living in leaf litter and
moist, decaying wood, it relies on the fallen trees of old-growth forests
for survival, and might not travel outside of a 10-m (33-ft) radius in
its entire life. The Tasmanian logging industry involves bulldozing
and burning the Wielangta forest to clear land for new shoots, essen-
tially destroying the Wielangta stag beetle’s entire environment and
hence endangering a fragile constituent of the forest’s overall long-
term health. The Wielangta stag beetle has become somewhat
emblematic of controversial Tasmanian land use practices that
threaten unique species, but since most of us have no direct contact
with old growth forests such controversies seem remote and often
intangible. Endangered beetles, in particular, test the limits of feasible
and desirable conservation practices. While the extinction of the
cuddly, charismatic panda would be a highly visible and very public
disappearance, comparatively few of us would notice the permanent
departure of an obscure Tasmanian forest-dwelling beetle.
This example reflects a wider state of dissonance between
informed concern for ecologically important, localized species on

Northeastern
beach tiger beetle
(Cicindela dorsalis
dorsalis).

12
the one hand, and emotional concern for those species important
to increasingly globalized human culture on the other. It is a discord
especially pronounced between insects and mammals, oriented
by a profound (and perhaps inevitable) anthropocentrism. Yet
while we may have largely succeeded in excluding a number of
beetle varieties from our increasingly homogenous urban environ-
ments, which are to some degree sustained by environmental
practices that persistently endanger beetle species, these insects
continue to maintain impressive representation around the globe,
and have done so for a very long time – beginning more than 200
million years before the appearance of human beings, in fact.
This epic timeframe – 200 million years – is one of many
measurements of beetle life that typically confound the human
imagination, making it virtually impossible for us to fully appreciate
the extent to which beetles are embedded in the ecosystem of
Earth. Compared to the beetle, Homo sapiens is a very recent and,
it seems, highly anomalous animal. Because beetles are among
the oldest and most abundant species of animals alive, one might
assume that they would also be among the most thoroughly
understood. Yet this is not quite the case. There is no single
explanation for the preponderance of beetle diversity, for example,
although some theories may partly account for specific patterns
of that diversity.2 On one occasion, I was browsing the insect
collection at an Australian university. Since I was naturally drawn
to the biggest and most colourful beetle specimens, one in
particular caught my eye: unlike most of the others, it was on its
back within the specimen box. I was surprised to see that its
underbelly was iridescent. Since the beetle’s underbelly would
rarely be exposed prior to death, I wondered what the ‘purpose’
of this marking could possibly be. I asked the curator: ‘Why do
these beetles have an iridescent underbelly?’ His somewhat
ambivalent reply: ‘Because they can.’

13
Beetle, c. 1905–45. We might not be able to provide a unified account of their var-
iety, but the modern conceptualization of these perplexing animals
begins with words. The term ‘beetle’ has its origins in the Old
English word ‘bitula’, deriving from ‘bitan’ (to bite), despite the
fact that very few beetles actually bite human beings.3 The English
word ‘weevil’ (a type of beetle) derives from the Germanic term
webila meaning to move back and forth, or to swarm. More scien-
tifically, beetles are insects classified in the order Coleoptera, a
term coined by Aristotle, from the Greek koleós (sheath) and pterá
(wings). Hence, beetles are most readily identified by the hard chiti-
nous forewings (called elytra) that both protect the delicate

14
hindwings beneath and, sometimes, function as rudders during
flight. This particular trait has proven immensely successful over
the last 230 million years. Of all the known species of life on Earth
(including animals, plants, fungi, algae, bacteria, protozoans,
viruses and more), about 25 per cent are beetles, with insects (those
animals organized into the class Insecta) accounting for about 56
per cent of species in total. This puts beetles among the most abun-
dant creatures on the globe, and were we to characterize a world
by its most prolific animal inhabitants, then Earth would clearly
comprise a thriving ‘insect world’. Indeed, there may be as many

Jewel beetles
of the genus
Sternocera, from
Coimbatore in
Southern India.

15
as 300 million insects for every human being currently living, and
their combined body mass may outweigh ours by 12:1.
Since the middle of the eighteenth century, when the taxonomic
cataloguing of species became an established practice with the
Swedish natural historian Carl Linnaeus (1707–1778), about 350,000
beetle species have been identified. Although the study of insects
was for some time regarded as a trivial, even childish pursuit, it
has been nothing if not productive. The astounding rate at which
beetle species have been discovered approaches an average of four
newly identified species every single day for the last 250 years. As
impressive as this register may seem, few (if any) entomologists
believe we are close to accounting for all the varieties of beetles
alive in the world today, let alone those remaining undiscovered
in fossilized form. As recently as August 2013, for example, 28 new
endemic beetle species of the Mecyclothorax genus were found living
on the island of Tahiti and described by James Liebherr of Cornell
University, demonstrating just how many species are still to be dis-
covered. Most beetles (and this applies to insects in general) are
essentially ‘known unknowns’ – creatures we know that we don’t
know.
Having a penchant for inhabiting niches – various small and
specific environments to which they are especially adapted, but
which may themselves prove very fragile – many beetle species
undoubtedly come and go without ever being seen by human beings
at all. Others seem to go extinct, only to make a subsequent and
surprising reappearance. The hazel pot beetle of England
(Cryptocephalus coryli), a once common species which stores its
eggs in ‘pots’ made from its own faeces, was observed to be in sharp
decline, and then feared extinct, until a colony was rediscovered
in Sherwood Forest in 2008. Similarly, the New Zealand diving
beetle, Rhantus plantaris, was first described in 1882 from one male
specimen in Dunedin, New Zealand. Over the years that followed,

16
 The beetle
Oxythyrea funesta
feeding on a
flower.

doubts arose as to whether it was truly part of New Zealand fauna,

because it had not been seen again since its initial discovery.
However, in 1986 – 104 years later – the beetle was sighted once
more, living in a small roadside pond near Christchurch.
Somewhat ironically, the problem of collating all species of
Coleoptera into a complete global inventory is compounded further
by the sizes of the collections already assembled. While even the
most extensive collections are only superficial samples of what
exists in nature, they are nevertheless of sufficient magnitude to
require searches within themselves, searches which often uncover
hitherto unnamed species. For example, in November 2011, a re-
examination of the collections of nineteen museums led to the
discovery of 84 new beetle species in the Macratria genus. The new
species span the islands of Indonesia, New Guinea and the Solomon
Islands, effectively tripling the number of known Macratria beetles
in the region.4 Perhaps even more surprisingly, it has become pos-
sible to newly identify long-extinct beetle species even in the absence

