UNIT-I

TELECOMMUNICATION SWITCHING SYSTEM

AND NETWORK
Introduction
The world has undergone many changes since the evolution of man. For instance, the
exchange of information was initially in the form of signs and sounds. This transitioned to the
language and script form with advanced inventions. The communication from one place to
another which called for distance between individuals was carried through letters; sent by
pigeons and between two groups through drum beats or semaphores. Men used to travel long
distances to pass on messages.
Today‘s world is more an age of communication. The advancement of communication
techniques has increased the speed with which the transfer of information takes place. This
development has not been an easy process. At the onset of the invention of communication
systems, the invention and usage of telephony was the most important one. The way the
telephone systems evolved from a basic system into an essential multi- purpose friendly
gadget today, leaves one and all astonished knowing the innovations made out of the meagre
resources available in those days.

Telecommunications
The exchange of information between two or many individuals is called Communication. The
word tele is a Greek word which means distance. Hence, Telecommunication means the
exchange of information between two distant places.
Telecommunications represent the transfer of information, from an entity at one place to an
entity at another place, whereas the information can be in the form of data, voice or symbol.
The entities can be human beings, computers, facsimile machines, telegraphy machines,
phones or so on. In telephone conversation, the one who initiates the call is referred to as the
Calling Subscriber and the one for whom the call is destined is the Called Subscriber. In
other cases of information transfer, the communicating entities are known as Source and
Destination, respectively.
In March 1876, Alexander Graham Bell invented and demonstrated his telephone set and the
possibility of long distance voice communication. He demonstrated the point-to-point
communication, in which a calling subscriber chooses the appropriate link to establish
connection with the called subscriber. This system also requires some mode of Signalling to
alert the called subscriber about the incoming call and a signal to indicate the calling
subscriber, when the called subscriber is busy on another call.

Need for Switching Exchanges

The point-to-point connection for establishing communication requires the telephone sets to be
linked using wires. If the number of telephone sets or the subscribers present is low in number,
the type of connection will be a little complex. However, if this number is high or moderate,
then the connections will lead to a mess. To understand the complication, let us consider a
network of 5 subscribers.
The following illustration shows a point-to-point connection for five subscribers (telephone
sets):

In the point-to-point connection, for n entities, we need n(n-1)/2 links. All these links form a
network. Networks with point-to-point links among all the entities are known as Fully
Connected Networks. The number of links required in a fully connected network becomes
very large even with moderate values of n.
Hence, a system of switching the networks is needed in-between these subscribers.
Alexander Graham Bell recommended the Switching between the subscribers using a
switching office that maintains the telephone connections.

Switching Systems
This network connection cannot be simply made with telephone sets and bunch of wires, but a
good system is required to make or break a connection. This system is known as the Switching
System or the Switching Office or the Exchange. With the introduction of the switching
system, the subscribers instead of getting connected directly to one another, are connected to a
switching office and then to the required subscriber.
The following figure will help you understand the switching system
With the introduction of switching systems, the need for traditional connections between the
subscribers reduced. All the subscribers need to have a connection with the switching
system, which makes or breaks any connection, requested by the calling subscriber. The
switching system, which is also called the Telephone Exchange, takes care of establishing
the calls. Hence, the total number of such links is equal to the number of subscribers connected
to the system.

The early systems required manual operations to establish telephone calls. An operator used
to receive a call from the calling subscriber and then connect the call to the called subscriber.
Later on, the system was automated.

Telephone Model
The following figure will help you understand the model of telephones in the early stage of
its invention.

When you see the telephone in the above figure, the dialer part and the microphone are
connected to a stationary wooden plank; and the speaker to listen, was connected by a
wire at the side. The top portion of the telephone has two bells connected - these bells ring
when there is an incoming call. This is one of the earlier models of the telephone.
The telephone sets of the calling subscriber and the called subscriber are connected through a
switching system or a telephone exchange in order to establish the calls requested.
In the following sections, we will learn about the switching system in detail.
In this chapter, we will understand how the switching systems work. A Switching system can
be understood as a collection of switching elements arranged and controlled in such a way as
to set up a common path between any two distant points. The introduction of switching
systems reduced the complexity of wiring and made the telephony hassle-free.

Classification of Switching Systems

In the early stages of telecommunication systems, the process and stages of switching,
played an important to make or break connections. At the initial stages, the switching
systems were operated manually. These systems were later automated. The following
flowchart shows how the switching systems were classified.

The switching systems in the early stages were operated manually. The connections were made
by the operators at the telephone exchanges in order to establish a connection. To minimize
the disadvantages of manual operation, automatic switching systems were introduced.
The Automatic switching systems are classified as the following:
Electromechanical Switching Systems - Here, mechanical switches are
electrically operated.
Electronic Switching Systems – Here, the usage of electronic components such as
diodes, transistors and ICs are used for the switching purposes.

Electromechanical Switching Systems

The Electromechanical switching systems are a combination of mechanical and electrical
switching types. The electrical circuits and the mechanical relays are deployed in them. The
Electromechanical switching systems are further classified into the following.

Step-by-step
The Step-by-step switching system is also called the Strowger switching system after its
inventor A B Strowger. The control functions in a Strowger system are performed by circuits
associated with the switching elements in the system.

Crossbar
The Crossbar switching systems have hard-wired control subsystems which use relays and
latches. These subsystems have limited capability and it is virtually impossible to modify
them to provide additional functionalities.
ElectronicSwitching Systems
The Electronic Switching systems are operated with the help of a processor or a computer
which control the switching timings. The instructions are programmed and stored on a
processor or computer that control the operations. This method of storing the programs on a
processor or computer is called the Stored Program Control (SPC) technology. New facilities
can be added to a SPC system by changing the control program.
The switching scheme used by the electronic switching systems may be either Space
Division Switching or Time Division Switching. In space division switching, a dedicated
path is established between the calling and the called subscribers for the entire duration of the
call. In time division switching, sampled values of speech signals are transferred at fixed
intervals.
The time division switching may be analog or digital. In analog switching, the sampled
voltage levels are transmitted as they are. However, in binary switching, they are binary
coded and transmitted. If the coded values are transferred during the same time interval from
input to output, the technique is called Space Switching. If the values are stored and
transferred to the output at a time interval, the technique is called Time Switching. A time
division digital switch may also be designed by using a combination of space and time
switching techniques.

Telecommunication Network
A Telecommunication network is a group of systems that establishes a distant call. The
switching systems are part of a telecommunication network.
The switching stations provide connection between different subscribers. Such switching
systems can be grouped to form a telecommunication network. The switching systems are
connected using lines called the Trunks. The lines that run to the Subscriber premises are
called the Subscriber Lines.
 The following figure shows a telecommunication network.

From the early to the later stages of the 20th Century (1900-80), when a person needed to make
a distant call, the call was first routed to the operator at the nearest switching center and then the
number and location of the called subscriber was noted down. Here, the job of the operator was
to establish a call to the remote switching center and then recall the calling subscriber to
establish the connection. This system of making calls was called the Trunk call system.
For example, a person at Hyderabad can book a trunk call to Mumbai and wait for the operator
to call back when the operator establishes connection through the trunk lines and the switching
systems.

