Thematic Apperception Test (TAT)

Explained

Introduction

The Thematic Apperception Test (TAT) is a widely recognized and utilized projective
psychological test. Developed in the 1930s by Henry A. Murray and Christiana D.
Morgan at Harvard University, the TAT is designed to delve into an individual's
underlying motives, concerns, and their perception of the social world. Unlike more
structured psychological assessments that quantify specific traits, the TAT offers a
unique window into the unconscious mind by inviting individuals to create narratives
based on ambiguous visual stimuli. This document aims to provide a comprehensive
overview of the TAT, covering its historical development, core methodology,
administration procedures, interpretation techniques, and its diverse applications in
mental health, research, and forensic settings.

Historical Development

The genesis of the TAT can be traced back to the 1930s at the Harvard Clinic, where
American psychologist Henry A. Murray and lay psychoanalyst Christiana D. Morgan
collaborated on its development. The anecdotal origin of the TAT suggests that the
idea was sparked by a question from one of Murray's undergraduate students, Cecilia
Roberts, who observed her son creating stories from magazine images during an
illness. This observation led Murray to consider the potential of using pictures in a
clinical context to explore the deeper dynamics of personality [3].

Murray's motivation stemmed from a desire to employ a measure that could reveal
information about the whole person, a capability he found lacking in the
contemporary tests of his era. He posited that individuals tend to interpret ambiguous
situations in alignment with their own past experiences and current, often
unconscious, motivations. By asking subjects to construct stories around pictures,
Murray believed that their psychological defenses would be lowered, allowing for the
revelation of sensitive personal information that might otherwise remain concealed
[4].

Throughout the 1930s, Murray and Morgan meticulously selected and refined a series
of pictures from illustrative magazines. After several iterations (Series A, B, and C), they
finalized the set of images known as Series D, which remains in use today [3]. Although
Christiana D. Morgan was initially credited as the first author on the TAT's inaugural
published paper in 1935, her name was later removed from subsequent publications
at her request due to the overwhelming volume of inquiries she received that she was
unable to address [5].

Interestingly, Murray's work on the TAT coincided with his studies on Herman Melville.
He often cited the

Methodology and Procedure

The TAT is often referred to as the "picture interpretation technique" due to its core
methodology, which involves presenting a series of provocative yet ambiguous
pictures to a subject and asking them to construct a story for each. The standard
administration procedure, as outlined in Murray's original manual, though often
adapted by practitioners, involves asking the subject to create as dramatic a story as
possible for each picture, including the following elements:

What has led up to the event shown

What is happening at the moment

What the characters are feeling and thinking

What the outcome of the story was

If any of these elements are omitted, particularly with children or individuals with
lower cognitive abilities, the examiner may prompt the subject for the missing
information. However, the examiner is generally instructed to avoid interjecting or
answering questions about the content of the pictures. The stories are recorded
verbatim for subsequent interpretation.

The complete TAT set comprises 32 picture cards. These cards depict a variety of
scenes with male figures, female figures, both genders, individuals of ambiguous
gender, adults, children, and even some cards with no human figures at all. One card is
entirely blank, designed to elicit both a scene and a story from the subject's
imagination. While Murray initially suggested matching the cards to the subject's age
and gender, any card can be used with any subject. He hypothesized that using cards
featuring characters similar to the subject would yield more insightful information [8].

Although Murray recommended using 20 cards, most practitioners today select a

smaller set of 8 to 12 cards. This selection is often based on the cards the practitioner
finds generally useful or those they believe will be most effective in encouraging the
subject to express emotional conflicts relevant to their specific history and situation
[9].

Interpretation

The interpretation of TAT responses is a complex and nuanced process that does not
rely on fixed answers or numerical scores. Instead, clinicians and researchers analyze
the narratives to identify recurring themes, emotional conflicts, and relational
patterns. The underlying assumption is that individuals project their own feelings,
experiences, and unconscious thoughts onto the ambiguous stimuli presented in the
cards.