17
of their fossils. In 1999 Peter Wilf, then an assistant professor of Moonflower
(Ipomoea alba)
geosciences at the University of Michigan, had been studying eleven with Passalus
fossilized specimens of ginger leaves found in North Dakota and interruptus beetle
and jewel beetle
Wyoming. The leaves showed evidence of having been chewed –
(Euchroma
in a quite particular way. Modern ginger plants are often chewed gigantea), by
upon by rolled-leaf hispine beetles, which leave telltale marks Maria Sibylla
Merian, 1719.
behind. Wilf was able to demonstrate that a similar type of beetle
indeed had, some 53 million years ago, munched upon the ancient
ginger leaf, and he named the species Cephaloleichnites strongii.
Although these findings have been subsequently questioned (there
are other extant beetle species which perhaps account for the chew
marks), there may very well be numerous other such forensic traces
of hitherto undescribed beetle species for which no direct fossil
evidence exists.
The sheer number of beetles means that a ‘newly’ discovered
species, even when sighted directly in the field, may have been
discovered previously, only to have been stored in a specimen

Mononychus
punctumalbum,
or iris weevil.

19
Another Random Scribd Document
with Unrelated Content
 14-73 CHAPTER 14 Review Exercises 973 Review Exercises
1. When using a double integral to compute volume, the choice of
integration variables and order is determined by the geometry of the
region. 2. ff f(x, y)dA gives the volume between z = /(x, y) and the
R .ty-plane. 3. When using a double integral to compute area, the
choice of integration variables and order is determined by the
geometry of the region. 4. A line through the center of mass of a
region divides the region into subregions of equal area. 5. If R is
bounded by a circle, f f f(x, y) dA should be computed R using polar
coordinates. (2xy — i)dy dx S. f f {3y^x + 4) dy dx Jo Jlx 9. ff xydA,
where R is bounded by r = 2 cos 9 R 10. / f sin(x^ + y^)dA, where
R is bounded hy x^ + y^ = 4 R In exercises 11 and 12, approximate
the donble integral. 11. f f 4xy dA , where R is bounded by y = — 4
and y — In x R 12. f f 6x^y dA , where R is bounded by y = cos x
and y = x^ — 1 6. The surface area of a region is approximately
equal to the area of the projection of the region into the .xy-plane.
7. A triple integral in rectangular coordinates has three possible
orders of integration. 8. The choice of coordinate systems for a triple
integral is determined by the function being integrated. 9. If a region
or a function involves x^ 4- y^, you should use cylindrical
coordinates. 10. For a triple integral in spherical coordinates, the
order of integration does not matter. 11. Transforming a double
integral in xy-coordinates to one in MU-coordinates, you need
formulas for u and v in terms of x and y. In exercises 1 and 2,
compute the Riemann sum for the given function and region, a
partition with n equal-sized rectangles and the given evaluation rule.
1. /(x, y) = 5x — 2y, l£x<3, 0’dA, where R = {(x, y)|0 £x
 974 CHAPTER 14 •• Multiple Integrals 14-74 Review
Exercises In exercises 29-32, find the mass and center of mass. 29.
The lamina bounded by y = 2x,y = x and x = 2, p(x, y) = 2x 30. The
lamina bounded by y = x,y = A — x and y = 0, p(x, y) = 2y 31. The
solid bounded by z = 1 — z = 0, y = 0, y + z = 2, p(x, y,z) = 2 32.
The solid bounded by x = y/y^ + z^, x — 2, p(x, y, z) = 3x In
exercises 33 and 34, use a double integral to find the area. 33.
Bounded by y = x^, y = 2 — x and y = 0 34. One leaf of r = sin AO
In exercises 35 and 36, find the average value of the function on the
indicated region. 35. /(x, y) = x^, region bounded by y = 2x, y = x
and x = 1 36. /(x, y) = y/x'^ + y^, region bounded by x^ -|- y^ =
1, x = 0, y = 0 In exercises 37^2, evaluate or estimate the surface
area. 37. The portion of z = 2x -|- 4y between y — x, y — 2 and x =
0 38. The portion of z = x^ + 6y between y — x^ and y = 4 39.
The portion of z = xy inside x^ + y^ = 8, in the first octant 40. The
portion of z = sin(x^ + y^) inside x^ + y^ — 41. The portion of z =
^x^ + y^ below z = 4 42. The portion of x -|- 2y -|- 3z = 6 in the
first octant In exercises 43-50, set up the triple integral fff f(x,y,z) dV
in e an appropriate coordinate system. If f(x,y,z) is given, evaluate
the integral. 43. /(x, y, z) = z(x + y), Q = {(x, y, z)|0 £ X < 2, -1 < y
< 1, -1 < z £ 1} 44. f(x,y,z) = 2xye^^, Q = {(x, y, z)|0 £x<2, 0 — ^
65. r — 2 cos 6 66. p — 2 sec 0 In exercises 67 and 68, find a
transformation from a rectangular region S in the uu-plane to the
region R. 67. R bounded by y = 2x — 1 , y = 2x -b 1 , y = 2 — 2x
and y = 4 - 2x 68. R inside x^ -b y^ = 9, outside x^ 4- y^ = 4 and
in the second quadrant In exercises 69 and 70, evaluate the double
integral. 69. / f e^~^^dA, where R is given in exercise 67 R 70. ff
(y + 2x/ dA, where R is given in exercise 67 R In exercises 71 and
72, find the Jacobian of the given transformation. 71. X = u^v, y =
Au + 72. X = 4ii — 5u, y — 2u + 3v
 14-75 CHAPTER 14 Review Exercises 975 Review Exercises
^ EXPLORATORY EXERCISES 1. Let 5 be a sphere of radius R
centered at the origin. Different types of symmetry produce different
simplifications in integration. If f(x, y, z) = —f{—x, y, z), show that f
f f fdV = 0. If f{x,y,z) = —f{x,—y,z), show that ffffdV=0. s If f{x,y,z)
= -f{-x,-y,z), show that jjjfdV=Q. s If f{x, y, z) = —f{—x, —y, —z),
what, if anything, can be said about ffffdVl Next, suppose that s f{a,
b, c) = f(x, y, z) whenever a^+ b^ + = x^+ y^+ z^Show that J J J
f(x, y, z) dV = 4ti p^g{p) dp for some function g. (State the
relationship between g and/.) If / can be written in cylindrical
coordinates as /(r, 6, z) — g(r), for some continous function g,
simplify /// fdV as much as 2. Let S be the solid bounded above by z
= — x^ — y^ and below by z = -E y^. Set up and simplify as much
as possible fff fdV in each of the following cases: (a) fix, y, z) = -fi-x,
y, z);(b) f(x, y, z) = -fix, -y, z); (c) fix, y, z) = - fi-x, -y, z); (d) fix, y,