Communication Links
A telephone switching network is made tip of switching systems trunks. subscriber lines and
telephone instruments. Trunks and subscriber lilies are essentially communication links which carry
information signals from one point to another. There are basically only two forms of communication
links electrical and optical. In the former information is conveyed by means of electrical energy and
in the latter. by means of light energy.
 The information to be conveyed is not always in the form of electrical or optical signals.
For example. human speech signals are essentially sound waves. As a consequence conversion from
one form of energy to another may be required before information signals can be carried by
communication links. Transducers perform this energy conversion they are available for converting
sound. light or heat energy to electrical energy and vice versa. But at the present state of
technological development, there are no known transducers that can directly convert sound energy
into light energy. As a result, one is required to go through a two-step process of converting sound
into electrical energy first and then into optical energy to be able to use the optical communication
links. In other words, today’s optical sources accept only electrical signals as input, and the optical
detectors produce only electrical signals as output. Hence, at the transmitting end. The original
signals are first converted into electrical signals by using known transducers. Then electrical to
optical converters (EOC). i.e. optical sources. are used to obtain optical signals. At the receiving end.
optical to electrical converters (OEC). i.e. optical detectors. are used first and then the transducer to
reproduce the original signal.
Service Specific Networks

With the concept of switched connections for telephony taking its firm roots. the idea of
offering oilier non voice services using switches and switched networks caught the attention of tele
communication specialists in the first half of 20th century. Different services nican different types of
end equipments at the customer premises. e.g telex, teleprinter and facsimile machines. The signal
characteristics of such end equipments vary widely. For example. the electrical characteristics. i.e.
voltage. current and power levels and bandwidth of die signal. of a teleprinter are completely
different from those of a telephone. In addition. Signalling requirements for different types of end
equipments also differ significantly. Such wide variations in electrical characteristics and signalling
requirements have led to the development of different service.
specific telecommunication networks that operate independently.

Examples are:

1. Telegraph networks

2. Telex networks

3. Telephone networks

4. Data networks

Of the service specific networks mentioned above, telephone networks and data networks
form the contents of this text. The most stupendous telecommunications network in existence today
is the public switched telephone network (PSTN) or sometimes known as plain old telephone system
(POTS). In standards documents. PSTN is often referred to as general switched telephone network
(GSTN). In this text. the popular nomenclature. PSTN is used. PSTN has evolved over a period of
120 years since the beginning of telephony in 1879. There are over a billion telephones in the world
connected via land lines (copper cables) to the network. PSTN is highly demanding in its
requirements for reliability and availability.

SIMPLE TELEPHONE COMMUNICATION

In the simplest form of a telephone circuit. there is a one-way communication involving

two entities. one receiving (listening) and the other transmitting (talking). This form of one-way
communication shown in shown as simplex communication. The microphone and the earphone are
the transducer
elements of the telephone communication system. Microphone converts speech signals into electrical
signals and the earphone converts electrical signals into audio signals. Most commonly used
microphone is a carbon microphone. Carbon microphones do not produce high fidelity signals but
give out strong electrical signals at acceptable quality levels for telephone conversation.
In a normal telephone communication system. Information is transferred both ways. An
entity is capable of both receiving and sending although these do not take place simultaneously. An
entity is either receiving or sending at any instant of time. When one entity is transmitting the other
is receiving and vice versa. Such a form of communication where the information transfer takes
place both ways but not simultaneously is known as half-duplex communication. If the information
transfer takes place in both directions simultaneously. Then it is called full-duplex communication.
may be modified to achieve half-duplex communication by the introduction of a transmitter and
receiver at both ends of the circuit as shown in Figure. In this circuit. the speech of A is heard by B
as well as in A’s own earphone. This audio signal. heard at the generating end. is called side tone. A
certain amount of side tone is useful. or even essential. Human speech and hearing system is a
feedback system in which the volume of speech is automatically adjusted. based on the side tone
heard by the ear. If no side tone is present. a person tends to shout. and if too much of side tone is
present. there is a tendency to reduce the speech to a very low level. In the circuit of Figure .The
entire speech intensity is heard as side tone. which is not desirable.

BasicsofaSwitching System
In this section, we will learn about the different components and terms used in switching
systems.

Inlets and Outlets

The set of input circuits of an exchange are called Inlets and the set of output circuits are called the
Outlets. The primary function of a switching system is to establish an electrical path between a
given inlet-outlet pair.
Usually, N indicates the inlets and the outlets are indicated by M. So, a switching network has N
inlets and M outlets.
Switching Matrix
The hardware used to establish connection between inlets and outlets is called the Switching
Matrix or the Switching Network. This switching network is the group of connections formed
in the process of connecting inlets and outlets. Hence, it is different from the telecommunication
network mentioned above.

Types of Connections
There are four types of connections that can be established in a telecommunication network.
The connections are as follows:
Local call connection between two subscribers in the system.
Outgoing call connection between a subscriber and an outgoing trunk.
Incoming call connection between an incoming trunk and a local subscriber.
Transit call connection between an incoming trunk and an outgoing trunk.

FoldedNetwork
When the number of inlets is equal to the number of outlets for a switching network, such a
network is called the Symmetric Network, which means N=M. A network where the outlets are
connected to the inlets, is called the Folded Network.
In a Folded Network, the N number of inlets which come as outlets are again folded back to the
inlets. Nevertheless, the switching network provides connections to the inlets and outlets as per
the requirement. The following figure will help you understand how the Switching Network
works.

As one connection can be given to one line per time, only N/2 connections are established for N
inlets of a folded network. Such a network can be called as Non-blocking network. In a non-
blocking network, as long as the called subscriber is free, a calling subscriber will be able to
establish a connection to the called subscriber.

In the above figure, only 4 subscribers were considered - where line 1 is busy with line 2 and
line 3 is busy with line 4. While the call is in progress, there used to be no chance for making
another call and hence, only a single connection was made. Hence for N inlets, only N/2 lines
are connected.
At times, it might happen that the inlet and outlet connections are continuously used to make
Transit calls through trunk lines only, but not among the local subscribers. The inlet and outlet
connections if used in an Inter-exchange transmission such that the exchange does not
support connection between local subscribers, then it is called the Transit Exchange. A
switching network of such kind is called the Non-folded network. This is shown in the
following figure:

BlockingNetwork

If there are no switching paths free in the network, the call requested will be denied, where the
subscriber is said to be blocked and the network is called the Blocking Network. In a blocking
network, the number of simultaneous switching paths is less than the maximum number of
simultaneous conversations that can take place. The probability that a user may get blocked is
called the Blocking Probability. A good design should ensure low blocking probability.

Traffc
The product of the calling rate and the average holding time is defined as the Traffic Intensity.
The continuous sixty-minute period during which the traffic intensity is high is the Busy Hour.
When the traffic exceeds the limit to which the switching system is designed, a subscriber
experiences blocking.

Erlag
The traffic in a telecommunication network is measured by an internationally accepted unit of
traffic intensity known as Erlang (E). A switching resource is said to carry one Erlang of
traffic if it is continuously occupied through a given period of observation.
Elements of a SwitchingSystem

In this chapter, we will discuss the elements of a switching system. Though there are
different kinds of switching systems from manual to automatic, a few basic elements play an
essential role for the functioning of a switching system. Along with the switching network,
there are different sub systems such as control sub system, signaling system, trunk and
subscriber line interfaces, distributor units, operator console, juncture circuits, essential for
the operation of the whole switching system.

SwitchingSystem
In this section, we will understand the structure of the switching system. We will also
understand how the different elements work in it. The block diagram of the switching system
given below show the essential elements of a switching system.
The diagram shown above contains different blocks of the switching system. The blocks are
discussed below.

Switching Network
It provides the switching paths between the called subscribers and the calling subscribers.

Control Subsystem
This is the critical part of the switching system, which actively establishes the switching
paths, by identifying the inlet and outlet lines and interpreting the signaling information
received on these lines.
This control subsystem, controls the making and breaking of the connection by sensing the
signal transfer on the lines. The control sub system sends out signaling information to the
subscriber and other exchanges connected to the outgoing trunks.

