Rotational Dynamics

Rigid body
A body is said to be rigid if its molecular separations are constant even when it is in translational or rotational
motion.

Moment of force:
Moment of force is defined as the product of force acting on an object and its perpendicular distance
from axis of rotation. It is a type of static force. In physics, moment of force is a measure of its
tendency to cause a body to rotate about a specific point or axis.

From figure,
Moment of force = F × OA
[Where axis of rotation passes through O.]
OA
Or, Moment of force = F × OB sin [⸪ sin =  OA = OB sin]
OB

 Moment of force = F r sin

Torque ():
Torque is the turning effect of force. It is movement type force. Torque is the measure of force that
causes an object to rotate about an axis. Just like how force causes an object to accelerate in linear
kinematics, torque is what causes an object to acquire angular acceleration. Mathematically, it can be
defined as the product of force and its perpendicular distance from axis of rotation. It is denoted  by
and given by

 = F r sin
In vector notation, above result can be expressed as
  
= r ×F
Special Cases:

(i) When  = 0o,

Torque,  = F r sin0o = 0 (Minimum)
(ii) When  = 90o,
Torque,  = F r sin90o = F.r (Maximum)

Parallel Forces:
Two forces are said to be parallel if their lines of action are parallel to each other.

Couple:
Two equal and unlike parallel forces acting on an object at different points is known as couple.

Moment of Inertia (I)

In linear motion mass of a body is the measure of inertia (i.e. the measure of difficulty to change of state
of rest or uniform motion.) Similarly, in rotational motion moment of inertia of a body is the measure
of rotational inertia (i.e. the measure of difficulty to change of state of rest or uniform rotational motion.)

Mathematically, the moment of inertia of a rigid body about a particular axis is defined as the sum of
products of all particles constituting the body and square of their perpendicular distance from axis of
rotation. It is denoted by 'I' and given by I = mr2. Its unit is Kgm2 and dimensional formula is [ML2T0].
Moment of inertia depends upon mass, radius and distribution of mass as well.

Radius of gyration (R):

The radius of gyration of a rigid body rotation about a particular axis is defined as the perpendicular
distance of its centre of mass from axis of rotation.

Let us consider a rigid body consisting of a large number of particles of masses m1, m2 m3, …… mm at a
distance of r1, r2, r3, ……….. rn from the axis of rotation. From the definition of moment of inertia, we can
write

I = m1r12 + m2r22 + m3r32 + …… + mnrn2

For m1 = m2 = m3 = …………. mn = m.

I = mr12 + mr22 + mr32 + …… mrn2 ………. (i)

Let C.M. be the centre of mass of the rigid body which is at a distance of R from the axis of rotation. This
means 'R' is the radius of gyration of the given body. Let 'M' be the whole mass of the given body. Again,
the moment of inertia can be written as

I = MR2 ………. (ii)

From (i) and (ii)

MR2 = m (r12+r22+r32)

Or, nmR2 = m(r12+r22+r32+….. +rn2)

r12+ r22+r32+.......+rn2
 R= ,
n

This is the required expression for radius of gyration.

Moment of inertia of a uniform rod with axis of rotation passing through its centre and perpendicular
to its length.

Y
dm
O X
-l/2 x +l/2
dx
Y'

Let us consider a uniform rod of length 'l' and mass 'm' let the axis of rotation of the rod YOY' passes through
its centre and is perpendicular to its length. Let 'dm' be the small mass of a small section 'dx' that is at a
distance of 'x' from the axis of rotation.