z) = - fi-x, -y, -z); (e) fir, 9, z) = gir), for some function g and (f)/(p,
(p, 6) — g(p), for some function g
This page intentionally left blank
 Vector Calculus CHAPTER The Volkswagen Beetle was one
of the most beloved and recognizable cars of the 1950s, 1960s and
1970s. So, Volkswagen’s decision to release a redesigned Beetle in
1998 created quite a stir in the automotive world. The new Beetle
resembles the classic Beetle, but has been modernized to improve
fuel efficiency, safety, handling and overall performance. The
calculus that we introduce in this chapter will provide you with some
of the basic tools necessary for designing and analyzing
automobiles, aircraft and other types of complex machinery.
Engineers have identified many important principles of
aerodynamics, but the design of a complicated structure like a car
still has an element of trial and error. Before high-speed computers
were available, engineers built small-scale or full-scale models of
new designs and tested them in a wind tunnel. Unfortunately, such
models don’t always provide adequate information and can be
prohibitively expensive to build. Today, mathematical models are
used to accurately simulate wind tunnel tests. A computer simulation
of a wind tunnel must keep track of the air velocity at each point on
and around a car. A function assigning a vector (e.g., a velocity
vector) to each point in space is called a vector field, which we
introduce in section 15.1. Additional mathematical concepts that are
crucial for a study of fluid mechanics and other important
applications are developed in this chapter. In the case of the
redesigned Beetle, computer simulations resulted in numerous
improvements over the original. One measure of a vehicle’s
aerodynamic efficiency is its drag coefficient (with a lower drag
coefficient corresponding to a more aerodynamic vehicle). The
original Beetle has a drag coefficient of 0.46 (as reported by
Robertson and Crowe in Engineering Fluid Mechanics), while a (quite
aerodynamic) 1985 Chevrolet Corvette has a drag coefficient of 0.34.
According to Volkswagen, the new Beetle boasts a drag coefficient of
0.38, representing a considerable reduction in air drag from the
original Beetle, through careful engineering and detailed
mathematical analysis. The new Beetle VECTOR FIELDS To analyze
the flight characteristics of an airplane, engineers use wind tunnel
tests to provide information about the flow of air over the wings and
around the fuselage. To model such a test mathematically, we need
to be able to describe the velocity 977
 978 CHAPTER IS •• Vector Calculus y A F(-2, 1) F(1,0)
FIGURE 15.1 Values of F(x, y) 1 5-2 of the air at various points. So,
we need to define a function that assigns a vector to each point in
space. Such a function would have both a multidimensional domain
(like the functions of Chapters 13 and 14) and a multidimensional
range (like the vector-valued functions introduced in Chapter 12).
We call such a function a vector field. Although vector helds in
higher dimensions can be very useful, we will focus here on vector
helds in two and three dimensions. DEFINITION l.l A vector field in
the plane is a function F(v, y) mapping points in into the set of two-
dimensional vectors V)- We write y) = y), fiix, y)) = fi(x, y)i -h /2(x,
y)j, for scalar functions /i(x, y) and /2(x, y). In space, a vector field
is a function F(x, y, z) mapping points in into the set of three-
dimensional vectors V3. In this case, we write F(x, y, z) = (/i(x, y, z),
fi{x, y, z), f^{x, y, z)) = /i(x, y, z)i + /2(x, y, z)j + fj,{x, y, z)k, for
scalar functions fi(x, y, z), fiix, y, z) and f^ix, y,z). To describe a two-
dimensional vector field graphically, we draw a collection of the
vectors F(x, y) for various points (x, y) in the domain, in each case
drawing the vector so that its initial point is located at (x, y). We
illustrate this in example 1.1. EXAMPLE l.l Plottinga Vector Field For
the vector field F(x, y) = (x + y, 3y — x), evaluate (a) F(l, 0), (b)
F(0, 1) and (c) F(— 2, 1). Plot each vector F(x, y) using the point (x,
y) as the initial point. Solution (a) Taking x = 1 and y = 0, we have
F(l, 0) = (1 + 0, 0 — 1) = (1, —1). In Figure 15.1, we have plotted
the vector (1, —1) with its initial point located at the point (1, 0), so
that its terminal point is located at (2, —1). (b) Taking x = 0 and y =
1, we have F(0, 1) = (0 -H 1, 3 — 0) = (1, 3). In Figure 15.1, we
have also indicated the vector (1, 3), taking the point (0, 1) as its
initial point, so that its terminal point is located at (1, 4). (c) With X
= -2 and y = 1, we have F(-2, 1) = (-2+1,3 4-2) = (-1,5). In Figure
15.1, the vector (—1, 5) is plotted by placing its initial point at (—2,
1) and its terminal point at (—3, 6). ■ Graphing vector fields poses
something of a problem. Notice that the graph of a two-dimensional
vector field would be /our-dimensional (i.e., two independent
variables plus two dimensions for the vectors). However, we can
visualize many of the important properties of a vector field by
plotting a number of values of the vector field as we had started to
do in Figure 15.1. In general, by the graph of the vector field F(x, y),
we mean a two-dimensional graph with vectors F(x, y), plotted with
their initial point located at (x, y), for a variety of points (x, y). Many
graphing calculators and computer algebra systems have commands
to graph vector fields. EXAMPLE 1.2 Graphing Vector Fields Graph
the vector fields F(x, y) = (x, y>, G(x, y) = and identify any
patterns. jx,y) -y/x^ + y2 and H(x, y) — (y, — x)
 15-3 SECTION 15.1 •• Vector Fields 979 Solution First
choose a variety of points (x, y), evaluate the vector field at these
points and plot the vectors using (x, y) as the initial point. Notice
that in the following table we have chosen points on the axes and in
each of the four quadrants. ix,y) {x,y) (x,y) {x,y) (2, 0) (2. 0) (-2, 1)
(-2, 1) (1.2) (1.2) (-2, 0) (-2, 0) (2, 1) (2.1) (-1,-2) (-1,-2) (0, 2) (0.