Signaling
The signaling formats and requirements for the subscriber, the trunks and the sub systems differ
significantly. Accordingly, a switching system provides for three different forms of
signaling:
Subscriber loop signaling
Interexchange signaling
Intraexchange or register signaling

A switching system is composed of elements that perform switching, control and signaling
functions.

Trunk Interface
The Trunk lines used for connections between the switching systems, are terminated at this
port. The Trunk interface is the point where the trunk lines are connected to the system.

Subscriber Line Interface

The Subscriber lines used for connections between the subscribers and the switching systems
are terminated at this port. The subscriber line interface is the point where the lines from the
subscribers are connected to the system.

Line Scanning Unit

The line scanning unit senses and obtains the signaling information from the respective lines.
The information obtained from these lines are given to the control sub system to identify the
inlets and outlets.
Distributor Units

The distributor units are used for distributing or sending out the signaling information on the
respective lines. The distribution of information through the trunk lines, is done through the
distribution units

Operator Console
The operator console permits interaction with the switching system for maintenance and
administrative purposes.

Service Circuit Interface

The service circuit interface provides interaction between circuits for maintenance and
testing purposes.

Junctures
The Junctures is a junction that provides a folded connection for the local subscribers and the
service circuits. If the called subscriber and the calling subscriber both are local, then the
folded connection helps in making the connection to a local call, whereas the trunk lines will
not be in use.

Direct and Indirect

The switching systems are of the following two types:
the direct control switching system
the indirect control switching system

Direct Control Switching System

The Switching systems where the control sub systems form an integral part of the network are
called the Direct Control Switching systems. For example, the Strowger switching system.

Indirect Control Switching System

The Switching system in which the control sub system is present outside the switching
network is called the Indirect Control Switching system or the Common Control
Switching system or the Register Control switching system. The examples of this system
include Crossbar switching system, Electronic switching system or Stored Program Control
method of switching systems.

StrowgerSwitchingSystem
In this chapter, we will discuss how the Strowger Switching system works. The first ever
automatic telephone switching was developed by Almon B Strowger. As the operator at the
Manual telephone exchange was the wife of his competitor and was diverting all the
business, Strowger thought of developing a switching system, which does not require an
operator. This led to the invention of the automatic switching system developed by Strowger.
The Strowger Switching system is also called the step-by-step switching system as the
connections are established in a step-by-step manner.

Automatic Switching System

The Manual Switching system requires an operator who after receiving a request, places a
call. Here, the operator is the sole in-charge for establishing or releasing the connections. The
privacy of the calls and the details of the called and the calling subscribers are at stake.
Overcoming the disadvantages of Manual Switching systems, the Automatic Switching
systems come with the following advantages:
Language barriers will not affect the request for connection.
Higher degree of privacy is maintained.
Faster establishment and release of calls is done.
Number of calls made in a given period can be increased.
Calls can be made irrespective of the load on the system or the time of the day.

Let us now throw some light on how a call is made and how dialing is done without the help
of an operator.

Dialing
Unlike in Manual Switching system, an automatic switching system requires a formal
numbering plan or addressing scheme to identify the subscribers. Numbering plan is where a
number identifies a subscriber, is more widely used than the addressing scheme in which a
subscriber is identified by the alpha numerical strings. So, there needs to be a mechanism to
transmit the identity of the called subscriber to the exchange.

This mechanism should be present in the telephone set, in order to connect the call
automatically to the required subscriber. The methods prevalent for this purpose are Pulse
Dialing and Multi Frequency Dialing. Of them, the Pulse dialing is the most commonly used
form of dialing till date.

Pulse Dialing
As the name implies, the digits that are used to identify the subscribers are represented by a
train of pulses. The number of pulses in a train is equal to the digit value it represents except in
the case of zero, which is represented by 10 pulses. Successive digits in a number are represented
by a series of pulse trains. These pulses have equal number of time intervals and the number
of pulses produced will be according to the number dialed.

Two successive trains are distinguished from one another by a pause in between them,
known as the Inter-digit gap. The pulses are generated by alternately breaking and making
the loop circuit between the subscriber and the exchange. An example pulse train is shown in
the following figure.
The above figure shows the pulsating pattern. The pulse rate is usually 10 pulses per second
with a 10 percent of tolerance. The gap between the digits, which is called the Inter-digit gap
is at least 200ms.

The pulse dialing pattern in recent times employs the duty ratio (ratio between the pulse width
and the time period of the waveform) of the pulse as 33 percent nominally and there exists an
upper limit for the inter-digit gap.

RotaryDialTelephone
In this section, we will learn about what the Rotary Dial Telephone is and how it works. To
start with, we will discuss the drawbacks that were prevalent before the invention of the
Rotary Dial Telephone.

The pulse dialing technique is where there is making and breaking of the subscriber loops. This
might disturb and affect the performance of speaker, microphone and bell contained in the
telephone. In addition, the dialing timings should not affect the timing of the pulse train as this
will lead to the dialing of a wrong number.

The Rotary Dial Telephone came into existence to solve the problems prevailing then. The
microphone and the loudspeaker are combined and placed in the receiver set. The set has a
finger plate the arrangement of which makes the dialing time appropriate. The below figure
shows how a rotary dial looks like. The pulse dialing technique is where there is making and
breaking of the subscriber loops. This might disturb and affect the performance of speaker,
microphone and bell contained in the telephone. In addition, the dialing timings should not
affect the timing of the pulse train as this will lead to the dialing of a wrong number. As the
name implies, the digits that are used to identify the subscribers are represented by a train of
pulses. The number of pulses in a train is equal to the digit value it represents except in the case
of zero, which is represented by 10 pulses. Successive digits in a number are represented by a
series of pulse trains. These pulses have equal number of time intervals and the number of
pulses produced will be according to the number dialed.
The dial is operated by placing the finger in the hole appropriate to the digit to be dialed.
Now, drawing the fingerplate round in the clockwise direction to the finger stop position and
letting the dial free by withdrawing the finger, makes a number dialed. The fingerplate and the
associated mechanism now return to the rest position under the influence of a spring. The
dial is ready for the next number.
The dial pulses are produced during the return travel of the fingerplate, thus eliminating the
human element in pulse timings. The following figure shows the dial holes and finger stop.

A rotary dial phone uses the following for implementing pulse dialing:
Finger plate and spring
Shaft, gear and Pinion wheel
 Pawl and ratchet mechanism
Impulsing cam and suppressor cam or a trigger mechanism

Impulsing contact
Centrifugal governor and worm gear
Transmitter, Receiver and bell by-pass circuits

Internal Mechanism
The cam mechanism or trigger mechanism helps in dialing. This mechanism is used in
operating the Impulsing contact. Let us consider the operation of the rotary dial telephone using
the cam mechanism. The following figure will help you understand the internal mechanism.

