[BEST GUIDANCE CLASSES FOR ENGINEERS]

STUDY
COMPONENT:-
ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING
[RAW WATER ENGG, WASTE WATER
ENGINEERING & AIR AND NOISE POLLUTION]

FEATURES:
1. Coverage of Topics as per the requirement of Competitive
Exams.
2. Practice Questions are given with each Chapter.
3. Useful for SSC-JE, SSB-JE & others

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 INDEX
PART I: RAW WATER ENGINEERING
Chapter – 1 Introduction to water Demand
Chapter – 2 Quality of Raw water
Chapter – 3 Treatment of Raw water
Chapter – 4 Conveyance of Raw water
Chapter – 5 Distribution System
Chapter – 6 Connections and Pipe Appurtences

PART II: WASTE WATER ENGINEERING

Chapter – 1 Sewage System
Chapter – 2 Laying and Construction of Sewers
Chapter – 3 Characteristics of Sewage
Chapter – 4 Disposal of Sewage
Chapter – 5 Treatment of Sewage
Chapter – 6 Disposal of Industrial and Municipal solid waste
Chapter – 7 Sewage Collection from houses and building

PART III: AIR POLLUTION AND NOISE POLLUTION

Asif Malik
Ycet jammu

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 PART:- 1

RAW WATER

ENGINEERING

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 CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION TO WATER DEMAND

1.1. INTRODUCTION

In the design of water supply system, there are 2 aspects, which must be considered by an
Engineer.
 Demand of water by public
 Requirement to find the source to meet such demand.

Note: Design period for a water supply project is taken as 20 to 30 years

 What is water Demand???

The demand of water by the public or individual to meet its water requirement for
domestic purpose or any other purpose (Fire, Leakage etc.) is known as WATER
DEMAND.

NOTE:- water demand is generally calculated on basis of liters per capitaper day (Lpcd)
i.eLiters per capita per Day water demand varies Locality to Locality, city to city.

Problem 1:-A city having population of 2000, requires yearly water 1 lakh KL. The
per capita demand will be:

Sol:- Yearly = 1 lakh kl

= 100000 x 1000L
Population = 2000
Requirementoftheyear
Per capita per day =
365 × population
1 ×108
=
365× 2000

1.2. Types of Demands & Requirement

Type of Demand Requirement

i. Domestic Water Demand 200 Lpcd or 135 Lpcd
(50% of Total water Requirement)
(IS 1172 – 1963)
ii. Industrial Water Demand Minimum = 50 Lpcd
Maximum = 450 Lpcd
(20 – 25%) of the total consumption of city
iii. Institutional Water Demand 50 Lpcd
iv. Public Use Water Demand 10 Lpcd
v. Demand to compensate losses 15% of total consumption
vi. Fire Demand Q = 100 √ P
Where, Q = Kilolitre

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 P = Population in 1000
NOTE:-
1. Fire Demand is not more than “5 – 10%” demand of city
2. Fire Hydrants are usually fitted in the water mains at about 100 to 150 mtrs apart
3. The minimum water pressure available at fire hydrants should be 100 to 150 kN/m2 or 10 to 15
m of water load.
4. For moderate fire break out three jet streams are generally provided discharge in each should be
1100 ltrs/minute
5. Acc. To IS code, storage of water for fire on per capita should be taken as 5%

Formula’s to calculate Fire Demand:-

1. Kuichling Formula: Q = 3182 √ P

2. Buston’sFormula : Q = 5663√ P

3. Freeman’s Formula:1136 ( P5 +10 )

4. National Board of Fire Underwriter’s Formula: Q = 4637√ P (1 – 0.01√ P¿

5. Burton’s formula is = 900√ P

1.3. DOMESTIC DEMAND

Domestic Demand City having Full City having No

Flushing system Lpcd Full Flushing
Lpcd
i. Drinking 5 5
ii. Cooking 5 5
iii. Bathing 75 55
iv. Washing of 25 20
Clothes
v. Washing of 15 10
utensils
vi. Washing &
cleaning of 15 10
Houses
vii. Lawn watering 15
0
viii. Flushing 45 30

200 Lpcd 135 cd

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1.4. Industries and their approximate water Requirements

Type of Industry Water Demand

i. Special quality Paper industry 400 – 1000 KL
ii. Paper industry 200 – 400 KL
iii. Steel industry 200 – 250 KL
iv. Fertilizers industry 80 – 200 KL
v. Sugar and Petroleum industry 1 – 2 KL
vi. Textile industry 80 – 140 KL

Note:-
1. Maximum water Demand = Special Quality Paper industry Hourly Variation factor = 1.5
Minimum water Demand = Sugar and Petroleum industry
Daily variation factor = 1.8
2. Designing is done on basis of Average Demand.