Since mass of 'l' length of rod = m

Mass of unit length of rod = m/l

m
and, mass of dx length of rod = dx = dm (say)
l

Now, the moment of inertia of elementary mass 'dm' is given as

dI = dm x2

m
Or, dI = .dx.x2
l

m 2
Or, dI = .x dx ………. (i)
l

Total moment of inertia of the whole rod can be obtained by integrating (i) from x = -l/2 to x = l/2, i.e.

l/2 l/2 m
 dI

= 
 l
.[Link]
-l/2 -l/2

m l/2 2
l 
Or, I= x dx

-l/2

m x3 l/2
Or, I=
l  3  -l/2

m  l 3 -l3
Or, I= -
3l 2  2  

m l3+l3
Or, I
3l  8 

m 2l3
Or, I= .
3l 8
 ml2
 I=
12

This is the required expression for moment of inertia of uniform rod with axis of rotation passing through its
centre and perpendicular to the length.

Note

The moment of inertia of a uniform rod with its axis passing through one of its ends and perpendicular to its
length is given by

1
I = ml2 [ Hint: Take limit: 0 to l ]
3

Moment of inertia of a uniform rod with axis of rotation passing through one of its ends and
perpendicular to its length.

dm
O X
x
0 dx l
Y'

Let us consider a uniform rod of length 'l' and mass 'm' let the axis of rotation of the rod YOY' passes through
one of its ends and is perpendicular to its length. Let 'dm' be the small mass of a small section 'dx' which is
at a distance of 'x' from the axis of rotation.

Since mass of 'l' length of rod = m

m
Mass of unit(1) length of rod =
l

m
and, mass of dx length of rod = dx = dm (say)
l

Now, the moment of inertia of elementary mass 'dm' is given as

dI = dm x2

m
or, dI = .dx.x2
l

m 2
or, dI = .x dx ………. (i)
l

Total moment of inertia of the whole rod can be obtained by integrating (i) from x = 0 to x = l, i.e.

l l m


dI =  .[Link]
 l
0 0
 m l 2
l 
Or, I = x dx

0

m x3 l
Or, I =
l 3 0

m l  0 
3 3

Or, I =   -  
l  3   3 

m l3
Or, I =
l 3 

ml2
Or, I =
3

1 2
 I= ml
3

This is the required expression for moment of inertia of uniform rod with axis of rotation passing through
one of its ends and perpendicular to the length.

Rotational kinetic Energy of a Rigid Body:

Let us consider a rigid body consisting of a large number of particles of mases m1, m2, m3, …….. mn at a
distance of r1, r2, r3, …… rn respectively from the axis of rotation. Let the body rotates with constant angular
velocity '' about the given axis as shown in figure above.

1
Kinetic energy of particle- m1 = mv2
2 1 1

1
K.E. of particle- m1 = m 2r 2 [⸪ v = r]
2 1 1 1

1
Similarly, K.E. of particle- m2 = m  2r 2
2 2 2 2

1
K.E. of particle- mn = m  2r 2
2 n n n
Now, total kinetic energy of rotating body can be written as

1 1 1 1
Rotational kinetic energy = m  2r 2 + m  2 r 2 + m  2 r 2 + ..... mn n2 rn2
2 1 1 1 2 2 2 2 2 3 3 3 2

For a given rigid body, the angular velocities of all particles are same. i.e.

1 = 2 = 3 = …………… n =  (say)

Then above equation becomes,

1 1 1 1
Rotational K.E = m 2 r12 + m2 2 r22 + m3 2 r32.... mn 2 rn2
2 1 2 2 2

1
Or, rotational K.E. = (m1 r12+m2 r22+ …. +mn rn2) × 2
2

1
Or, rotational K.E. = (mr2) 2
2

1
Or, rotational K.E. = I × 2 [⸪ I = mr2]
2

1
 Rotational K.E. = I 2
2

This is the required expression for rotational kinetic energy of a rotating rigid body.

Relation between torque () and momentum of inertia.