The suppressor cam helps in keeping the Impulsing cam away from the Impulsing contacts.
When the rotary dial is in rest position, then the Impulsing contacts are away from the
Impulsing cam. When a number is dialed, by placing the finger in the dial hole, which means
the dial is displaced from its position, then the Impulsing contacts come near the Impulsing
cam. This rotation of the finger plate, causes the rotation of the Main shaft.
As the dial is rotated in clockwise direction, the pawl slips over the ratchet durin g this
clockwise rotation. The ratchet, gear wheel, pinion wheel and the governor are all stationary
during the clockwise movement of the dial. When the dial returns, the pawl engages and
rotates the ratchet.
All the gear wheel, pinion wheel, the governor rotate, and the uniformity in the speed of the
rotation are maintained by the governor. The Impulsing cam, which is attached to a pinion
shaft, now breaks and makes the Impulsing contacts that in turn causes the pulses in the
circuit. The shape of the Impulsing cam is such that the break and make periods are in the
ratio of 2:1. When the dial is about to reach the rest position, the suppressor cam again,
moves the Impulsing contacts away from the Impulsing cam. This action of getting back to
the rest position and waiting for the other number to be dialed creates a gap called the Inter-
digit gap, the timing of which is independent of the pause that may occur between two
successive digits, due to human dialing habit. This gap is also provided prior to the dialing of
the first digit through a small change in the suppressor cam design.

The Pulse generated through this mechanism is then transmitted to the switching systems
where the connection to the dialed number is established. The procedure of switching
systems is discussed in a subsequent chapter. Meanwhile, let us have an idea on the
signaling tones that are used to indicate the condition of the subscribers.

SignalingTones
In this section, we will understand what are signaling tones and how these work. As the
manual exchanges were replaced, the operator who used to communicate the calling
subscribers regarding the situation of the called subscribers, needed to be replaced with
different tones indicating different situations.
Consider the following five subscriber related signaling functions that are to be performed by
the operator:
Respond to the calling subscriber that system is ready to receive the identification of
the called party.
Inform the calling subscriber that the call is being established.
Ring the bell of the called party.
Inform the calling subscriber, if the called party is busy.
Inform the calling subscriber, if the called party line is unobtainable for some
reason.
The function 2 is not signaled in the Strowger switching system. The signaling function 1 is
fulfilled by sending a dial tone to the calling subscriber.

Dial Tone
The dial tone is the signaling tone, which indicates that the exchange is ready to accept the
dialed digits from the subscriber. The number should be dialed only when this signal is
heard. Otherwise, the digits dialed before this signal will not be considered. This will lead to
the dialing of a wrong number.
The dial tone is generally a 33 Hz or 50 Hz or 400 Hz continuous tone as shown below.

Ring Tone
After dialing the number of the called party, when the line of the called party is obtained, the
exchange control equipment sends out the ringing current to the telephone set of the called
party, which is a familiar double-ring pattern.
Simultaneously, the control equipment sends out a ringing tone to the calling subscriber,
which has a pattern similar to that of the ringing current. The two rings double-ring pattern are
separated by a time gap of 0.2s and two double-ring patterns by a gap of 2s, as shown in the
below figure.

Busy Tone
After dialing the required number, if the called subscriber or the lines at the exchange are not
free to place a call, the calling subscriber is sent a busy tone indicating that the lines or the
subscriber is busy; this is called a busy tone.
A busty tone of 400Hz signal with silence period in between. The burst and silence durations
have the same value of 0.75s or 0.75s.
Number Unobtainable Tone
If the called party is out of order or disconnected or if an error in dialing leads to the
selection of a spare line, such a situation is indicated using a continuous 400Hz signal,
called as Number Unobtainable tone. The following illustration shows a continuous
400Hz signal.

Routing Tone or Call-in-Progress Tone

When a subscriber call is routed through a number of different types of exchanges, one
hears different call-in-progress tones as the call progresses through different exchanges.
Such a signal is a 400Hz or 800Hz intermittent pattern. This signal has different patterns
in different systems.
In electromechanical systems, it is usually 800Hz with 50 percent duty ratio and
0.5s ON/OFF period.
In analog electronic exchanges, it is a 400Hz pattern with 0.5s ON period and 2.5s
OFF period.
In digital exchanges, it is 400Hz signal with 0.1s ON/OFF
periods. The signal for routing tone or call-in-progress tone is as shown
below.

In order to overcome the problem of recognizing the difference in these tones for those
who are not familiar with telephone signalling and for those who rarely make calls,
voice recorded messages were introduced, later on.
Switching Mechanisms
In this chapter, we will discuss the switching mechanisms in Telecommunication Switching
Systems and Networks.
In our previous chapters, we discussed the mechanism in the telephone set. Let us now see
what happens when this telephone set sends a signal to the switching system. The switching
system at the exchange should be able to connect the line automatically to the called
subscriber. In the Strowger switching system, there are two types of selectors; these selectors
form the building blocks for the switching systems.
Uni-selector
Two-motion selector
Both of these selectors are constructed using electro-mechanical rotary switches. The Uni-
selector has a single selector pole and multiple throws to reach the bank of contacts for each
number dialed. The two-motion selector has two rotary switches for vertical and horizontal
stepping movement, to reach the bank of contacts.

Uni-selector Switching
The Uni-selector switching mechanism consists of an Electromagnet, an Armature with
springs, a Pawl, a ratchet wheel with wiper attached and a detent. The wiper is made to move
on the bank contacts in clock-wise direction. As the wiper moves in one-direction, the
process is called Uni-selector switching. The contacts onto which the wiper moves are called
Bank contacts as a number of contacts are placed in this shape of an arc.

The following figure shows the drive mechanism of the Uni-selector Strowger switching
system. Both of these selectors are constructed using electro-mechanical rotary switches. The
Uni- selector has a single selector pole and multiple throws to reach the bank of contacts for
each number dialed. The two-motion selector has two rotary switches for vertical and
horizontal stepping movement, to reach the bank of contacts. When a subscriber call is routed
through a number of different types of exchanges, one hears different call-in-progress tones as
the call progresses through different exchanges. Such a signal is a 400Hz or 800Hz
intermittent pattern. This signal has different patterns in different systems. Once the
electromagnet gets de-energized, the armature is released and this action moves the pawl
upwards, which further moves the ratchet wheel to one position above. Hence, the wiper
moves one position below or in clockwise direction, to make a contact. If the electromagnet is
energized and de-energized five times, by applying five pulses, the wiper moves by five
contacts. Usually three sets (or more) of wipers are placed associated with the banks of Uni-
selector, one for each bank. The sets are rigidly mounted to a wiper assembly, which moves
whenever the ratchet wheel rotates. The interrupter spring releases the magnet and enables it
to make another step.
When the input voltage energizes the Electromagnet, the armature is pulled down towards the
magnet. Now as the armature gets attracted towards the electromagnet, the pawl falls one
position down the previous one in the ratchet wheel. The detent prevents the movement of the
ratchet wheel.
Once the electromagnet gets de-energized, the armature is released and this action moves the
pawl upwards, which further moves the ratchet wheel to one position above. Hence, the
wiper moves one position below or in clockwise direction, to make a contact. If the
electromagnet is energized and de-energized five times, by applying five pulses, the wiper
moves by five contacts. Usually three sets (or more) of wipers are placed associated with the
banks of Uni-selector, one for each bank. The sets are rigidly mounted to a wiper assembly,
which moves whenever the ratchet wheel rotates. The interrupter spring releases the magnet
and enables it to make another step.
The following figure shows a practical Uni-selector Strowger switching system.
This signal has different patterns in different systems. Once the electromagnet gets de-
energized, the armature is released and this action moves the pawl upwards, which further
moves the ratchet wheel to one position above. Hence, the wiper moves one position
below or in clockwise direction, to make a contact. If the electromagnet is energized and de-
energized five times, by applying five pulses, the wiper moves by five contacts. Usually
three sets (or more) of wipers are placed associated with the banks of Uni-selector, one for
each bank. The sets are rigidly mounted to a wiper assembly, which moves whenever the
ratchet wheel rotates. The interrupter spring releases the magnet and enables it to make
another step.
The type of switching mechanism discussed here is known as the reverse drive type
because, here the ratchet wheel moves when the armature return to its rest position. If it is
arranged such that the wheel moves during the forward motion of the armature it is known as
the forward drive type. The Reverse drive type mechanism is prevalent in uni- selectors and
the forward drive type mechanism in the two-motion selectors.
There is an interrupter contact associated with the Uni-selector, which is normally closed.
When the armature is energized, the interrupter contact opens and allows the movement of
armature, which helps the armature return to its rest position after breaking up the armature
energizing circuit.