Maximum Daily consumption =1.8 times Average Daily Demand.

Maximum Hourly consumption =1.5 times Max. Daily Consumption

= 2.7× Annual Avg. hourly demand
Max. Daily consumption on
Acc. To Godrich peak hourly demand
Max Daily = Avg Daily x hourly x daily
1. =180 %
Avg Daily variation factor varial

Max Weekly
2. =148 %
Avg Weekly

Max Monthy
3. =128 %
Avg Monty

Max Half yearly

4. =107 %
Avg Half yearly

Note: Water Distribution systems are designed to meet

 Maximum Daily Demand
 Fire Demand

1.5. Concept of COINCIDENT DRAFT:-

It is the requirement of water which is needed during incidents such as Fire.

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Coincident draft is taken as Maximum of following:
¿ Maximumdaily+ FireDemand Maximum
¿ MaximumHourlyDemand ]
Note:- water Demand for a particular city increases because population also increases.
Population follows s- growth curve

Population

Time
1.6. Population Forecasting:-Estimation of Population for future aspects is population
forecasting. It is important to forecast the population because population keeps on changing due
to Births, death, migration

1.7. Methods of Population Forecasting:

1. Arithmetic Increase Method: Simple and most suitable for large cities which have
reached the saturation population.
2.Geometric Increase Methods: This method gives higher results than previous.
3. Incremental Increase Method: This method combines both.
4. Decreased Rate of Growth
5. Graphical Extension Method
6. Graphical comparison Method
7. Zoning Method or Master-plan Method
8. Ratio Method
9. Logistic Curve Method

1. Arithmetic Increase Method: In this Method, it is assumed that “Population is

increasing at constant rate”.Therefore constant increase in the growth of population is taken.
This Method is most suitable for “Large Cities, Old Cities and Towns”. Which have reached he
saturation population.

Pn = [Po + n x ]
Pn = Forecasted Population after n decades.
Po = Population at present (Last census)

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 n = No. of decades b/w Now & future
x= A rithmetic Mean/Avg. of population increase.
Problems:- Population levels over 5 decades of a small town are given below.
The population of the town in the year 2020 estimated by Arithmetic Increase Method will be
a. 5,10,000 b. 8,90,000 c. 6,10,000 d. 6,90,000
Year Population
1960 2,50,000
1970 2,80,000
1980 3,40,000
1990 4,20,000
2000 4,90,000

Sol.
Year Population Population
Increase
1960 2,50,000
1970 2,80,000 30,000
1980 3,40,000 60,000
1990 4,20,000 80,000
2000 4,90,000 70,000

Avg. population increase = 30,000 + 60,000 + 80,000 + 70,000 / 4

= 60,000
P2020 = P2000 + 2 x 60,000
= 4,90,000 + 1,20,000
= 6,10,000 Ans.
2. Geometrical Increase Method: In this Method, it is assumed that the “Percentage
increase” in the population from decade to decade remains constant. This Method gives
higher result to than the pervious. It is suitable for “Large Cities” which are rapidly
increasing.
2
r
Pn = Po 1+( 100 )
r = Assumed Groth rate
n
r=√ x 1+ x 2 + x 3 + … … . … x n

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 P2
or r =
√
t

P1
−1

P1 = Initial Known Population

P2 = Final Known Population
t = No. of decades between P1& P2

Problem:Estimate the population for 1980, 1990 and 2000 using Geometric Increase Method.
Year Population
1930 25000
1940 28000
1950 34000
1960 42000

Sol.
Year Population Population % age
Increase
1930 25000 3000 3000
=12 %
25000
1940 28000 6000 6000
=21.4 %
28000
1950 34000 8000 8000
=23.5 %
34000
1960 42000 5000 5000
=11.9 %
42000