The torque of a rigid body rotating about a particular axis is defined as the product to force applied
and the perpendicular distance of the object from axis of rotation. It is denoted by '' and given as
 = F× r
It is the turning effect of force in an object it can also be defined as the rate of change of angular
dL
momentum, i.e.  = , Where L is angular momentum.
dt
Let us consider a rigid body consisting of a large number of particles of mases m1, m2, m3… mn at a distance
of r1, r2, r3, …… rn respectively from the axis of rotation. Let the body rotates with constant angular velocity
'' about the given axis as shown in figure above.

dv d( r)
Acceleration of particle- m1 = α1 r1 [⸪ V = r  dt = dt

 a = α.r]
Then, force on particle m1 = m1 α1 r1 [⸪ F = ma]

Or, torque on particle-m1 = (m1 α1 r1) × r1 [⸪ Torque,  = F ×r]

Torque on particle-m1 = m1 α1 r12
Similarly,
Torque on particle-m2 = m2 α2 r22
Torque on particle-m3 = m3 α3 r32
Torque on particle-mn = mn αn rn2
Now the total torque on the rigid body can be expressed as

 = m1 α1 r12 + m2 α2 r22 + m3 α3 r32 + ……. mn αn rn2

For a given rigid body, the angular velocity of all particles are same and hence the angular acceleration are
also same. i.e.

α 1 = α 2 = α 3 = …. α n = α (say)
Then above equation becomes,

 = (m1 r12 + m2 r22 + m3 r32 + ……. mn rn2) α

 = mr2 × α

Since, moment of inertia, I = mr2

 Torque,  = I α
This is the require expression for torque in terms of moment of inertia.
Angular momentum (L) and its relation with moment of inertia:
The angular momentum of a rigid body rotating about a particular axis is defined as the product of
linear momentum and perpendicular distance from the axis of rotation. It is denoted by 'L' and given
by

L= r × P
Taking magnitude only, L = P × r
Let us consider a rigid body consisting of a large number of particles of masses m1, m2,m3 …. mn
at a distance of r1, r2, r3, ….. rn respectively from the axis of rotation. Let the body rotates with
angular velocity '' about the given axis as shown in figure above.
From the definition, angular momentum of particle m1 is

L1 = P1 r1 = m1 v1 × r1
Or, L1 = m1 × 1r1 × r1
Or, L1 = m1 1 r12
Similarly,
angular momentum of particle- m2, L2 = m2 r22 2
angular momentum of particle- m3, L3 = m3 r32 3
angular momentum of particle- mn, Ln = mn rn2 n
Now, total angular momentum of the rigid body is
L = m1 r12 1+ m2 r22 2 + m3 r32 3 + ….. mn rn2 n
For a given rigid body, the angular velocity of all particles are same. i.e.

1= 2 = 3 ……. n =  (say)

L = (m1 r12 + m2 r22 + m3 r32 + …. mn rn2) 

= mr2 × 

Since, moment of inertia, I = mr2

 L = I
This is the required expression for angular momentum of a rigid body.

Principle of conservation of Angular Momentum:

Principle of conservation of Angular Momentum states “In the absence of external force, the total
angular momentum of an isolated rotating object remains constant.” i.e.

L = I = constant
 Let us consider a rigid body of moment of inertia (I) rotates about a particular axis with
angular velocity ''. From the definition of torque.
dL
Torque () = dt …...…… (i)

Also,  = F × r …………. (ii)

In the absence of external force, i.e. F = 0

=0×r=0
From (i)
dL
dt = 0 [ ⸪  = 0]

Or, dL = [Link]
Integrating above equation, we get,



dL =  [Link]


Or, L = constant

Or, L = I = constant

Or, I11 = I22

⸫ I11 = I22 = L = Constant

This is conservation of angular momentum.
Note

1. Since I = constant

2 2
I× = Constant [ = ]
T T

⸫ I T

2. Since I = constant

I × 2f = constant [ = 2f]

1
⸫ f
I

Short Questions:
1. If the ice on the polar caps of the earth melts, how will it affect the duration of the day?
Explain.
2. Can you distinguish a raw egg and a hardboiled egg by spinning each one on the table?
Explain.
 3. If earth shrinks, how will be the duration of a day affected?
4. The cap of a bottle can be easily opened with the help of two fingers than with one finger.
Why?
5. A ballet dancer stretches her hands when she wants to come to rest. Why?
6. A fan with blades takes longer time to come to rest than without blades. Why?
7. A ballet dancer can increase her arms to reduce her motion. Explain
8. A dancer girl is rotating over a turntable with her arms out stretched. If she lowers her
arms, how does this affect her motion?
9. Explain why spokes are fitted in the cycle wheel.
10. What is the counterpart of the mass and force in rotational motion?
11. If meteorites strike the earth, the earth will slow down slightly. Why?

