See discussions, stats, and author profiles for this publication at: [Link]

net/publication/40827037

Aluminum Foams: On the Road to Real Applications

Article in MRS Bulletin · April 2003

DOI: 10.1557/mrs2003.83 · Source: OAI

CITATIONS READS
119 4,720

1 author:

John Banhart
Technische Universität Berlin
635 PUBLICATIONS 26,946 CITATIONS

SEE PROFILE

All content following this page was uploaded by John Banhart on 13 December 2013.

The user has requested enhancement of the downloaded file.

 [Link]/publications/bulletin

Foaming Liquid Metals

Aluminum Foams: Metallic melts can be foamed by creat-

ing gas bubbles in the molten liquid, pro-
vided that the melt is prepared in such a
manner that the emerging foam is fairly
stable during processing. This can be done

On the Road to by adding fine ceramic powders or alloy-

ing elements to the melt to form stabilizing
particles, for example. The exact stabiliza-
tion mechanism is still undetermined, but

Real Applications most likely involves the generation of re-

pulsive forces that prevent the film from
thinning.
Currently, there are three known ways
John Banhart of foaming metallic melts: first, by inject-
ing gas into the liquid metal; second, by
causing an in situ gas release in the liquid
Abstract
Metallic foams have become an attractive research field both from a scientific
viewpoint and the prospect of industrial applications. Various methods for making such
foams are available. Some techniques start from specially prepared molten metals
with adjusted viscosities. Such melts can be foamed by injecting gases or by adding
gas-releasing blowing agents that decompose in situ, causing the formation of bubbles.
Another method is to prepare supersaturated metal–gas systems under high pressure
and initiate bubble formation by pressure and temperature [Link] a further class
of techniques begins with solid precursors containing a blowing agent. These can be
prepared by mixing metal powders with a blowing agent, compacting the mix, and then
foaming the compacted mix by melting. Alternatively, casting routes can be used to
make such precursors. The unique properties of foams offer promise in a variety of
applications ranging from lightweight construction and impact-energy absorption to
various types of acoustic damping and thermal insulation.

Keywords: alloys, casting, cellular solids, industrial applications, metals, mechanical

properties, powder metallurgy, structural materials.

Introduction
Metal foams have polyhedral cells that

Solid metallic foams exhibit many un- may be either closed with membranes sep-
usual combinations of physical and me- arating the adjoining cells, or open with
chanical properties that make them no membranes across the faces of the cells
attractive in a number of engineering ap- so that the voids are interconnected. Solid
plications. For instance, when used as cores foams originating from a liquid foam are
in structural sandwich panels, they offer closed-cell. Some prefer to call open-cell
high stiffness in conjunction with low metallic structures “metal sponges.”
weight. Their use in energy-absorption Examples of these structures are shown
devices exploits their capacity to undergo in Figure 1.
large deformation under almost constant Manufacturing cellular metals is de-
stresses. scribed, in the most general sense, in re-
In the literature and in practical use, view articles and conference proceedings,1–4
there is some confusion concerning the and a dedicated Web page offers up-to-
term “metallic foam,” which is often used date information.5 This article limits itself Figure 1. Examples of cellular metals:
for any kind of non-dense metallic mate- to metallic closed-cell foams. These are (a) aluminum foam, (b) copper “lotus”
rial. In this article, these materials are de- low-density, liquid–gas mixtures at some structure, (c) cast aluminum sponge
fined as follows: stage of their evolution that are then made by the infiltration of space

Cellular metals are materials with a solidified to yield solid foams. As surface holders, (d) open-cell nickel structure
high volume fraction of voids, usually more tension governs morphology in the liquid made by coating a polymer foam,
than 70%, composed of an interconnected state (isolated gas bubbles separated from (e) sintered bronze powders, and
(f) a cellular material with oriented
network of struts and plates. each other by metal films), the corre- pores made by powder metallurgy.