4
r=√ 12× 21.4 ×23.5 ×11.9
= 16.37%
n
r
( )
Pn = Po 1+
100
n
r
P = P ( 1+
100 )
n o

Pn = Po (1 + 0.1637)n
P1980 = 47000 (1.1637)1 = 54694
P1990 = 47000 (1.1637)2 = 63647
P2000 = 47000 (1.1637)3 = 74066

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 3. Incremental Increase Method: This method combines both in this method, growth
rate is assumed to be varying. This method gives result b/w Arithmetic & geometric
increase method.
n(n+1)
Pn = Po + n x + .y
2
x = Avg. Increase of Population
y = Avg. of incremental increase

Problem:- The population of a city at previous consecutive census year was 4,00,000 ; 5,50,500 ;
7,76,000 ; 10,98,500. The anticipated population at the next census will be?

Census year Population

1. 4,00,000
2. 5,58,000
3. 7,76,000
4. 10,98,500

Sol.

Census year Population Incremental Incremental Pn = Po + n x +

Increase n(n+1)
1. 4,00,000 1,58,500 59,000 ×y
2
2. 5,58,000 2,17,500
3. 7,76,000 3,22,500 10,5000 P5 = 10,98,500 +
4. 10,98,500
P5 = 1413333.33
x=¿ 232833.3 y = 82000
3

Logistic Curve Method

2
2 P0 P1 P2 −P 1 ( P0 + P2 )
PS = P 0 P2−P1
2

PS = Saturation population
P0 = Population when t = t0
P1 = Population when t = t1
P2 = Population when t = t2
Population

PS

A
Time
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 PS
P= 1+ m log−1
e (nt )

P = Population at any time t from A

PS = Saturation Population
P S−P o
m = Constant = [P0 = Population at the start point of curve A]
Po
n = Constant =- kPs
k = constant

1.8. Factors Affecting per capita Demand:-

1. Size of city
2. Climate conditions
3. Habit of people
4. Industrial & commercial activity
5. Quality of water supply
6. Pressure in distribution system
7. Cost of water
8. Metering

1.9. Systems of supply

1. Continuous supply (24 x 7)
2. Intermittent supply: Supply of water during fixed interval of time.

Problems:

Q1. Public use water demand is

a. 10 Lpcd b. 20 Lpcd c. 30 Lpcd d. 50 Lpcd

Q2. Fire demand for the city having population 1 lac is

a. 100 Liters b. 100 Kilo liters c. 1000 Liters d. 1000 Kilo liters

Q3. Which of the following industry has maximum water demand?

a. Fertilizer b. Textile c. Sugar d. Steel
Q4. Population growth follows
a. S- Curve b. V – Curve c. L - Curve d. O - Curve
Q5. Maximum hourly consumption is
a. 1.5 X Average Daily Demand b. 1.5 X Peak Daily Demand
c. 1.5 X Peak Hourly Demand d. 1.5 X Average Hourly Demand
Q6. Which of the following population forecasting method is most suitable for large cities?
a. Incremental increase method b. Decreased growth rate method

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 c. Arithmetic Increase method d. Logistic Method
Q7. Which of the following industry use minimum amount of water?
a) Textile industry b) Special quality paper industry
c) Fertilizers industry d) Sugar and Petroleum industry [Ans:- D]
Q8. Losses demand in water supply is taken as
a) 5% b) 10%
c) 15% d) 20% [Ans:- C]
Q9. Fire demand for National Board of Fire underwriter’s Formula s
a) 3128√ P b) 5663√ P
c) 100√ P d) 4637√ P ( 1−0.01 √ P ) [Ans:- D]
Q10. Which of the following factors responsible for per capita demand?
a) Metering system b) Pressure in pipeline
c) Quality of water d) All of the above [Ans:- D]

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 CHAPTER – 2
QUALITY OF RAW WATER

2.1. WATERRAW QUALITY PARAMETERS:-

The Parameters which explains the quality of raw water are known as water Quality Parameters.
These Parameters can be studied under three headings:

1. Physical Parameters
2. Chemical Parameters
3. Biological Parameters

1. Physical Parameters:-These are those parameters which can be felt by our sense
organs.
For e.g
a. Suspended solids
b. Turbidity
c. Colour
d. Taste andodour
e. Temperature
f. Specific conductivity

a. Suspended Solids:- The presence of suspended solids is objectionable because of

following reasons:
 It is aesthetically displeasing
 It hinders in the process of disinfection as micro organisms can take shelter in these
suspended solids
 Suspended solids may be biologically active and may cause diseases.