Two-motion Selectors
Unlike in Uni-selector, the motion in these selectors is two-way, vertical and horizontal. An
upward movement is made in vertical and horizontal directions; there are no contacts made in
the vertical movement. However, bank contacts are made in the horizontal movement. If the
two-motion selector has 10 levels, each having 10 contacts, then 100 contacts are accessible,
by the vertical and horizontal movement of the two-motion selector switching system.
The following figure shows the internal structure of two-motion switching selectors.
 When the first digit is dialed, the pulses energize and de-energize the vertical
magnet according to the number dialed, with the help of ratchet and pawl mechanism.
This is called as Vertical Stepping.

When the second digit is dialed, the dialing pulses are diverted to horizontal
magnet, with the help of a relay where the pulses energize and de-energize the
horizontal magnet according to the number dialed, with the help of ratchet and pawl
mechanism. This is called Horizontal Stepping.
Normally, there are 11 vertical positions and 11 horizontal contacts in each vertical position.
The lowest vertical position and the first horizontal contact in each vertical level are home
positions, and the remaining ones are actual switching positions. Thus, the wiper in a two-
motion selector has access to 100 switching contacts. The following figure shows a practical
two-motion switching selector.
Thus, the wiper assembly establishes the call; after completion of which it comes back to the
home position. For this purpose, the rotary magnet is operated by the current and thus the
wiper assembly moves through the remaining contacts of the level. A restoring spring forces
the wiper assembly to drop vertically and then return horizontally to the home position.

Step-by-Step Switching
The Step-by-step switching system is a very popular and widely-used switching system,
which may be constructed using Uni-selectors or two-motion selectors or the combination of
both. The wiper present in this switching, steps forward by one contact and then moves forward
according to the number of dialed pulses or according to the signaling conditions and hence
the name, step-by-step switching is given.
A step-by-step switching is also called the Direct control system as the relevant signaling tones
are sent out to the subscriber by the switching elements or selectors at the appropriate stages
of switching. This system has three main stages of configuration. The following figure shows
the different stages.For this purpose, the rotary magnet is operated by the current and thus the
wiper assembly moves through the remaining contacts of the level. A restoring spring forces
the wiper assembly to drop vertically and then return horizontally to the home position.
Let us now see how these blocks function.

Selector Hunters
As soon as the calling subscriber gets ready to dial the number, by lifting the handset from the
telephone, a dial tone is heard. We have already learnt that a number is not accepted unless the
dial tone is heard. But to get that dial tone, the line has to be established when the handset is
lifted up. The Selector Hunter circuit, establishes the line to make a call as immediately as
the calling subscriber lifts up the handset to make a call.
The Selector Hunters hunt for selecting a switching matrix part. Usually, 24-outlet Uni-
selectors are used as selector hunters. and so this can be called as Subscriber Uni-
selector scheme as there is a dedicated Uni-selector for each subscriber in the system. These
can also be build using two-motion selectors.
The selector hunter mechanism can also be replaced with the line finder mechanism, where there
is small difference between the two in construction. Here, we shall discuss the selector
hunter mechanism. The figure below gives an idea about its construction.

When a calling subscriber lifts the handset to make a call, the selector hunter activates the
interrupter mechanism, which steps up the wiper until a free first group selector is found at
the outlet. One of the bank contacts of the selector hunter, at this point, senses whether the
first group selector is free or busy. Once a free first selector is sensed, the interrupter is
disabled and the connection is established, where the first selector sends out a dialer tone to the
calling subscriber.
The line finder approach is used where the traffic is low and the exchange is small, whereas the
selector hunter mechanism described above is used for large exchanges with heavy traffic
and this approach is cost-effective.

Group Selector Stage

The Group Selector stage has the main switching network. The calling subscriber dials the
number after hearing the dial tone. The first number when dialed activates the first selector.
To be more precise, the group selector consists of certain selector stages. We used to have 5
numbers as an identification number, for the land connection. Hence, there were three selector
stages present.

To dial the first number, the number plate is rotated by placing the finger in the finger gap
given according to the subscriber number. After taking out the finger, the number plate is
rotated back to its previous position, which sends the dialing pulses to the first selector. The
first selector then moves accordingly, to place a contact.

When the subscriber starts dialing, the dial tone produced till then, cuts off and the pulse train
is received according to the number dialed. The wiper assembly of the first selector then
moves vertically upward, according to the number dialed. The wipers then move in the
horizontal plane across the contacts until they come across a contact to which a free second
group selector is connected. This horizontal stepping is completed within the inter- digit gap of
about 240ms. From there, the first group selector connects the electrical path to the available
second group selector.

Likewise, every group selector connects path according to the number dialed and then
extends the connection to the next selector until the final selector. The action of the final
selector is a bit different. As discussed above, three selectors are present and the fourth and
the fifth numbers are connected to the matrix by the final selector.

Final Selector
The last two digits are processed by the final selector. This selector moves vertically
according to the fourth digit dialed and then it moves horizontally according to the last digit,
as there are no further digits to connect it to some other connector. The last digit dialed,
establishes electrical connection to the called subscriber.
Since the final selector responds to both the digits in vertical and horizontal directions unlike
the group selectors, this final selector is also called a Numerical Selector. If the called
subscriber is free, as sensed from a signal at the corresponding bank contact, the final
selector sends out a ringing current to the called subscriber and a ringing tone to the calling
subscriber.

When the called subscriber lifts his handset, the ringing current and the ringing tone
provided till then, are cut off and the call metering circuits are enabled by the control circuits
associated with the final selectors. Otherwise, if the called subscriber is found to be busy on
some other line, then the final selector sends out a busy tone to the calling subscriber. At any
stage of switching, if there is no free selector available at the next stage, a busy tone is
returned to the calling subscriber.

The magnets and mechanical linkages used in rotating the shafts vertically and horizontally
while connecting a call, will release the magnet (generally called the release magnet) and
armature release the shaft when the call is completed.

CommonControl Subsystem

In this chapter, we will discuss how the Common Control Subsystem works in
Telecommunication Switching Systems and Networks.In order to establish calls between
different exchanges, which may further lead to a long distance trunk call, the Crossbar
switching system was developed and the first patent was given in 1915. However, AT&T
developed the first Crossbar switching system in 1938. The Crossbar switching system
introduced the Common Control Subsystem in its switching system.

To understand this, let us have an idea on the problem created by Multi-exchange network of
the Strowger system.

Multi-Exchange Network
When a subscriber belonging to a particular network has to be contacted, a number of ways
can help you contact the particular exchange; also, there is not one but any exchanges present
in the route.
In a Multi exchange network, the routes used to establish connection with a particular
subscriber differs from time to time. In the Strowger exchange following the Multi- exchange
network, the subscriber has to be more concerned with the routing. A subscriber should have
the details of all the numbers of exchanges present in the route. There may arise situations
where a subscriber may be required to establish a connection on other routes; this becomes
cumbersome at times.
The following figure is an example of the topology of a Multi-exchange network.