Couple, Moment of Couple and Expression for work done by Couple.

Couple:
Two equal and opposite force (unlike force) along on a body at two different points which rotate
or trend to rotate the object in called couple.

Moment of couple:
Moment of couple can be defined as the product of one of its force and perpendicular distance
between them.

Moment of couple is denoted by '' and given by

 = F×2r
Work done by couple:
Let us consider a couple (two equal and opposite forces) acting tangentially on a wheel at two
opposite points A and B, which rotates the wheel through angle .
Work done by the couple is

W = F × AA ' + F × BB ' ……… (i)

Since,

l AA ' BB '
= = =
r r r

 AA ' = r and BB ' = r

 W = F × r + F × r

 W = 2Fr  ……….. (ii)

Here, total torque can be written as

 = F × r + F × r = 2Fr ……. (iii)

From (ii) and (iii)

W =  ……….. (iv),
This is the required expression for work done by the couple.
Power:
Now, differentiation equation (iv) with respect to time.

dW d( )
=
dt dt

d
Or, P = . =
dt
 P =  , which is the required expression for power of couple.

Total kinetic Energy of a Rolling Body:

Let us consider a spherical rigid body of mass m, moment of inertia I and radius 'R' is rolling with
linear velocity 'v' and angular velocity '' on a horizontal track as shown in figure above. Let 'K' be
the radius of gyration of the given rigid body. The total kinetic energy of the rolling body in the
sum of translational K.E. and rotational K.E., i.e.
[Link] = [Link]+ [Link]
1 1
[Link] = mv2 + I2
2 2

In terms of radius of gyration, moment of inertia can be expressed as

I = mK2
1 1
 [Link] . 2 mV2 + 2 mK2 2

v
Since, v = R →  = R

1 1 v2
Then, [Link] = 2 mv2 + 2 mK2 R2

mv2 1+ 2
1 K2
Or, [Link] =
2  R
This is the required expression for total kinetic energy of a rolling body.
Acceleration of a Rolling body along an Inclined plane:

Fig: A spherical body rolling down an inclined plane.

Let us consider a spherical body of mass 'm' and radius 'R' starts to roll down along an inclined
plane. Let 'h' be the height and ‘s’ be the length of the inclined plane which makes an angle  with
the horizontal. If the objet rolls down form rest its initial velocity, (u) is equal to zero. When the
object rolls down, it loses its potential energy and gains K.E.
From the conservation of mechanical energy gain in K.E. = loss in P.E.

2
1 K2
Or, mv 1+ = mgh
2  R2
2gh
Or, v2 = k2
1+ 2
R

2g s sin
Or, v= k2 ………. (i) [Sin = h/s → h = s sin]
1+ 2
R

We know,
v2 = u2 + 2as
2g s sin
Or, k2 = 0 + 2as
1+ 2
R

g sin
Or, a= ......... (ii)
k2
1+ 2
R

This is the required expression for acceleration of rolling body is an inclined plane.

Time to reach the ground (t):

We have, v = u + at
From equations (i) and (ii),

2g s sin g sin
Or, k 2 = 0 + k2 .t
1+ R2 1+ R2

Squaring both sides

2g s sin g2 sin2 2
= .t
k2 1+ k 2
2
1+ R2
 R2

2s (1+k2/R2)
Or, g h/s =t
 2s2 (1+k2/R2)
Or, t = gh

This is the required expression for time to reach the ground level for a body rolling down an inclined
plane.