NOTE:- Acceptable value for suspended solids = 500mg/L

Cause of rejection value for suspended solids = 2000mg/L

b. Turbidity:-
Is defined as the extent to which Light is either absorbed or scattered by water sample.

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NOTE:-More Light absorbed or scattered represents “More” Turbidity and vice
versa.

Measurement of Turbidity:-
i. Turbidity rod method
ii. Jackson Turbid meter
iii. BaylisTurbidmeter
iv. Nephlometer
v. HelligeTurbidmeter

i.Turbidity Rod Method:- It consist of a platinum needle which is 1mm in dia, and 25mm in
Length
 This rod is dipped in water and the observations are taken upto which needle is visible &
turbidity can be measured.

ii. Jackson Turbidmeter:-

 This is also known as JACKSON’S CANDLE TURBIDMETER

 In this method water sample whose turbidity is to be determined is added in a container and
flame of the candle is observed.
 The level at which the flame is invisible can directly represent the Turbidity in mg/L

NOTE:-

1. In this method Turbidity is measured in “JTU” (Jacksons Turbidity unit)

2. By using this method, we can measure Turbidity of sample greater than 25 mg/L and 0 to
1000 ppm directly.
3. It is the Laboratory method, where as Turbidity Rod method is the field method.

iii. BaylisTurbidmeter:-

It measures Turbidity of order of “0 – 2ppm”

This method is based on “Colour Matching Technique”.

iv. Nephlometer:-

These are the modern Turbidmeters which measures very very low turbidity less than 1 UNIT.

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In Nepholmeter the Turbidity is expressed in Formazine Turbidity unit or Nephloemeter
Turbidity unit

v. HelligeTurbidmeter: It measures turbidity between 0 – 50 ppm

Note: Turbidity is measured on standard silica scale and it must not be more than 10 ppm for
drinking water.

Note:-Acceptable Limit of Turbidity is 1ppm

Cause of rejection value of Turbidity is 10ppm

c. Colour

 Apparent colour (Because of suspended solids)

 True colour (Because of Dissolved impurities

Effects:

i. Pschological effect
ii. Aesthetically displeasing

Measurement of colour:

i. Technique used is COLOUR MATCHING TECHNIQUE

ii. Tube in which sample is kept known as“NESSLER’s TUBE”

iii. Device used in TINTOMETER

iv. If the colourof sample is other than Yellow, (i.e water is from industrial waste), The colour

can be measured using special device known asSPECTROPHOTOMETER (Very

expensive Device)

1. Colour of the sample must be tested within before 72 hours” of its collection because the
colour of the sample may get change because of physical chemical activities.

2. The colour is measured in a standard unit known as TCU (True Colour Unit)

3. The max permissible colour value for Domestic supplies = 20ppm.

This value is measured on “COBALT SCALE”. Preferably this value should be less than
10ppm.

Permissible Limit of colour

Acceptable Limit of colour = 5 TCU
Cause of rejection Value = 25 TCU
d. Taste and odour:-
These are added in water because of:

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 Organic matter
 Inorganic matter
 Dissolved gases such as Hydrogen sulphide( H 2 S ) Methane ( CH 4 ) , Carbon –dioxide ( CO 2 )
For e.g
Organic matter such as algae releases Fluids which adds taste &odour in water.

Note:
1. Algae is controlled by copper sulphate

2. odour is removed by Activated carbon

3. Phenolic compounds imparts taste & own. Hence they are objectionable. For public

water supplies, their concentration must not be greater than 0.001 ppm

Measurement:-

 Instrument used to measure taste and odour is called OSMOSCOPE.