Porous metals have isolated, roughly sponding solid-metal foams show a simi- Only (a) and (b) were foamed in the
spherical pores. Mechanically, pores do lar morphology. We first review different liquid state. Width of each image:
not interact if the porosity is less than manufacturing routes and then discuss (a) 50 mm, (b) 8 mm, (c) 3 mm,
about 20%. applications. (d) 2 mm, (e) 0.8 mm, and (f) 1.8 mm.

290 MRS BULLETIN/APRIL 2003

 Aluminum Foams: On the Road to Real Applications

by admixing gas-releasing blowing agents Quite recently, scientists working at the a typical batch of about 0.6 m3. After the
to the molten metal; and third, by causing Light Metals Competence Center (LKR) vessel is cooled to a temperature below
the precipitation of gas that was previ- and the metallurgical plant in Kleinreichen- the melting point of the alloy, the liquid
ously dissolved in the liquid. The precipi- bach, Austria,8 developed a new concept foam turns into solid aluminum foam con-
tated gas nucleates and forms bubbles that of gas injection that leads to foams with taining some additional titanium and can
contribute to the foam structure. excellent cell size uniformity; this involves be taken out of the mold for further proc-
the relatively gentle generation (compared essing. The foams produced in this way
Foaming Melts by Gas Injection with the violent dispersion of gases using have a very uniform pore structure. Typi-
The first method developed for foaming rotating impellers) of a multitude of uni- cal data for blowing-agent foams are listed
aluminum and aluminum alloys is already form bubbles in the melt. Moreover, by in Table I.
being used commercially by Cymat Alu- casting the foam into molds, complex–
minum Corp. in Canada.6 Silicon carbide, shaped foamed parts with a closed outer Solid–Gas Eutectic Solidification
aluminum oxide, or magnesium oxide skin can be produced. Commercial devel- A method developed about 15 years
particles are used to enhance the viscosity opment of this aluminum foam, called ago exploits the difference in the gas solu-
of the melt, which is chosen from one of Metcomb, is planned. Selected data on gas- bility of liquid and solid metals.10 A melt
many aluminum alloys that can be used. injection foams are summarized in Table I. is first charged with gas (e.g., hydrogen
The volume fraction of the reinforcing par- or nitrogen) under high pressure (up to
ticles typically ranges from 10% to 20%, Foaming Melts with 50 atm). The temperature is then lowered
with a mean particle size of 5–20
m.7 The Blowing Agents below the melting point of the metal, pre-
melt is foamed by injecting gases (air, A second way to foam melts directly is cipitating the gas. Under favorable con-
nitrogen, argon) into the melt using spe- to add a blowing agent to the melt. The ditions, gas bubbles are trapped in the
cially designed rotating impellers or vi- blowing agent decomposes under the in- metal. The resulting pore morphologies
brating nozzles that generate gas bubbles fluence of heat and releases gas, which are largely determined by the gas content,
in the melt and distribute them uniformly. then propels the foaming process. Shinko the pressure over the melt, the direction
The resultant viscous mixture of bubbles Wire Co. in Amagasaki, Japan, has been and rate of heat removal, and the chemical
and metal floats to the surface, where it producing foams by this method since composition of the melt. Generally, largely
turns into a fairly dry liquid foam as the 1986 with production volumes of re- elongated pores oriented in the direction
liquid metal drains out. The foam is rela- portedly up to 1000 kg of foam per day. of solidification are formed. Pore diameters
tively stable, owing to the presence of the Jiangsu Tianbo Lightweight Materials in range from 10
m to 10 mm, pore lengths
ceramic particles in the melt. It can be Nanjing, China, also set up a production from 100
m to 300 mm, and porosities
pulled off the liquid surface (e.g., with a plant recently. (total pore volume/total volume of foam)
conveyor belt) and is then allowed to cool In the first production step,
1.5 wt% from 5% to 75%. The term GASAR, a
and solidify. calcium metal is added to an aluminum Russian acronym for gas-reinforced, was
The foamed material is either used in melt at 680C. The melt is stirred for sev- coined for such materials. Recently, the
the state in which it comes out of the cast- eral minutes, during which its viscosity method was adapted in Japan,11 where
ing machine (having a closed outer sur- continuously increases by a factor of up to the material was called “lotus-structured”
face) or is cut into the required shape after five, owing to the formation of oxides (e.g., for its resemblance to lotus roots (see
foaming. Owing to the high content of CaAl2O4) or intermetallics that thicken the Figure 1b).
ceramic particles, these foams can be dif- liquid metal. Titanium hydride (TiH2) is
ficult to machine. Advantages of this di- then added (typically 1.6 wt%), which acts Foaming Metallic Precursors
rect foaming process include the large as a blowing agent, as it releases hydrogen A second class of foaming techniques
volumes of foam that can be continuously gas. The melt soon starts to expand and for metals adds an additional step to the
produced and the low densities that can gradually fills the foaming vessel. The en- process chain. Instead of foaming the melt
be achieved. tire foaming process can take 15 min for directly, a precursor containing a uniformly