2) (0, -2) (0, -2) (-1.2) (-1,2) (1,-2) (1,-2) (-2.-1) (-2,-1) (2,-1)
(2,-1) 2 y ' 0 ■\ \ \ \ 1 N \ \ \ 1 V \ V » ■» — "V V i f ////\ t / / y ( f /
y y'. t )/ y ^ ^ • —*■ — •' , ^ ^ y M r -1 ^ i y / / { \ i \ \ \ X -2 1 \
N \ V -2-10 1 2 FIGURE 15.2b F{x,y) = [x,y) The vectors indicated in
the table are plotted in Figure 15.2a. A computer-generated plot of
the vector field is shown in Figure 15.2b. Notice that the vectors
drawn here have not been drawn to scale, in order to improve the
readability of the graph. In both plots, notice that the vectors all
point away from the origin and increase in length as the initial points
get farther from the origin. In fact, the initial point (x, y) lies a
distance y^x^ -t- y^ from the origin and the vector (x, y) has length
y^x^ + y^. So, the length of each vector corresponds to the
distance from its initial point to the origin. Notice that G(x, y) is the
same as F(x, y) except for the division by ,/x“ + y^, which is the
magnitude of the vector (x, y). Thus, for each (x, y), G(x, y) has the
same direction as F(x, y), but is a unit vector. A computer-generated
plot of G(x, y) is shown in Figure 15.2c. We compute some sample
vectors for H(x, y) in the following table and plot these in Figure
15.3a. ■ \ \ \ \ nW \ -xxW \ f / / /' [ f / /y 1 / /yy. / / -,^// / i \
W^'-1 \ 1 \ \\^-2-10 1 2 X FIGURE 15.2c G(x, y) = {^,y) (-t,y) {y,-
x) (x,y) {y,-x) (2, 0) (0, -2) (-2. 1) (1,2) (1,2) (2,-1) (-2, 0) (0, 2) (2,
1) (1,-2) (-1,-2) (-2, 1) (0, 2) (2, 0) (0, -2) (-2, 0) (-1,2) (2,1) (1.-2)
(-2,-1) (-2,-1) (-1,2) (2,-1) (-1,-2) y ■' / y'y ^ / / y ^ ^ . / / X . , t t f
, , ill.. - X \ y ' ' y \ \ ''til \ \ \ y , '’III \ \ \ >. ^ ' ' / / / \ \ V ^ ' - ^ - -
/ -2-10 1 2 FIGURE 15.3b H(x,y) = (y, -x)
 980 CHAPTER IS •• Vector Calculus 1 5-4 A computer-
generated plot of y) is shown in Figure 15.3b. If you think of H(x, y)
as representing the velocity field for a fluid in motion, the vectors
suggest a circular rotation of the fluid. Also, notice that the vectors
are not of constant size. As for F(x, y), the length of the vector (y, —
x) is ^Jx^ + y^, which is the distance from the origin to the initial
point (x, y). ■ Although the ideas in example 1 .2 are very
important, most vector fields are too complicated to effectively draw
by hand. Example 1.3 illustrates how to relate the component
functions of a vector held to its graph. EXAMPLE 1.3 Matching Vector
Fields to Graphs Match the vector fields F(x, y) = (y^, x — 1), G(x,
y) — (y + 1, and H(x, y) — (y^, x^ — 1) to the graphs shown.
Solution It helps to look for special features of the components of
the vector fields and try to locate these in the graphs. For instance,
the first component of F(x, y) is y^ > 0, so the vectors F(x, y) will
never point to the left. Graphs A and C both have vectors with
negative first components (in the fourth quadrant), so Graph B must
be the graph of F(x, y). The vectors in Graph B also have small
vertical components near X = 1, where the second component of
F(x, y) equals zero. Similarly, the second component of G(x, y) is >
0, so the vectors G(x, y) will always point upward. Graph A is the
only one of these graphs with this property. Further, the vectors in
Graph A are almost vertical near y = — 1, where the first component
of G(x, y) equals zero. Observe that the first component of H(x, y) is
y^, which is negative for y < 0 and positive for y > 0. The vectors
then point to the left for y < 0 and to the right for y > 0, as seen in
Graph C. Finally, the vectors in Graph C have small vertical
components near x = 1 and x = — 1, where the second component
of H(x, y) equals zero. GRAPH A GRAPH B GRAPH C As you might
imagine, vector fields in space are typically more difficult to sketch
than vector fields in the plane, but the idea is the same. That is, pick
a variety of representative points and plot the vector F(x, y , z) with
its initial point located at (x, y, z). Unfortunately, the difficulties
associated with representing three-dimensional vectors on two-
dimensional paper reduce the usefulness of these graphs.
 15-5 SECTION 15.1 •• Vector Fields 981 EXAMPLE 1.4
Graphing a Vector Field in Space {—X, —y, —z) Use a CAS to graph
the vector field F(x, y, z) = — r (x^ + Solution In Figure 15.4, we
show a computer-generated plot of the vector field F(x, y, z). Notice
that the vectors all point toward the origin, getting larger near the
origin (where the field is undefined). You should get the sense of an
attraction to the origin that gets stronger the closer you get. In fact,
you might have recognized that F(jt, y, z) describes the gravitational
force field for an object located at the origin or the electrical field for
a charge located at the origin. ■ FIGURE 15.4 Gravitational force
field If the vector field graphed in Figure 15.4 represents a force
field, then the graph suggests that an object acted on by this force
field will be drawn toward the origin. However, this does not mean
that a given object must move in a straight path toward the origin.
For instance, an object with initial position (2, 0, 0) and initial
velocity (0, 2, 0) will spiral in toward the origin. To determine the
path followed by an object, we need additional information. Notice
that in many cases, we can think of velocity as not explicitly
depending on time, but instead depending on location. For instance,
imagine watching a mountain stream with waterfalls and whirlpools
that don’t change (significantly) over time. In this case, the motion
of a leaf dropped into the stream would depend on where you drop
the leaf, rather than when you drop the leaf. This says that the
velocity of the stream is a function of location. That is, the velocity
of any particle located at the point (x, y) in the stream can be
described by a vector field F(x, y) = (/i(x, y), fz{x, y)), called the
velocity field. The path of any given particle starting at the point (xq,
yo) is then the curve traced out by (x(r), y(?)), where x(f) and y(r)
are the solutions of the differential equations x'{t) — fi{x(t), y(t))