 Threshold odour Number (TON)

Here,
50ml → impurewater
150 ml → Clearwaterisadded , soTotal=150+50=200 ml
200 150 ml (Clear Water)
TON = =4
50

Permissible value of Taste &odour

 Acceptable value = 1 TON

 Cause of rejection value = 3 TON

NOTE:Odour is generally determined when water is cold. 50 ml (Impure Water)

e. Temperature

 There is no practical significance of testing Temperature.

 It effects only biological activity in sample

NOTE:- For water Supplies the range of temp. must be b/w 10 – 25o C
It is observed that for every 10° rise in temperature Biological activity Doubles.

1. Specific Conductivity

It measures the amount of dissolved salts present in water.

2. CHEMICAL PARAMETERS

The Parameters which explains the chemical characteristic of water are Known
asCHEMICAL PARAMETERS.

a. Alkalinity
b. PH
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c. Hardness
d. Chloride content
e. Nitrogen Content
f. Phosphorous
g. Florides

a. Alkalinity:- Is defined as the quantity of ions which will react to neutralize Hydrogen ions.
It may also be defined as the ability to neutralize acids.

NOTE:- Alkalinity is classified as:-

i. Caustic Alkalinity :- Hydroxide ion (OH-)
ii. Carbonate Alkalinity:- Carbonate ion ¿
iii. Bi – carbonate Alkalinity :- Bi – Carbonate ion ¿

EFFECTS

1. Bitter Taste of water

2. Incrustation in Pipes
3. Corossionin pipes

Note:For strong alkalinity, the product of H+& OH- ions is 10-14

NOTE:-Alkalinity is measured by using “TITRATION TECHNIQUE” equivalent in

terms of calcium carbonate.

b. pH

 pH indicates the acidity or basicity of water sample.

 It is represented as PH = Log
1
¿¿
 If the concentration of Hydrogen ion is more then the PH of water sample will be less and
Vice versa

NOTE:
1. If PH is b/w 0-7 then the sample is Acidic.

2. If PH is b/w 7-14, then the sample is Basic or Alkaline.

3. Hydrogen sulphide, CO2 imparts Acidity.

4. CO2 is most common in imparting Acidity.

5. pH value of 2 represents the stronger acidity a sample.

6. For Public water supplies attempts are made to bring PH close to 7. (Neutral).

7. After 9.5 ppm PH, E-coli Bacteria’s die.

Measurement of PH

 PH is measured by using POTENTIOMETER

It can also be measured by COLOUR INDICATOR
AQASCOPE is a device used to measure PH.
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 Permissible value

Acceptable value = 7 – 8.5ppm

Cause of Rejection value = 9.2 – 6.5 ppm
Range :- 9.2 < PH< 6.5

c. Hardness

Is defined as the concentration of “multivalent cations” in the water sample.

For e.g.
Calcium
Magnesium
Magnese
Aluminium

But mainly calcium and Magnesium

Types of Hardness
i. Carbonate Hardness
ii. Non-Carbonate Hardness

i. Carbonate Hardness:- Carbonate Hardness is due to the pressure of carbonates and Bi-
carbonates of Ca2+& Mg2+.

It is also known as Temporary Hardness; as it can be easily removed by Boiling.

ii. Non – Carbonate Hardness: - It is due to the presence of chlorides,sulphates and

Nitrates of Ca2+ and Mg2+.

o It is also known as Permanent Hardness.

o It can be removed only by softening methods. (Zeolite method, Ion exchange method,
Lime soda process). In lime soda process lime reduces carbonate Hardness and soda
reduces Non carbonate hardness

Impact

i. It leads to lesser formation of foam.

ii. More consumption of water and soap
iii. It makes the food tasteless
iv. Incrustation in pipes.

Note:1. One degree of Hardness is equivalent to 14.25 mg/l

2. For Water Supplies maximum permissible hardness shall be 115 mg/l

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Measurement of Hardness

Hardness is measured by using TITRATION TECHNIQUE.

 Titrant used is EDTA. ( Et h yleneDiamineTetraAcet icAcid )

 Indication used in EBT ( Eric h romeBlackT )
 Sample colour changes to Blue

NOTE:-
Total Hardness = Carbonate Hardness + Non carbonate Hardness
Total Hardness = Alkalinity + Non Carbonate Hardness
¿ TotalHardness W h ic h everisless .
Carbonate Hardness
¿ Alkalinity ]
Problem:- A soil sample is collected having details as:
Non – carbonate Hardness = 60 mg/L
Total alkalinity = 200 mg/L
Find Carbonate Hardness .