Table I: Typical Properties of Three Families of Aluminum Foams.

Gas-Injection Foams Blowing-Agent Foams Powder-Compaction Foams
Typical End Products Panels: 16 m  1 m  0.2 m Blocks: 2 m  0.6 m  0.5 m Blocks: 1 m  0.5 m  0.2 m
Complex-shaped parts Slices: 10 mm thick Complex-shaped parts
Sandwich panels: 2 m  1 m  0.03 m
Density Range (gcm3) 0.069–0.54 0.18–0.24a 0.3–0.7 a
Pore Diameter (mm) 3–25 2–10 2–10
Cell Wall Thickness (
m) 50–85 ... 50–100
Alloy Range Available Al alloys Al, AlZnMg Al-, Zn-, Pb-, Sn-, Au- alloys
References 6–8,17 9, 17 12–14, 17, 18
URLs for Manufacturers [Link] [Link] [Link]
or Distributors [Link] [Link] [Link], [Link]/english/[Link]
[Link] [Link]
[Link], [Link]
a
Not including skin.

MRS BULLETIN/APRIL 2003 291

 Aluminum Foams: On the Road to Real Applications

dispersed blowing agent is prepared. The powder blends) with a powdered blowing from a few seconds to several minutes.
foam is created in a second step by melt- agent, after which the mix is compacted to Aluminum and its alloys, tin, zinc, brass,
ing the precursor, at which time the blow- yield a dense, semifinished product.12 The lead, gold, and some other metals and al-
ing gas evolves and bubbles are created. compaction can be done by any technique loys are foamed by choosing appropriate
The advantage of this process is that that ensures that the blowing agent is em- blowing agents and process parameters.
complex-shaped parts can be manufac- bedded into the metal matrix without any Sandwich panels consisting of a foamed
tured by filling molds with the precursor, notable residual open porosity. Examples metal core and two metal face sheets can
then performing the foaming step. Foam- of such compaction methods are uniaxial be obtained by roll-cladding conventional
able precursors are prepared in three or isostatic compression, rod extrusion, or sheets of metal (aluminum, steel, or tita-
ways: densifying mixtures of powders in powder rolling. The manufacture of the nium) onto a sheet of foamable precursor
the solid state; shaping such powder precursor must be carried out very care- material. The resulting composite can be
blends by thixocasting (heating to a tem- fully because residual porosity or other shaped in an optional step (e.g., by deep
perature between the solidification and defects will lead to poor results during drawing). The final heat treatment, in which
liquefaction temperatures to form a semi- further processing. only the foamable core expands and the
solid that can be cast); and admixing Next, the matrix material is melted, face sheets remain dense, then leads to
blowing-agent powders with melts. causing the blowing agent to decompose. sandwich structures.13
The released gas forces the melting pre- The process is now commercially avail-
Foaming Powder Compacts cursor material to expand, thus forming able on a small scale by Schunk (Giessen,
The production process begins with the its highly porous structure. The time needed Germany) and Karmann (Osnabrück, Ger-
mixing of metal powders (elementary for full expansion depends on temperature many) and Alulight (Ranshofen, Austria)
metal powders, alloy powders, or metal and the size of the precursor and ranges under the names Foam-in-Al and Alulight.

foams have the greatest potential in this

Applications for Open-Cell application.