and y'(f) = fiix(t), y{t)), with initial conditions x(fo) = xq and y{to) =
yo. In these cases, we can use the velocity field to construct flow
lines, which indicate the path followed by a particle starting at a
given point. One way to visualize the velocity field for a given
process is to plot a number of velocity vectors at a single instant in
time. Figure 15.5 shows the velocity field of Pacific Ocean currents in
March 1998. The graph is color-coded for temperature, with a band
of water swinging up from South America to the Pacific northwest
representing “El Nino.” The velocity field provides information about
how the warmer and cooler areas of ocean water are likely to
change. Since El Nino is associated with significant climate changes,
an understanding of its movement is critically important. leoE
FIGURE 15.5 Velocity field for Pacific Ocean currents (March 1998)
 982 CHAPTER IS •• Vector Calculus 1 5-6 2 1 y 0 -1 -2 -2-
10 1 2 X FIGURE 15.6a (y, -X) / / ^ ^ ^ / / / ^ , ! f f / ^ t t f 1 , - -y
X \ ' \ \ ' ' V V ^ ''til 1 i i 1 r \ \ \ y , \ \ \ yy ^ \ V y ''til ' w / / - ^ / /
/ FIGURE 15.6b Flow lines: {y, —x) EXAMPLE 1 .5 Graphing Vector
Fields and Flow Lines Graph the vector fields (y, —x) and (2, 1 +
2xy) and for each, sketch-in approximate flow lines through the
points (0, 1), (0, —1) and (1, 1). Solution We previously graphed the
vector field (y, —x) in example 1.2 and show a computer-generated
graph of the vector field in Figure 15.6a. Notice that the plotted
vectors nearly join together as concentric circles. In Figure 15.6b, we
have superimposed circular paths that stay tangent to the velocity
field and pass through the points (0, 1), (0, —1) and (1, 1). (Notice
that the first two of these paths are the same.) It isn’t difficult to
verify that the flow lines are indeed circles, as follows. Observe that
a circle of radius a centered at the origin with a clockwise orientation
(as indicated) can be described by the endpoint of the vector-valued
function r(f) = {a sin r, a cos t). The velocity vector r'(r) = (a cos t,
—a sin t) gives a tangent vector to the curve for each t. If we
eliminate the parameter, the velocity field for the position vector r =
(x, y) is given by T = (y, — x), which is the vector field we are
presently plotting. -\ \ \ ‘ ' \ ^ A V , ! f f t , ! / t t If f f f ^ If if tf ^ ^
if if ,r * f f ^ If ^ -f f f , . ! t f ! , .lift. f w' w ^ ' ‘ \ \ - - X \ \ -2-10 1
2 X ■\V ' X «y ^ w w ^ f . / / // / ^ ! fj t t , t /f ! f f y' f If If If if ^ if
If f / -/ //V / ^ / // t /, .1 / /// y •'►•■XX ' ' ^ \ \ " A V ■ _l ij I ^ I I
-2-1 0 1 2 X FIGURE 15.7a (2, 1 -F 2xy) FIGURE 15.7b Flow lines:
(2, 1 + 2xy) We show a computer-generated graph of the vector
field (2, 1 -F 2xy) in Figure 15.7a, which suggests some parabolic-
like paths. In Figure 15.7b, we sketch two of these paths through
the points (0, 1) and (0, —1). However, the vectors in Figure 15.7a
also indicate some paths that look more like cubics, such as the path
through (0, 0) sketched in Figure 15.7b. In this case, though, it’s
more difficult to determine equations for the flow lines. As it turns
out, these are neither parabolic nor cubic. We’ll explore this further
in the exercises. ■ A good sketch of a vector field allows us to
visualize at least some of the flow lines. However, even a great
sketch can’t replace the information available from an exact equation
for the flow lines. We can solve for an equation of a flow line by
noting that if F(x, y) = {/i(x, y), /2(x, y)) is a velocity field and (x(r),
y(f)) is the position function, then x'(f) = /i(x, y) and y'(f) = /a(x, y).
By the chain rule, we have ^ ^ dy/dt ^ y^ ^ /2(x, y) dx dx/dt x'(t)
/i(x,y) Equation (1. 1) is a first-order differential equation for the
unknown function y(x). We refer you to section 8.2, where we
developed a technique for solving one group of differential
equations, called separable equations. In section 8.3, we presented
a method (Euler’s method) for approximating the solution of any
first-order differential equation passing through a given point.
 15-7 SECTION 15.1 •• Vector Fields 983 EXAMPLE 1.6
Using a Differential Equation to Construct Flow Lines Construct the
flow lines for the vector field {y, —x). Solution From (1.1), the flow
lines are solutions of the differential equation dy X dx y From our
discussion in section 8.2, this differential equation is separable and
can be solved as follows. We first rewrite the equation as Integrating
both sides with respect to x gives us / dy y — dx = — dx / X dx, y X
so that — = f- A:. 2 2 Multiplying both sides by 2 and replacing the
constant 2k by c, we have 2 2 I y — —X + c or = c. That is, for any
choice of the constant c > 0, the solution corresponds to a circle
centered at the origin. The vector field and the flow lines are then
exactly as plotted in Figures 15.6a and 15.6b. ■ In example 1 .7, we
illustrate the use of Euler’s method for constructing an approximate
flow line. EXAMPLE 1 .7 Using Euler’s Method to Approximate Flow
Lines Use Euler’s method with h — 0.05 to approximate the flow line
for the vector field (2, 1 + 2xy) passing through the point (0, 1), for
0 < x < 1. Solution Recall that for the differential equation y' = /(x,
y) and for any given value of h, Euler’s method produces a sequence
of approximate values of the solution function y = y(x)
corresponding to the points x,- = xq + ih, for i = 1,2,.... Specifically,
starting from an initial point (xq, yo), where yo = y(xo), we
construct the approximate values y, y(x, ), where the y, ’s are
determined iteratively from the equation y,+i = y,- -b hf{xi, y,), i =
0, 1, 2, Since the flow line must pass through the point (0, 1), we
start with xq = 0 and yo = 1. Eurther, here we have the differential
equation dy 1 + 2xy 1 In this case (unlike example 1 .6), the
differential equation is not separable and you do not know how to
solve it exactly. Eor Euler’s method, we then have yi+\ = yi + hf(xi
,yi)^ y,- + 0.05 (^+ x,y, 