Several formal scoring systems have been developed to introduce a degree of

objectivity and standardization to TAT interpretation. One of the earliest and most
influential is Murray's Need-Press System, which focuses on identifying the "needs" of
the protagonist in the story and the "press" of the environmental forces that may
facilitate or hinder the satisfaction of those needs. Other notable scoring systems
include the Defense Mechanisms Manual (DMM) and the Social Cognition and Object
Relations (SCOR) Scale, which are often used in research settings [4].

However, in clinical practice, many therapists prioritize a qualitative and interpretive

approach. They focus on the content of the stories, the emotional tone, the language
used, and the overall narrative structure. For example, recurring stories of
abandonment or betrayal might suggest unresolved attachment issues, while themes
of success and failure could point to underlying concerns about achievement and
competence.

Applications

The TAT has a wide range of applications in various fields, including:

 Clinical Psychology: The TAT is a valuable tool in psychotherapy for exploring a
client's underlying motivations, conflicts, and personality dynamics. It can be
particularly useful for clients who have difficulty expressing their thoughts and
feelings directly. The test can help facilitate discussions about sensitive topics
such as grief, abuse, and identity issues.

Forensic Psychology: In forensic settings, the TAT can provide insights into an
individual's thought processes, emotional responses, and potential for
aggression. It can be used in assessments related to criminal behavior,
competency evaluations, and child custody cases.

Research: The TAT has been used extensively in research to study various
aspects of personality, motivation, and social cognition. It has been instrumental
in the development of theories related to achievement motivation, power
motivation, and affiliation needs.

Criticisms and Limitations

Despite its widespread use, the TAT has faced significant criticism, primarily
concerning its psychometric properties. The lack of standardized administration and
scoring procedures, coupled with the subjective nature of interpretation, raises
concerns about its reliability and validity. Critics argue that the test's susceptibility to
interpreter bias can lead to inconsistent and unreliable results.

Another major criticism revolves around the outdated nature of the TAT cards. Many of
the images reflect the social roles and cultural norms of the 1930s, which may be
unfamiliar or irrelevant to individuals from diverse cultural backgrounds. This can lead
to misinterpretations and may not accurately reflect the psychological functioning of
the individual.

Conclusion

The Thematic Apperception Test remains a significant and influential tool in the field
of psychology. While it has faced valid criticisms regarding its psychometric properties
and the cultural relevance of its stimuli, its enduring value lies in its ability to provide a
rich, qualitative understanding of an individual's inner world. When used by trained
and experienced professionals as part of a comprehensive assessment battery, the TAT
can offer profound insights into personality, motivation, and the complex interplay of
conscious and unconscious forces that shape human behavior.

References

[1] Murray, H. A. (1943). Thematic apperception test manual. Cambridge, MA: Harvard
University Press. [2] Cramer, P. (1996). Storytelling, narrative, and the Thematic
Apperception Test. New York: Guilford Press. [3] Morgan, C. D., & Murray, H. A. (1935). A
method for investigating fantasies: The Thematic Apperception Test. Archives of
Neurology & Psychiatry, 34(2), 289–306. [4] Westen, D., Lohr, N., Silk, K., Gold, L., &
Kerber, K. (1990). Object relations and social cognition in borderlines, major
depressives, and normals: A Thematic Apperception Test analysis. Psychological
Assessment: A Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 2(4), 355–364. [5]
Morgan, W. G. (1995). Origin and history of the Thematic Apperception Test images.
Journal of Personality Assessment, 65(2), 237-254. [8] Murray, H. A. (1938).
Explorations in personality. New York: Oxford University Press. [9] Teglasi, H. (2010).
Thematic Apperception Test: The Children's Apperceptive Story-Telling Test and the
Roberts-2. In J. N. Butcher (Ed.), The Oxford handbook of personality assessment (pp.
354-373). New York: Oxford University Press.