Open-cell metallic foams are attractive
as heat exchangers due to their combi-
nation of high thermal conductivity and
Metallic Foams interconnected porosity that enables fluid
flow. Heat exchangers generally heat or
cool gases or liquids using extended
B. Leyda surface-area structures such as fins and
tubes. If heat-exchanger performance is
measured in terms of initial cost, current
mass-produced technologies perform very
well. If, however, performance is meas-
Metallic foams have been used for many absorbing substantial kinetic energy ured in terms of size or design flexibility,
years in selected niche applications, fre- without generating high peak stresses. the current technologies are often found
quently in the military and aerospace The automobile industry is considering wanting. As an example, modern elec-
industries. With the Cold War now far metallic foams for auto-body compo- tronic devices are becoming so small and
behind us, these foams are being intro- nents to absorb the kinetic energy of a powerful that they cannot be thermally
duced more heavily into civilian industry. crash impact, reducing the deceleration controlled using conventional air-cooled
Satellite heat exchangers, explosion-energy of the vehicle and minimizing the risk heat exchangers. Liquid cooling can be
absorbers, silencers, and porous rocket- of passenger injury. Honeycomb mate- substituted, but this creates a variety of
engine fuel injectors made with metallic rials have been used for many years as new problems that are technically dif-
foams are finding new uses, often in energy-absorbing structures in the tele- ficult to overcome, and whose solutions
technology-intensive industries such as scoping columns that support front and face an acceptance barrier in the industry.
the manufacture of semiconductors, elec- rear car bumpers. While these structures Metallic foams, which provide better
tronics, and alternative-energy vehicles. have provided major improvements in heat-transfer coefficients and higher spe-
Ironically, metallic-foam military compo- safety, the separate bumper and its sup- cific surface areas than traditional fins,
nents that often relied upon biological port columns are complex, expensive, are being used more and more frequently
analogies in their design processes are heavy, and only function at greatest effi- to break through the classical heat-
now being adapted to biological uses (e.g., ciency if impacted directly from the front exchanger performance barrier. This often
medical implants). As industrial applica- or rear. Metallic foams are mechanically requires more powerful air fans, but this
tions expand, metallic foams are being isotropic and absorb the same amount of is generally considered acceptable in
produced using a wider variety of raw energy regardless of the impact direc- order to maintain the basic simplicity
materials, in both closed-cell and open- tion. Consequently, they do not require and reliability of air-cooled systems.
cell structures, by an increasing number the separate column structures that Metallic foams are also being introduced
of manufacturers. honeycombs do; rather, they can be in- into liquid-cooled systems. It is common,
Metallic foams offer a combination of corporated directly into the body-part particularly in the semiconductor manu-
properties that are being exploited in structure. This enables the entire vehicle facturing industry, for a customer to
increasingly diverse applications. They body to absorb impact energy regardless demand greater heat removal from an
can be designed to crush at a roughly of the impact direction. Low-cost, continu- existing system while requiring that the
constant stress to large deformations, ously producible closed-cell aluminum size and interconnections of the heat