 984 CHAPTER IS • Vector Calculus 1 5-8 with xo = 0, To =
1 ■ For the first two steps, we have Ti = To + 0.05 '.^oTo 1
+0.05(0.5) = 1.025, xi = 0.05, T2 = yi + 0.05 Q + xiTi^ = 1.025 +
0.05(0.5 + 0.05125) = 1.0525625 y and X2 = 0. 1 . Continuing in
this fashion, we get the sequence of approximate values ^ ^ “
indicated in the following table. 2-1.5Xi yi Xi yi Xi 10 1 0.35 1.2344
0.70 1.6577 0.50.05 1.025 0.40 1.2810 0.75 1.7407 0.10 1.0526
0.45 1.3316 0.80 1.8310 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 0.15 1.0828 0.50 1.3866
0.85 1.9293 0.20 1.1159 0.55 1.4462 0.90 2.0363 FIGURE 15.8 0.25
1.1521 0.60 1.5110 0.95 2.1529 Approximate flow line through (0,
1) 0.30 1.1915 0.65 1.5813 1.00 2.2801 A plot of these points is
shown in Figure 15.8. Compare this path to the top curve (also
through the point (0, 1)) shown in Figure 15.7b. ■ An important type
of vector held with which we already have some experience is the
gradient field, where the vector held is the gradient of some scalar
function. Because of the importance of gradient helds, there are a
number of terms associated with them. In Dehnition 1 .2, we do not
specify the number of independent variables, since the terms can be
applied to functions of two, three or more variables. NOTES If you
read about conservative vector fields and potentials in some applied
areas (such as physics and engineering), you will sometimes see the
function — / referred to as the potential function. This is a minor
difference in terminology, only. In this text (as is traditional in
mathematics), we will consistently refer to/as the potential function.
Rest assured that everything we say here about conservative vector
fields is also true in these applications areas. DEFINITION 1.2 For
any scalar function/, the vector held F = V/ is called the gradient
held for the function/ We call/a potential function for F. Whenever F
= V/ on a region R, for some scalar function/ we say that F is a
conservative vector held on R. Finding the gradient held
corresponding to a given scalar function is a simple matter. EXAMPLE
1.8 Finding Gradient Fields Find the gradient helds corresponding to
the functions (a) /(x, y) — x^y — e^ and 1 (b) g(x, y, z) = — and
use a CAS to sketch the helds. + y^ + z^ Solution For (a), we have
V/(x, y) = 1^, = (2xy, x^ - e^). A computer-generated graph of
V/(x, y) is shown in Figure 15.9a. (b) For g(x, y, z) = {x^ + y^ +
z^)~K we have 2x ^ = -(x2 + y2-H,V^(2x) = ax (x^ + ’
 985 15-9 SECTION 15.1 •• Vector Fields 1 1 \ \ ^ ■ / i \ - -
* i \ < 'v ^ > A r ^ V - r f 1 ^ ^ T 1 ^ r ^ / ^ ^ / - , > \ - y ^ ^ ^
> , , X-2-10 1 2 FIGURE 15.9a V(x^y - en FIGURE 15.9b 1 x^ + +
z" dg 2y and by symmetry (think about this!), we conclude that — =
— dy (x^ + y^ + z^r 9g 2z . zr- = This gives us dz (x^ + y^ +
z^yand Vg(x, y, z) = \9x’ dy’ dzj 2{x, y, z) (x^ + + z^y A computer-
generated graph of V g{x, y, z) is shown in Figure 15.9b. ■. You will
discover that many calculations involving vector fields simplify
dramatically if the vector field is a gradient field (i.e., if the vector
field is conservative). To take full advantage of these simplifications,
you will need to be able to construct a potential function that
generates a given conservative field. The technique introduced in
example 1 .9 will work for most of the examples in this chapter.
EXAMPLE 1.9 Finding Potential Functions Determine whether each of
the following vector fields is conservative. If it is, find a
corresponding potential function f(x, y): (a) F(x, y) = {2xy — 2>,x^
+ cos y) and (b) G(x, y) = (3x2y2 - 2y, x^y - 2x>. Solution The idea
here is to try to construct a potential function. In the process of
trying to do so, we may instead recognize that there is no potential
function for the given vector field. For (a), if /(x, y) is a potential
function for F(x, y), we have that V /(x, y) = F(x, y) = (2xy — 3, x^
-f cos y), 9/ 9/ 9 so that — = 2xy — 3 and — =x^ + cosy. (1-2) 9x
dy Integrating the first of these two equations with respect to x and
treating y as a constant, we get fix, y)^ j i2-xy -3)dx = x^y - 3x -t-
g(y). (1.3) Here, we have added an arbitrary function of y alone,
g(y), rather than a constant of integration, because any function of y
is treated as a constant when integrating with respect to x.
Differentiating the expression for /(x, y) with respect to y gives us 9/
9/9 — (x,y) = x q-g(y) = x +cosy, dy
 986 CHAPTER IS • Vector Calculus 15-10 from (1.2). This
gives us g'{y) = cos y, so that cos j c/y = sin y + c. From (1.3), we
now have f(x, y) — x^y — 3x + siny + c, where c is an arbitrary
constant. Since we have been able to construct a potential function,
the vector field F(x, y) is conservative. (b) Again, we assume that
there is a potential function g for G(x, y) and try to construct it. In
this case, we have so that Vg(x, y) = G(x, y) = (3x^y^ — 2y, x^y —
2x), , 2 2 ^ 2 o — = 3x y — 2y and — — x y — lx. 9x 9y (1.4)
Integrating the first equation in (1.4) with respect to x, we have
REMARK l.l To find a potential function, you 9/ can either integrate
— with 9x 9f . ^ respect to x or integrate — with 9y respect to y.
Before choosing which one to integrate, think about which integral
will be easier to compute. In section 15.3, we introduce a simple
method for determining whether or not a vector field is conservative.
g(x, y) — j ~ 2y) dx — x^y^ — 2yx + h{y), where h is an arbitrary
function of y. Differentiating this with respect to y, we have — (x, y)
= 2x^y — 2x 4- h'{y) — x^y — 2x, 9y from (1.4). Solving for h'{y),
we get h'{y) — x^y — 2x — 2x^y -|- 2x = x^y — 2x^y, which is
impossible, since h{y) is a function of y alone. We then conclude
that there is no potential function for G(x, y) and so, the vector field
is not conservative. ■ Coulomb’s law states that the electrostatic
force on a charge due to a charge q is qqo given by F = — ^u,
where r is the distance (in cm) between the charges and u is a unit
vector from qtoqQ. The unit of charge is esu and F is measured in
dynes. The electrostatic field E is defined as the force per unit