The level is reserved in each Strowger exchange, where the outgoing calls are connected to
neighboring exchanges. These exchanges are contacted as per the exchange numbers dialed,
when the calls are made.
Hence, the disadvantages of implementing Multi-Exchange network in switching are:
The subscriber identity number is changed depending on the calling route.
The user must have knowledge on the topology of the network and the numbers of the
exchanges present in it.
The number and size of the called subscriber varies depending upon the exchange from
where the call originates.
In order to overcome these problems, the common control subsystem was introduced.

CommonControlSubsystem
In order to avoid the complication and to make it easier for a subscriber to place a call, two
main ideas were implemented by the Common Control Sub system. The ideas are listed
below:
The routing of the call should be done by the exchange, but not by the numbers
dialed.
A Unique Identification Number should be allotted to the subscriber. The UIN
contains the number of the exchange of the subscriber and the number indicating the
line of the subscriber.
The above ideas helped solve the problem associated with the placement of calls. These two
solve the problem and make the work simple. Wherever the calling subscriber calls from, the
call is directed to the particular called subscriber, in a particular network. The routing of this
call is taken care by the exchange itself. Hence, the uniform numbering scheme identifies the
subscriber based on the aspects described below.

Exchange Identifier + Subscriber Line Identifier

This is a combination of STD (Subscriber Trunk Dialing) code and the subscriber‘s number;
consider this as the physical line address. Every user is assigned a logical number
irrespective of the physical line number. An Address translation mechanism translates the
logical address to actual physical address for connection establishment. The call processing
takes place independent of the switching network.
A Director system is employed in the common control sub system. As soon as the translated
digits are transmitted, the Director is free to process another call and is not involved in
maintaining the circuit for the conversation.
The following figure shows the diagram of the Common Control Subsystem, which contains
Call Processing Sub system, Charging Circuits, Operation Control, Maintenance Control and
Event Monitor.
The above block diagram is a simple indication of the common control switching system.
The control functions in a switching system can be categorized as the following.

Event Monitoring
Event Monitoring Section of the Control Subsystem monitors the events occurring outside the
exchange at the line units, trunk junctures and inter exchange signaling and
sender/receiver units. The events at the line units are - call request and call release. The control
of relays to establish connection to the required line is an event at the junctures. There is
control of relays between the exchanges for connection and also for signaling the required
tones both to the sender and receiver circuits at the inter exchange. This event monitoring may
be distributed.

Call Processing
The Call Processing units contain digit receiver and storage register, which receive and store
the dialing number from the calling party. The units also contain the initial and final
translators. The Initial translator is the Office Code translator that determines the route
for the call through the network or charging method or rate. The Final translator is the
Subscriber Code translator which determines the line unit to which a call must be
connected and category of the called line. The Register Sender transfers the route digit and
dialed digit using proper signaling, depending on the requirements of the destination
exchange.
Charging
This is related to the charges levied on the calls made. It depends upon the type of subscriber
and the service of the subscriber. For example, some services like emergency
lines or fault repairs are free of charge; a few commercial services also may offer charge- free
services.

Operation and Maintenance

The control and operation of the switching network with two main techniques known as
Map-in-memory and Map-in-network.

Map-in-Memory
The path in this technique is determined by marking the switching elements at different
stages in accordance with a set of binary data defining the path, whereas the control unit
supplies the data. At this stage, the command for the actual connection of the path is given.
This Map-in-memory technique is present in Stored Program Control.

Map-in-Network
In this technique, the Path finding may be carried out at the level of common control unit,
where it marks the inlet and outlet to be connected and the actual path is determined by the
switching network. This Map-in-Network technique is common in Crossbar exchanges using
markers for control.
The administration and maintenance of a switching system, involves activities such as laying
the new subscriber lines and trunks into service, modifying subscriber service entitlements
and changing routing plans based on the network status, which are performed with the
coordination of control systems. Maintenance personnel do the maintenance activities such
as supervision for proper functioning, performing tests and making measurements for
different line parameters.

Touch-tone Dial Telephone

In this chapter, we will learn about the Touch-tone Dial Telephone technology. When we talk
about the technological development of the telephone set, the rotary dial was used in the initial
stages. Slower dialing was one major disadvantage associated with the Rotary dial. It took 12
seconds to dial a 7-digit number on a Rotary dial. The step-by-step switching elements of the
Strowger switching system, cannot respond to rates higher than
10-12 pulses per second.
It uses the DTMF technology, prior to which the pulse dialing technique was used. In the
Pulse dialing technique which is also called a Loop disconnect technique, repeated
connecting and disconnecting of the lines is done, like clicks of a switch; this is interpreted by
the exchange as the number dialed, according to the number of clicks.
NeedforTouch-tone
With the introduction of the Common Control subsystems into switching exchanges, there
came the feasibility for higher rates of dialing. Hence, a new system called the Touch- tone
dialing was developed in Telephony to replace the Rotary dial; this was considered to benefit
the customer with higher speed. This has also removed the disadvantages of limited usage
and limited signaling capacity along with lower speed.
The Pulse dialing is limited to signaling between the exchange and the subscriber, but not
between two subscribers, which is called End-to-End signalling. End-to-End signaling is a
desirable feature and is possible only if the signaling is in voice frequency band so that the
signaling information can be transmitted to any point in the telephone network to which
voice can be transmitted.
Hence replacing the inconvenience of using the rotary dial, the touch-tone dial telephone was
introduced. The development of the touch-tone dial telephone came around 1950. However,
the usage of it started somewhere around 1964. The following figure shows a practical touch-
tone dial telephone.

The above figure will help you understand that the rotary dial is replaced with a push button
keyboard, where the buttons, if touched to ―press‖ the button will generate frequencies
related to the number dialed. The hassle-free rotation was replaced and a feature to redial the
number was added to this push button keyboard, where the dialed number is stored until
another number is dialed. This eased the process of redialing a 7- digit number all over again.

How doestheTouch-tone DialTelephoneOperate?

The press of a button on the touch-tone dial telephone indicates the number dialed using
certain frequencies. ―Touching‖ or light pressing of a number generates a ―tone‖ which is a
combination of two frequencies, one from lower band and the other from upper band.
For example, by pressing the button 9, two frequencies such as 852 Hz the lower frequency and
1477Hz the upper frequency are produced. The design of touch-tone dialing producing two
frequencies is as shown below.

The DTMF (Dual-tone Multi-frequency) dialing can be done through the touch-tone dialing
technique as shown above. As two frequencies, one being higher and the other being lower are
transmitted at the same time in the touch-tone dialing technique, it is called the Dual- tone
Multi Frequency (DTMF) dialing. The two signals produced are for a duration of
100ms, which are selected by the key pressed from the matrix as shown above. Each key
is uniquely referenced by selecting one of the four lower band frequencies associated with the
matrix rows, coupled with selecting one of the three higher band frequencies associated with
the matrix column.
Design Considerations
The design considerations are
Choice of Code
Band Separation
Choice of Frequencies
Choice of Power Levels
Signaling Duration
The choice of code for touch-tone signaling should be such that the imitation of code signals
by music and speech must be difficult.
Consider the following reasons for separating the band of two frequencies:

At the receiver, band filtering is used to separate the frequency groups; this helps to
determine the specific frequencies in a simple way.

Easy amplitude regulation of each frequency component separately.

Limiters can be used to guard the action of each frequency separately.

The probability of false response is reduced.

The attenuation and delay distortion characteristics of the telephone network circuits
determine the choice of frequencies. A flat amplitude response with a very low attenuation
and a uniform delay response with a low relative delay value are desirable. Though the
design is high enough for reliability, the choice of power levels should be planned according
to attenuation characteristics of the channel. The signal duration although inefficient is
longer and helpful to combat talk-off.