292 MRS BULLETIN/APRIL 2003

 Aluminum Foams: On the Road to Real Applications

Typical data for powder-compaction foams the powder-densification method, casting simultaneously with the melt.15 Normal
are listed in Table I. leads to a more isotropic precursor mate- casting alloys such as A356 without ce-
rial and, hence, to foams with a very uni- ramic additives have been used; however,
Foaming Thixocast Precursor form pore structure. achieving a homogeneous distribution of
Material TiH2 powders in the die is challenging. Al-
In addition to consolidating the metal Foaming Ingots Containing ternatively, TiH2 powders can be added to
powder mixtures in the solid state by pow- Blowing Agents a melt by comparatively slow stirring and
der pressing, densification can be carried Foamable precursor material can be subsequent cooling, provided that they
out by thixocasting in the semisolid state.14 prepared without using metal powder at are subjected to a cycle of heat treatments
The powder blend is first predensified all. For this, titanium hydride particles are that form an oxide barrier on each hydride
into billets by cold isostatic pressing, admixed with liquid metal, after which particle to delay their decomposition.16 In
yielding densities of about 80%. These bil- the melt is solidified. The resulting pre- order to obtain stable foams, melts con-
lets are heated to a temperature at which cursor can then be foamed in the same taining 10–15 vol% SiC particles are used.
the respective alloy is semisolid and then way as described in the previous two This process is known as FORMGRIP,
are cast to shape in a die-casting machine. sections. To avoid premature hydrogen which is an acronym for foaming of re-
The resulting precursor can be foamed evolution during mixing, solidification inforced metals by gas release in precursors.
as described in the previous section by must be rapid, or the blowing agent must
remelting the precursor. The advantage of be passivated, to prevent the release of too Applications
this route is that the precursor can have a much gas at this stage. One way to achieve Metal foams have properties that are
complex shape and does not have to be this is with a die-casting machine. The attractive in lightweight construction, for
worked further. Moreover, compared with powdered hydride is injected into the die energy-absorption devices, and for acoustic

exchanger remain constant in order to by absorption in hydride powders. The initial packing efficiency of the hydride
minimize other design changes. This up- hydride powders are generally contained granules is disrupted, and abnormally
grade may also be combined with a within lightweight low-pressure canisters large hydrogen-gas paths are provided.
coolant change from distilled water to or tubes. There are often two problems In addition, by nesting only a limited
one of the low-conductivity hydrocarbon with this approach. First, the absorption number of granules within each individ-
coolants in order to reduce the risk of and release of hydrogen from these pow- ual foam cell structure, the hydride can
damage if a leak occurs. Such demands ders generate or demand heat. The re- shrink and swell with minimal stress
are often beyond the capability of fin quired heat must pass from the canister from adjacent granules. This minimizes
technology, but are routinely fulfilled by walls through the hydride powder. Since the cyclic packing tendency and ensures
metallic foams. This is accomplished the thermal conductivity of these pow- that the gas paths remain open with the
by using the foam to increase the heat- ders is very low, the hydrogen flow rate passage of time.
transfer surface area and thus compen- in a simple canister is also very low, thus In many of the previous examples,
sate for both the increased heat load and increasing the refueling time and reduc- exotic Cold War applications have led to
low conductivity of the coolant. ing the potential power output of the fuel equally exotic, multifunctional civilian
In living systems, it is common for cell. Hydride powders also swell when uses. However, some metallic-foam com-
structures to perform multiple functions. they absorb hydrogen and shrink when ponents have undergone a simpler meta-
In a tree trunk, for example, the wood they release it. While very entertaining to morphosis. Metallic-foam pistol silencers
cells both provide the structural strength watch on a time-lapse video, this phe- easily evolved to perform the same func-
to support the tree and circulate fluids nomenon creates an additional headache tion in pneumatic nailing and stapling
from the roots to the leaves. Metallic for hydride-storage designers. Second, guns for the construction industry in
foams often perform multiple functions, hydride powders or granules pack very order to meet noise safety standards.
in mimicry of their natural counterparts. closely in the storage vessels, thus limit- Similarly, small metallic-foam inserts that
One promising power source for fu- ing the space between granules for the once uniformly catalyzed or ionized rocket
ture vehicles is the hydrogen–oxygen fuel hydrogen to flow. The shrinkage and propellants are now used to electrically
cell. Within these devices, metallic foams swelling of repeated operating cycles in a charge spray paint. By providing the op-
frequently perform multiple functions: normal gravity field tend to pack the posite charge to the item being painted, a
they provide structural support for thin powders increasingly tighter in the bot- more uniform paint coverage is ensured,
interface films while simultaneously col- tom of the canister. After some time, thus minimizing waste overspray and air
lecting electrical current. In addition, they hydrogen cannot flow into or out of the pollution. Metallic foams are also being
often are used as in situ heat exchangers storage bed fast enough to be effective. introduced into electrical and electro-
to ensure that delicate chemical processes By performing multifunctional roles, magnetic applications. Metallic foams
operate within the optimum temperature metallic foams solve both of these prob- developed to shield electrical conductors
range regardless of internal power output lems. Metallic-foam inserts are tightly in- in missiles from electromagnetic inter-
or external environmental conditions. stalled in the canisters, and the hydride ference are being adapted to isolate sen-
The storage vessels that supply hydro- granules are then loaded into the foam. sitive semiconductor plasma processes
gen to the fuel cells also use metallic As a heat exchanger, the foam signifi- from mutual interference. The numerous
foams. In order to eliminate the need for cantly increases heat flow within the sharp ligament tips at the surface of foams
heavy and potentially dangerous high- entire hydride bed and enables rapid hy- are also being examined to increase emis-
pressure gas bottles in fuel-cell-powered drogen loading and release. By introduc- sion efficiency within electron guns and
vehicles, hydrogen is occasionally stored ing a secondary internal structure, the other particle-generating devices.