charge, so that It P ^ E = — = ^u. qo In example 1.10, we
compute the electrostatic field for an electric dipole. EXAMPLE [Link]
Electrostatic Field of a Dipole Find the electrostatic field due to a
charge of + 1 esu at (1, 0) and a charge of —1 esu at (-1,0).
Solution The distance r from (1, 0) to an arbitrary point (x, y) is
^J{x — 1)^ + y^ and 1 a unit vector from (1, 0) to (x, y) is - (x — 1
, y). The contribution to E from (1, 0) is then 1 (x - 1, y) {x - l,y) [(x
— 1)^ + y2]3/2 . Similarly, the contribution to E from the
 15-1 I SECTION 15.1 •• Vector Fields 987 negative charge
at (—1, 0) is -1 (x + 1, y) terms, we get the electrostatic field E = -
(T + l,y) [(x + 1)2 + y2]3/2 (T + l,y) . Adding the two [(X - 1)2 -1-
y2]3/2 + 1)2 + .^,2]3/2 ‘ A computer-generated graph of this vector
field is shown in Figures 15. 10a to 15.10c. 0.4 _ ^ — — ' . 0.4 ^ ■
— — — ^ — — ^ ^ ^ — ^ ^ — / ^ ^ 0.2 ^ ^ _ — — 0.2 - X X —
— ^ 0 ^ ^ ^ 'v,. — ^ _ — — — ^ — — 0.2 ^ ^ — — -0.2 - \ X X —
— — ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ \ \ X — ^ ^ ^ ^ __ \ \ X — ^ ^ ^ ^ 0.4 - — ^ -
r ^ — r' . . -- -0.4 . \ \ X — — ^ 1.6 -1.5 -1.4 -1.3 -1.2 0.8 -0.6 0.4
-0.2 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 X X FIGURE 15.10a FIGURE 15.10b FIGURE
15.10c Notice that the field lines point away from the positive charge
at (1, 0) and toward the negative charge at (—1, 0). ■ EXERCISES
15.1 0 WRITING EXERCISES 1. Compare hand-drawn sketches of
the vector fields {y, —x) and (lOy, — lOx). In particular, describe
which graph is easier to interpret. Computer-generated graphs of
these vector fields are identical when the software “scales” the
vector field by dividing out the 10. It may seem odd that computers
don’t draw accurate graphs, but explain why the software
programmers might choose to scale the vector fields. 2. The
gravitational force field is an example of an “inverse square law.”
That is, the magnitude of the gravitational force is inversely
proportional to the square of the distance from the origin. Explain
why the | exponent in the denominator of example 1.4 is correct for
an inverse square law. 3. Explain why each vector in a vector field
graph is tangent to a flow line. Explain why this means that a flow
line can be visualized by joining together a large number of small
(scaled) vector field vectors. 4. In example 1.9(b), explain why the
presence of the x’s in the expression for g'{y) proves that there is no
potential function. In exercises 1-10, sketch the vector field by hand.
1. F(x,y) = (-y,x) T vt ^ (-y’2:) 2. F(x, y) = Vx2 + y2 3. F(x,y) =
(0,x2) 4. F(x, y) = (2x, 0)
 988 CHAPTER IS •• Vector Calculus 15-12 5. F(x,y) = -(X-
l)i-P(:y-2)j 6. F(x, y) = -i -p (y - 2)j 7. 8. 9. 10. F(x,y,z) = {0,z, 1)
F(x,y,z) = (2,0, 0) F(x,y, z) = F(x, p;, z) = yx^ -P -P z2 {x,y,z) 11.
Match the vector helds F1-F4 with graphs A-D. Fi(x,y)= , F2(x,y) =
(x,y), yx2 -P y2 F3(jc, y) = (e^x), F4(x, y) = (e^ y) .Nx \ X ^ ^ ^ /
\ V ' ^ ^ " ^ ^ / / . . ^ r , * < f, ' f-1.5 0 1.5 GRAPH A -V \ \ \ V. \
>t i'f '/ / \ / / y'f ^ ^ / i -X / / / -///,/ \ \ ; \ \ X^ A V \ -1.5 0 1.5
GRAPH B T 1 1 XI n 1 1 \ \ \ J -X -1.5 0 1.5 X GRAPH C GRAPH D 12.
Match the vector fields F1-F4 Fi(x, y, z) = (1, X, y), Fj(x, y, z) =
F3(x,y,z) = F4(x, y, z) 2 - z with graphs A-D. (1,1, T), ^ (z, 0, -X) 2-y
GRAPH A GRAPH B GRAPH C GRAPH D In exercises 13-16, sketch
the vector field, find equations for the flow lines and sketch several
flow lines on top of the vector field. 13. (2, cosx) 14. (x2, 2) 15.
(y,x) 16. (e'’,x) 17. Sketch the vector field (4x, Sx^y — 2xy^) and
several flow lines. What is unusual about the flow lines that connect
to the point (0, 1)? (^] 18. Repeat exercise 17 for the vector field
(2x, xy^ — 2x^). In exercises 19-28, find the gradient field
corresponding to /. :, y) = ln(x2 -p y^) y) = sin(x2 -p y^) . I ^ 19.
y) = x2-Py2 20. 21. f(x,y) 22. 23. f(x, y) 24. 25. f(x,y, z) = yx2 -P y2
-p z2 26. 27. f(x, y. z) x^y x2 -P z2 28. 28. /(x, y, z) = 2x yxM-yH^
In exercises 29-40, determine whether or not the vector field is
conservative on or R^. If it is, find a potential function. 29. (v, x) 30.
31. (T, -X) 32. 33. (x - 2xy)i -P (y2 - x^)j 34. 35. (y sinxy, x sinxy)
36. 37. (4x - z, 3y + z, y - x) 38. 39. {yh^- l,2xyz^4z^) 40. (2, y)
(y,i) (x2 - y)i -P (x - y)j (y cos-x, sinx — y) (z^ + 2xy, x2 — z, 2xz —
1) (z^ + 2xy,x2-pl,2xz-3) In exercises 41-46, find equations for the
flow lines. 41. (2y,3x2) 42. (l,2x) 43. yi + xe^j 44. e"^i -P 2xj 45. (y,
y2 -p 1) 46. (2, y^ -p 1)
 15-13 SECTION 15.1 •• Vector Fields In exercises 47-54,
use the notation r = {x,y) and r = ||r|| = + y^. 47. Show that V(r)
=-. 48. Show that V{r^) = 2r. r 49. FindV(r^). 50. Use exercises 47-
49 to conjecture the value of V(r"), for any positive integer n. Prove
that your answer is correct. 51. Show that — — ^ is not
conservative. r {—y, x) 52. Show that — is conservative on the
domain y > 0 by finding a potential function. Show that the potential
function can be thought of as the polar angle 6. 53. The current in a
wire produces a magnetic field B = — — ^ ^ . Draw a sketch
showing a wire and its magnetic field. 54. Show that — = — } ’ — -
is conservative, forany integers. r" (x2 4- y2)"/2 ^ ® 55. Suppose
that /(x), g{y) and h(z) are continuous functions. Show that {/(x),
g(y), h{z)) is conservative, by finding a potential function. 56. Show
that {^i, kj) is conservative, for constants ki and ^2APPLICATIONS
57. A two-dimensional force acts radially away from the origin with
magnitude 3. Write the force as a vector field. 58. A two-dimensional
force acts radially toward the origin with magnitude equal to the
square of the distance from the origin. Write the force as a vector
field. 59. A three-dimensional force acts radially toward the origin
with magnitude equal to the square of the distance from the origin.
Write the force as a vector field. 60. A three-dimensional force acts
radially away from the z-axis (parallel to the xy-plane) with