Internal Mechanism
The internal mechanism of the touch-tone receiver can be explained by a simple block
diagram which contains Band Separation Filter (BSF), Limiters (L), Selector Circuits (S) and
Detectors (D) which give out Low Band Frequency (LBF) signals and High Band Frequency
(HBF) signals, as indicated below.
The Band separation filter present at the receiver is used to separate the frequency groups. This
helps to determine the specific frequencies, separately. In addition, the filter also regulates
the amplitudes of each component. Then the signal reaches the limiter, which has two of the
frequencies at its input. It allows the dominant signal through it bypassing the weak signal. If
both of the signals have the same strength, the limiter output is much below the full output and
neither of the signal dominates.
The selectors present in the circuitry, are designed to recognize the signal when it falls within
the specified narrow passband and has an amplitude within the range of 2.5dB of full output
of the limiter. Both of the limiter and selector circuits are efficient in recognizing the difference
between the touch-tone and the voice signal, to avoid talk-off. For further improvement, Band
Elimination filters are sometimes used in place of Band Separation filters as they permit a
wide spectrum of speech to pass through the filters. The high and low band frequency signals
reach the output separately through the detector outputs.
Crossbar Switching
In this chapter, we will discuss the concept of Crossbar Switching. The Crossbar exchanges
were developed during 1940s. They achieve full access and non-blocking capabilities with the
Crossbar switches and common control equipment, used in the Crossbar exchanges. The
active elements called Crosspoints are placed between the input and the output lines. In the
common control switching systems, the separation between switching and control operations
allows the usage of switching networks by a group of common control switches to establish
many calls at the same time on a shared basis.

TheFeaturesofCrossbarSwitches
In this section, we will discuss the different features of the Crossbar Switches. The features are
described in brief below:
While processing a call, the common control system helps in the sharing of
resources.
The specific route functions of call processing are hardwired because of the Wire
logic computers.
The flexible system design helps in the appropriate ratio selection is allowed for a
specific switch.
Fewer moving parts ease the maintenance of Crossbar switching systems.
The Crossbar switching system uses the common control networks which enable the
switching network to perform event monitoring, call processing, charging, operation and
maintenance as discussed previously. The common control also provides uniform numbering
of subscribers in a multi-exchange area like big cities and routing of calls from one exchange
to another using the same intermediate exchanges. This method helps to avoid the
disadvantages associated with the step-by-step switching method through its unique process
of receiving and storing the complete number to establish a call connection.

CrossbarSwitching Matrix
The Crossbar arrangement is a matrix which is formed by the M X N sets of contacts
arranged as vertical and horizontal bars with contact points where they meet. They need
nearly M + N number of activators to select one of the contacts. The Crossbar matrix
arrangement is shown in the following figure.
The Crossbar matrix contains an array of horizontal and vertical wires shown by solid lines in
the following figure, which are both connected to initially separated contact points of
switches. The horizontal and vertical bars shown in dotted lines in the above figure are
mechanically connected to these contact points and attached to the electromagnets.
The Crosspoints placed between the input and the output lines have electromagnets which when
energized, close the contact of intersection of the two bars. This makes the two bars to come
closer and hold on. The following figure will help you understand the contact made at the
Crosspoints.
Once energized, the electromagnets pull the small magnetic slabs present on the bars. The
column control electromagnet pulls the magnet on the lower bar, while the row control

electromagnet pulls the magnet on the upper bar. In order to avoid the catching of different
Crosspoints in the same circuit, a procedure is followed, to establish a connection. According to
this procedure, either horizontal or vertical bar can be energized first to make a contact.
However, to break a contact, the horizontal bar is de-energized first; the vertical bar being de-
energized follows this.
As all the stations are allowed to be connected with all possible connections as long as the
called party is free, this Crossbar Switching is called the Non-Blocking Crossbar
configuration, which requires N2 switching elements for N subscribers. So, the Crosspoints
will be highly greater than the subscribers. For example, 100 subscribers will require a 10,000
Crosspoints. This means that this technique can be applied to a group having a small number
of subscribers.
There is an external switch called the Marker; this can control many switches and serve
many registers. The switch decides the operation of magnets such as the select magnet and
the bridge magnet that should be energized and de-energized for connecting and releasing
the subscriber respectively.

DiagonalCrosspoint Matrix
In the matrix, as 1,2,3,4 indicate input lines and 1‘,2‘,3‘,4‘ indicate output lines of the same
subscribers, if a connection has to be established between the 1st and the 2nd subscriber,
then 1 and 2‘ can be connected or 2 and 1‘ can be connected using the Crosspoints. In the
same way, when a connection has to be established between 3 and 4, then 3-4‘ Crosspoint or 4-
3‘ Crosspoint can do the work. The following figure will help you understand how this works.

Now, the diagonal portions are the Crosspoints connecting to the same subscriber again. A
line that is already connected to the terminal has no need of connecting it again to the same
terminal. Hence, the diagonal points are also not necessary.
So, it is understood that for N number of subscribers, if the diagonal points are also
considered, the total number of Crosspoints will be,For N number of subscribers, if the
diagonal points are not considered, then the total number of Crosspoints will be,As the
number of nodes N increases, the Crosspoints proportionally increase up to N2.
The Crosspoints will always be linear. Therefore, as either the lower part or the upper part of
the diagonal points in the matrix, can be considered, the whole matrix considering the lower
portion, will now be as shown in the following figure.
 This is called the Diagonal Crosspoint Matrix. The matrix is in a triangular format and
can be called the Triangular Matrix or the Two-way Matrix. The diagonal Crosspoint
matrix is fully connected. When the third subscriber initiates a call, to the fourth
subscriber, then the third subscriber‘s horizontal bar is initiated first and then the
fourth subscriber‘s vertical bar is energized. The diagonal Crosspoint matrix is a non-
blocking configuration. The main disadvantage of this system is that, the failure of a single
switch will make some subscribers inaccessible.
The Crosspoint switch is the abstract of any switch such as the time or space switch. If N
connections can be made simultaneously in an NXN switch matrix, it is called the Non-
blocking Switch. If the number of connections made are less than N in some or all cases, then
it is called the Blocking switch. These blocking switches are worked upon using Multiple
Switches and such networks are called Line frames.

Crossbar Switch Configurations

In this chapter, we will discuss how the Crossbar switch configuration works. The
Crossbar switch configurations are Non-blocking configurations, which have N2
switching elements for N subscribers and can make N/2 simultaneous conversations. The
usage of Crosspoint depends upon the calling subscriber.
This is a modified Non-blocking scheme with Diagonal Crosspoint matrix as discussed
above having N(N-1)/2 elements. The number of elements is same as that of a
fully connected network. The connection in this method is established by first energizing
the horizontal bar and then the vertical bar. However, this Non-blocking scheme has
few disadvantages such as:
Large number of switching elements are required.

This is difficult to implement in practice.

This is neither a cost-effective process.
In order to overcome these disadvantages, the blocking Crossbar switching was
introduced.