MRS BULLETIN/APRIL 2003 293

 Aluminum Foams: On the Road to Real Applications

or thermal control. Applications of these technology of the German car builder bending prior to foaming, complex shapes
materials are of particular importance to Karmann is one example;18 these sandwich can be manufactured. This is a clear ad-
the automotive industry, which has been panels are three-dimensional, very stiff, vantage over competing technologies such
extremely interested in metal foams since and relatively lightweight. Figure 3 shows as honeycomb or waffle structures. In
they were first developed. Potential appli- a panel from which the top face sheet combination with new construction prin-
cations also exist in shipbuilding, the aero- has been removed to make the pore struc- ciples, the AFS could replace conventional
space industry, and civil engineering.1 Key ture visible and demonstrate the quality stamped-steel parts in a car and lead to
categories of applications for metallic of bonding. By deforming the foamable significant weight reductions. At the same
foams in the automotive industry are (see precursor using deep drawing or simple time, because such sandwich panels act as
Figure 2):

Lightweight construction: Foams can be
used to optimize the weight-specific bend-
ing stiffness of engineering components.
The bending stiffness of flat foam panels
of a given weight, width, and length is
approximately proportional to their thick-
ness and therefore inversely related to
density. True optimization, however, calls
for more elaborate solutions (as will be
discussed later). In any case, lightweight
construction exploits the quasi-elastic and
reversible part of the load-deformation
curve.

Energy absorption: Owing to their high
porosity, foams can absorb a large quan-
tity of mechanical energy when they are
deformed, while stresses are limited to
the compression strength of the material.
Foams can therefore act as impact-energy
absorbers used, for example, to limit ac-
celeration in vehicle crash situations. This Figure 2. Application categories for metallic foams in the automotive industry. Boxes contain
mode exploits the horizontal, irreversible the relevant properties that make the foams useful for one of the three application fields
given in the circles.
part of the load-deformation diagram. As
metal foams can have much higher col-
lapse strengths than polymer-based foams
(up to 20 MPa), they can find applications
in areas not currently accessible to polymer,
ceramic, or glass foams.