magnitude equal to the cube of the distance from the z-axis. Write
the force as a vector field. 61. Derive the electrostatic field for
positive charges g at (— 1, 0) and (1,0) and negative charge —q at
(0, 0). 62. The figure shows the magnetic field of the Earth.
Compare this to the electrostatic field of a dipole shown in example
1.10. Inner Van Outer V an Allen belt Allen belt 63. lfT(x, y, z) gives
the temperature at position (x, y, z) in space, the velocity field for
heat flow is given by F = —kVT for a 989 constant k > 0. This is
known as Fourier’s law. Use this vector field to determine whether
heat flows from hot to cold or vice versa. Would anything change if
the law were F = fcVT? 64. An isotherm is a curve on a map
indicating areas of constant temperature. Given Fourier’s law
(exercise 63), determine the angle between the velocity field for
heat flow and an isotherm. ^ EXPLORATORY EXERCISES 1. Show
that the vector field F(x, y) — {y, x) has potential function /(x, y) =
xy. The curves /(.x, y) — c for constants c are called equipotential
curves. Sketch equipotential curves for several constants (positive
and negative). Find the flow lines for this vector field and show that
the flow lines and equipotential curves intersect at right angles. This
situation is common. To further develop these relationships, show
that the potential function and the flow function g(x, y) = |(y^ —
x^) are both solutions of Laplace’s equation V^u = 0 where + Uyy.
2. In example 1.5, we graphed the flow lines for the vector field (2,
1 4- 2xy) and mentioned that finding equations for the flow lines
was beyond what’s been presented in the text. We develop a
method for finding the flow lines here by solving linear ordinary
differential equations. We will illustrate this for an easier vector field,
(x, 2x — y) . First, note that if x'(t) — x and y'(t) = 2x — y, then ^ ^
2x - y ^2-1 dx X X The flow lines will be the graphs of functions y(x)
such that y'(x) = 2 — J, or y' 4- yy = 2. The left-hand side of the
equation should look a little like a product rule. Our main goal is to
multiply by a term called an integrating factor, to make the left-hand
side exactly a product rule derivative. It turns out that for the
equation y' 4- /(x)y = g(x), an integrating factor is ei In the present
case, for x > 0, we have e-f = x. (We have chosen the integration
constant to be 0 to keep the integrating factor simple.) Multiply both
sides of the equation by x and show that xy' 4- y = 2x. Show that
xy' 4- y = (xy)'. From (xy)' = 2x, integrate to get xy = x^4-c,ory =
x4- -.To find a flow line passing through the point (1,2), show that c
= I and thus, y = x 4- y ■ To find a flow line passing through the
point (1, 1), show that c = 0 and thus, y — X. Sketch the vector field
and highlight the curves y = X 4- y and y = x.
 990 CHAPTER IS •• Vector Calculus 15-14 15.2 LINE
INTEGRALS FIGURE 15.1 I A helical spring In section 5.6, we
showed that for a thin rod with variable mass density, p{x),
extending from X — a to X — b, the mass of the rod is given by p(x)
dx. However, to find the mass of a three-dimensional object, such as
the helical spring in Figure 1 5 . 1 1 , we must extend this idea to
three dimensions. Here, the density function has the form p{x, y, z)
(where p is measured in units of mass per unit length). We assume
that the object is in the shape of a curve C that is oriented, which
means that there is a direction to the curve. We assume that C starts
at the point [a, b,c) and ends at {d,e, /). We first partition the curve
into n pieces with endpoints (a, b, c) = (to, yo, zo), (ti, y\,Z\), (x2,
J2, Zi), ■■■, {x„, y„, z„) = (d, e, /), as indicated in Figure 15.12. We
denote the point (t,- , y, , Zi) by P, and the section of the curve C
extending from P,_i to P, by C, for each i = 1, 2, . . . , n. Note that if
the segment C, is small enough, we can consider the density to be
constant on C, . In this case, the mass of this segment would simply
be the product of the density and the length of C,-. For some point
(xf, y* , z*) on Q, we approximate the density on C,- by p(x*, y*,
zf). The mass of the section C, is then approximately FIGURE 15.12
Partitioned curve p{x*,y*,z*)^Si, where Av, represents the arc
length of C, . The mass m of the entire object is then approximately
the sum of the masses of the n segments, n m Ks ^p(x*,y*,z*)Asi.
i=i You should expect that this approximation will improve as we
divide the curve into more and more segments that are shorter and
shorter in length. Finally, taking the norm of the partition ||P|| to be
the maximum of the arc lengths Av, (i = 1, 2, . . . , n), we have
provided the limit exists and is the same for every choice of the
evaluation points {xf,y*,z*)(i = l,2,...,n). Note that (2.1) looks like
the limit of a Riemann sum (an integral). As it turns out, this limit
arises naturally in numerous applications. We pause now to give this
limit a name and identify some useful properties. DEFINITION 2.1
The line integral of f(x,y,z) with respect to arc length along the
oriented curve C in three-dimensional space, written f{x, y , z) ds, is
defined by J^f(x,y,z)ds = ^^lim^^/(x^y*,z*)A^i, provided the limit
Welcome to our website – the ideal destination for book lovers and
knowledge seekers. With a mission to inspire endlessly, we offer a
vast collection of books, ranging from classic literary works to
specialized publications, self-development books, and children's
literature. Each book is a new journey of discovery, expanding
knowledge and enriching the soul of the reade

Our website is not just a platform for buying books, but a bridge
connecting readers to the timeless values of culture and wisdom. With
an elegant, user-friendly interface and an intelligent search system,
we are committed to providing a quick and convenient shopping
experience. Additionally, our special promotions and home delivery
services ensure that you save time and fully enjoy the joy of reading.

Let us accompany you on the journey of exploring knowledge and

personal growth!

[Link]