BlockingCrossbarSwitches
The main aim of blocking Crossbar switches is to reduce the number of Crosspoint
switches. There are single stage and multi-stage switches. The number of Crosspoint
switches can be reduced with the help of two different methodologies. In the first method,
two subscribers share one vertical bar. With this, the number of bars will be reduced but
the number of Crosspoint switches remain the same. The second method is where all the
subscribers share a number of vertical bars. With this, the number of bars and Crosspoint
switches are reduced.
Method 1
This method contains 2NK switches, where N is the number of subscribers and K is
the number of simultaneous connections. Four bars operate to establish a connection.
If a
connection has to be established between A and B, then the horizontal bar A is energized first
and then one of the free vertical bars say P is energized. Now, the Crosspoint AP is latched.
If the horizontal bar B is energized now, BP will not be latched, as the P vertical is
energized before B was energized. To connect A and B, we need another vertical
Crossbar which should electrically correspond to the vertical bar P, which is P‘ as shown in
the following figure. When this P‘ is energized after B, the Crosspoint BP‘ is latched and a
connection between A and B is established.

The connections are as shown in the following figure.

Hence, the steps associated with the establishment of connection follows a sequence:
Energize horizontal bar A
Energize free vertical bar P
De-energize horizontal bar A
Energize horizontal bar B
Energize free vertical bar P‘ (associated with P)
De-energize horizontal bar B

Method 2
This method contains NK switches, where N is the number of subscribers and K is the
number of simultaneous connections. Here, three bars operate to establish a connection. If a
connection has to be established between A and B, then the horizontal bars A and B are
energized first and then one of the free vertical bars say P is energized. Now, the connection
is established using one vertical bar P only instead of two bars. The horizontal bars A and B
are de-energized now.
The connections are as shown in the following figure.

Hence, the establishment of connection follows a sequence:

Energize horizontal bars A and B
Energize free vertical bar P
De-energize horizontal bars A and B

TransferLineSupport
In this section, we will discuss how the Transfer Line Support works. Both of the above
discussed blocking and non-blocking type Crossbar switches can support transfer lines. This
is done by introducing additional vertical Crossbars and Crosspoint switches.
There are two methods to introduce additional vertical Crossbars and Crosspoint switches:
Internal non-blocking and external blocking
Blocking both local and external
The internal non-blocking and external blocking method is as shown in the figure below.
The switch shown in internal non-blocking has two transfer lines. The number of Crosspoint
switches in this case is N(N+L), where N is the number of subscribers, L is the number of
transfer lines.
The method of blocking both local and external is as shown in the figure below.

The switch shown in the above figure is blocking both internally and externally with two
simultaneous internal and two simultaneous external calls. The number of Crosspoint
switches in this case is N(2K+L), where N is the number of subscribers, L is the number of
transfer lines and K is the number of simultaneous calls that can be supported locally.

Crosspoint Technology
In this chapter, we will discuss the Crosspoint Technology in Telecommunication Switching
Systems and Networks.
The Crossbar system mainly consists of the Crosspoint switches, which increases the cost of
the system. The cost of the Crossbar system increases in direct proportion to the number of
Crosspoint.
Challenges fortheCrosspointTechnology
In this section, we will discuss the challenges associated with the Crosspoint technology. The
challenges are described below:
Reduction in the size of a Crosspoint
Reduction in the cost of a Crosspoint
Improvisation of the switching time
In the process of finding solutions to the existing challenges, the Crosspoint technology
evolved. Crosspoint technology is an amalgamation of two related technologies. The
technologies are:
Electromechanical
Electronic
The flowchart given below chows the different categories of the Crosspoint technology:

In our subsequent sections, we will discuss more about the related technologies:

Electromechanical CrosspointTechnology
The Electromechanical Crosspoint switches which are capable of making and breaking
contacts in 1-10ms of time duration for several million times without any wear and tear

are being extensively used even today. The two types of switches widely used are Mini
switches and Reed relay.

Mini Switches
These switches are made up of a precious metal like Palladium, which makes the contacts
work quieter, with their bifurcated design and high resistance to corrosion for long lasting
design. These mechanically latched switches use ―V‖ notches for this purpose and are highly
reliable in Crossbar switching systems.
These switches mounted on Crossbars move horizontally and vertically to establish and
release contacts with a switching time of 8-10ms.

Reed Relay Switches

In order to reduce the usage of mechanical switches and increase the operating life of the
switches further, the Reed relay switches were introduced. These switches are made up of
magnetic material contacts sealed in a glass tube; this protects the contacts from getting
contaminated. The following figure illustrates the design of a reed relay switch.

A reed relay switch may be electrically or mechanically latched; it contains the contacts
very close to each other having a displacement of 0.2mm resulting in a fast switching speed
of 1ms. The construction of this relay is such that the glass tube is surrounded by a pair of
coils and when current is passed through both the coils simultaneously, a field is created. This
further leads to the reed contacts moving together. As long as it is switched on, the electrical
connection is latched and current passes through the coil.

In magnetic latching, the hysteresis of the magnetic material decides the performance. The
magnetic pole pieces required may be placed outside the glass or the contacts may act as
poles by choosing an appropriate ferromagnetic material. The reed relay is called the
remreed due to the remnance property of the contact strips. The residual magnetism lets the
contacts stay intact even after the currents are withdrawn and hence a demagnetizing
current needs to be applied to open the contacts.

These reed relays are placed at each Crosspoint to construct a Crosspoint matrix. Crosspoint
selection is achieved by connecting one of the coil windings of each relay in series with its
vertical neighbor and the other winding in series with its horizontal neighbor. The reed relay is
excited when the required Crosspoint is selected by pulsating the corresponding vertical and
horizontal bars simultaneously.

CrossbarExchangeOrganization

The organization of a Crossbar exchange consists of three basic building blocks such as link
frames, control markers and registers. Link frames contain primary and secondary stages
having Crossbars, connected with links between them. This two-stage arrangement with links
has the effect of increasing the number of outlets for a given number of inlets. If the number
of outlets is high, the selectivity is higher too.
The Markers control the connections between the inlets and outlets via the primary section, links
and secondary sections. Registers are there to store the number dialed, in order to establish
the connection. The following figure shows the arrangement of a link frame and its control by
a marker.

The two main sections of the Crossbar Exchange organization are:

Line Unit
The line link frames along with associated markers and registers can be termed as Line Unit.
The line units are two-way units that help in the origination and termination of calls. Because
of its two-way capability, the secondary section in the line link frame is called the terminal
section. The subscriber lines are terminated on the outlets of the terminal section frames.

Group Unit
The trunk link frame along with its associated circuitry can be termed as the Group Unit. The
trunk link frame may be sub-divided into two or three link frames like local office link frame
and incoming link frame, etc. Group unit is a uni-directional device that receives the calls from
the line unit or from distant exchanges. It is capable of handling local, outgoing, incoming,
terminating and transit calls.

CallProcessing
A Simplified organization of a Crossbar exchange is shown in the following figure.
The line link frames along with associated markers and registers can be termed as Line Unit.
The line units are two-way units that help in the origination and termination of calls. Because
of its two-way capability, the secondary section in the line link frame is called the terminal
section. The subscriber lines are terminated on the outlets of the terminal section frames
The call processing in a Crossbar exchange is done in three stages, named as Pre- Selection,
Group Selection and Line Selection.

Pre-Selection
The originating marker does the pre-selection. When the calling subscriber lifts the handset,
the dial tone is heard. The register send this tone. This stage that stars from lifting the
handset to sending the dialed tone is called Pre-Selection.

Group Selection
Once the dial tone is heard, the number can be dialed. The call is switched through the
desired direction as decided, in accordance with the code given by the translator. This stage
of selecting the desired group for making a call is called Group Selection.

Line Selection
Once a number is dialed, the calling subscriber is connected to the called subscriber by the
terminating marker. The line of the called party is controlled by the terminating marker which
also sets up ringing on the line. This stage of selecting the line of the desired subscriber can
be called as the Line Selection.
With these three sections, a call can be connected and processed in a Crossbar exchange.