Damping and insulation: Foams can
damp vibrations and absorb sound under
certain conditions. Moreover, their thermal
conductivity is low. These properties are
not outstanding—polymer foams are much
better sound absorbers—but they could
be useful in combination with other fea-
tures of the foam. This application makes
use of the internal configuration of the
foam, namely, the labyrinth of struts and
associated air-filled voids.
A metal foam is more likely to be com-
petitive with alternative engineering solu-
tions if two or more properties are exploited.
True multifunctionality would, for example,
imply that a lightweight construction re-
duces noise and absorbs energy in the case
of an automobile crash.
In most cases, a bare foam is not the
optimum solution for a given engineering
problem. Stiffness optimization calls for
sandwich panels with dense face sheets
rather than simple foam panels,17 and foam
can perform very efficiently if enclosed in Figure 3. Aluminum foam sandwich (AFS) produced by German automaker Karmann
dense metallic skin sections or used as a (Osnabrück, Germany). The face sheet has peeled back to make the pore structure visible.
reinforcing filling for hollow cast parts. The bonding strength between the face sheets and the foam core is greater than the
The aluminum foam sandwich (AFS) inherent strength of the foam. Width of panel
30 cm. (Photo courtesy of Karmann.)

294 MRS BULLETIN/APRIL 2003

 Aluminum Foams: On the Road to Real Applications

vibration dampers in addition being light- Yet another application makes use of the Summary
weight, they could be used to reduce the beneficial properties of aluminum foam A number of new metal foaming tech-
number of parts in the car frame, thereby inside a dense aluminum shell, both dur- nologies have been developed in the past
facilitating assembly and reducing costs ing manufacture and in use. A shaped part decade that enable a wide range of forms
while improving performance. of Metcomb aluminum foam is used. The for this exciting material. Compared with
Another example is crash absorbers. As part has a dense outer skin and can there- early developments in the 1960s and 1970s,
insurance companies are enforcing safety fore be used as a core in low-pressure the quality of metal foams has improved,
guidelines that protect passengers in the die-casting, during which a composite and the possibilities for making compos-
event of a collision and also minimize ve- consisting of a cast outer surface and a ites using it have widened. It seems quite
hicle damage, automakers are using the lightweight inner core is formed. Such realistic that metal foams will find real
idea of a “crash box” to meet these stan- composites have advantageous service applications very soon in cars, ships, air-
dards. Such crash boxes are placed be- properties, such as higher stiffness and crafts, and even spacecraft.
tween the impact beam and the front rail improved damping, as compared with the
of the car. The front rail runs down the empty hollow part, while its weight is Acknowledgments
side of the car perpendicular to the bumper only marginally higher. LKR (Ranshofen, Help from W. Seeliger (Karmann),
beam. They deform to absorb all the en- Austria) has designed an engine mount A.-M. Harte (Cymat), and D. Leitlmeier
ergy of a 15 km/h (9.3 mph) crash, pro- for the German automaker BMW based (LKR) is gratefully acknowledged.
tecting expensive front-end components on such composites (see Figure 5). It can
and the car frame as well as the passen- be loaded with the weight of a car engine References
gers within. One choice for the crash box and absorbs mechanical vibration by in- 1. J. Banhart, Prog. Mater. Sci. 46 (2001) p. 559.
is an empty tube that plastically collapses ternal dissipation into thermal energy. As 2. J. Banhart, M.F. Ashby, and N.A. Fleck, eds.,
and in doing so absorbs energy. The fail- the fracture toughness of such composites Metal Foams and Porous Metal Structures (MIT-
ure mode of the tube is to create plastic is high, these parts would also increase Verlag, Bremen, 1999).
folds along the length of the tube at regu- safety in crash situations. 3. J. Banhart, M.F. Ashby, and N.A. Fleck, eds.,
Cellular Metals and Metal Foaming Technology
lar intervals. By inserting an aluminum (MIT-Verlag, Bremen, 2001).
foam core in the center of the tube, there is 4. H.P. Degischer and B. Kriszt, eds., Handbook
an increase in energy absorption. The of Cellular Metals (WILEY-VCH, Weinheim,
outer tube still folds along its length, but 2002).
the number of folds increases; as a result, 5. Metal foam information Web site, www.
the energy absorbed by the filled tube is [Link] (accessed December 2002).
greater than the empty tube. Energy is also 6. A.-M. Harte and S. Nichol, in Cellular Metals
absorbed by the foam core, and the total and Metal Foaming Technology, edited by J. Banhart,
energy absorbed by the foam-filled tube is M.F. Ashby, and N.A. Fleck (MIT-Verlag, Bremen,
2001) p. 49.
greater than the sum of the individual en- 7. L.D. Kenny, Mater. Sci. Forum 217–222 (1996)
ergies of the tube and the foam. Figure 4 p. 1883.
shows a deformed foam-filled tube. Stud- 8. D. Leitlmeier, H.P. Degischer, and H.J. Flankl,
ies done by Fiat and the Norwegian Uni- Adv. Eng. Mater. 4 (10) (2002) p. 735.
versity of Science and Technology show 9. T. Miyoshi, in Cellular Metals and Metal Foam-
that along with the improved axial energy ing Technology, edited by J. Banhart, M.F. Ashby,
absorption, there is also great improvement and N.A. Fleck (MIT-Verlag, Bremen, 2001) p. 125.
in energy absorption in off-axis collisions 10. V.L. Shapovalov, in Porous and Cellular
because isotropic foams can absorb energy Materials for Structural Applications, edited by
D.S. Schwartz, D.S. Shih, A.G. Evans, and
from all directions. Cymat is currently in a H.N.G. Wadley (Mater Res. Soc. Symp. Proc.
joint development program with Valeo to 521, Warrendale, PA, 1998) p. 281.
design a crash box for implementation in 11. S.K. Hyun and H. Nakajima, Adv. Eng.
Valeo’s front-end module systems. Mater. 4 (10) (2002) p. 741.
12. F. Baumgärtner, I. Duarte, and J. Banhart,
Adv. Eng. Mater. 2 (2000) p. 168.
13. J. Baumeister, in Sandwich Construction 5,
Vol. I, edited by H.R. Meyer-Piening and D.
Zenkert (EMAS, Solihull, U.K., 2000) p. 339.
14. H. Stanzick, M. Wichmann, J. Weise, L.
Helfen, T. Baumbach, and J. Banhart, Adv. Eng.
Mater. 4 (10) (2002) p. 814.
15. A. Melzer, J. Banhart, J. Baumeister, and
M. Weber, German Patent No. 19813176
(August 24, 2000).
16. V. Gergely and T.W. Clyne, Adv. Eng. Mater.
2 (2000) p. 175.
Figure 5. Prototype of an automobile 17. M.F. Ashby, A.G. Evans, N.A. Fleck, L.J.
engine mount manufactured by LKR Gibson, J.W. Hutchinson, and H.N.G. Wadley,
Figure 4. Prototypes of foam-filled Ranshofen (Austria). (a) Empty casting, Metal Foams: A Design Guide (Butterworth-
tubes developed as crash absorbers. (b) bare foam core, (c) section through Heinemann, Boston, 2000).
The tubes are aluminum extrusions composite part consisting of foam core 18. W. Seeliger, in Cellular Metals and Metal
filled with an aluminum foam. Tube and cast shell, and (d) complete Foaming Technology, edited by J. Banhart, M.F.
diameter
65 mm. (Photo courtesy composite part (25 cm long). (Photo Ashby, and N.A. Fleck (MIT-Verlag, Bremen,
of Cymat.) courtesy of LKR.) 2001) pp. 5, 29. ■

MRS BULLETIN/APRIL 2003 [Link]/publications/bulletin 295

View publication stats