Total Hardness = Alkalinity + Non – Carbonate Hardness

= 200 + 60
= 260 mg/L
Total Hardness = Carbonate + Non – Carbonate Hardness
260 = CH + 60

Carbonate Hardness = 200mg /L

Hardness mg/L Degree of Hardness

0 – 55 Soft
56 – 100 Slightly Hard
101 – 200 Hard
201- 500 Very Hard

d. Chloride content:- Presence of chloride content in higher quantities indicates pollution in

water (Recent Pollution) due to industrial waste or sewage.

It is measured with the help of TITRATION TECHNIQUE .

Titrant : Silver Nitrate

Colour indicator : Potassiumchromate

Permissible Limits:-
Acceptable value is 200mg/L
Cause of rejection value is 1000mg/L

e. Nitrogen content:-
Nitrogen content indicates the presence of organic matter. It can exists in water in following
4 forms:

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 >Free Ammonia (NH3) >Organic Ammonia ¿
>Nitrite ¿ >Nitrate (N2)

i. Free Ammonia (NH3)

It indicates recent pollution in the water body. Asif Malik

Ycet jammu
Acceptable value = 0.15mg/L
Cause of rejection value = 0.15 mg/L

ii. Organic Ammonia ¿

It indicates the quantity of Nitrogen Present in the sample before the decomposition is
started permissible value.

Acceptable value = 0.3 mg/L

Cause of rejection is 0.3mg/L

iii. Nitrite: ¿

It indicates Partially decomposition condition.

It is highly dangerous.

Permissible value :
Acceptable value = o
Cause of rejection value = o

iv. Nitrate: (N2)

It indicates Fully decomposed organic matter.

Permissible values.
Acceptable value is = 45mg/L
Cause of rejection value = 45mg/L

Note:- Excess quantity of Nitrate is harmful for infants causes “Blue Baby Disease.
(Methemoglobinemia)

f. Phosphorous

It is not toxic but it facilitates the rapid growth of aquatic plant especially algae.

g. Flouride:-Upto 1 mg/L helps in preventing dental cavities and helps in the growth of permanent
teeth.

Excess value of Flourides Greater than 1.5 mg/L Leads to de-colouration of teeth (Disease is known
as FLOUROSIS)

Acceptable value:- 1mg/L

Cause of rejection value:- 1.5mg/L

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 Micro organisms Disease
1. Bacteria Chlorea, Typhoid, Tuberculosis
2. Virus Polio, Jaundice, chicken pox
3. Protozoa Malaria, sleeping sickness
4. Fungus Ringworm, Athletes foot

Note: There are three type of Bacterials

a. Cocci (Sphere Shaped)
b. Bacilli (Rod Shaped)
c. Spirilla (Twisted Rod Shaped)
Biological Tests:
1. Total count of Bacteria test.
Total no. of bacteria present in 1 ml of water is counted.
It varies 0-100 count/cm3
2. Bacteria coli (B-Coli) or Escherichia Coli (E-Coli) Test.
These test represents the presence of pathogenic bacteria. Filter member test is carried out for E-
Coli.

Problems:
Q1. Which of the following device can measure minute turbidity in water sample?
a) Baylis Turbidmeter b) Turbidity rod
c) Jakson Turbidmeter d) Nephlometer [Ans:- D]
Q2. Tintometer is a device used to measure
a) Odour an taste b) Turbidity
c) Temperature d) Colour [Ans:- D]
Q3. Which of the following gas/gases responsible for taste and odour in water sample?
a) CH 4 b) H 2 S
c) CO 2 d) All of the above [Ans:- D]
Q4. Osmoscope is a device used to measure?
a) Taste and Odour b) Colour
c) Turbidity d) Hardness [Ans:- A]
Q5. Caustic Alkalinity in water is due to
2−¿¿ 2−¿ ¿
a) HCO 3 b) CO 3

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 −¿¿
c) OH d) All of the above [Ans:- C]
Q6. Colour of Raw Water sample must be tested within
a) 12 Hours b) 24 hours
c) 48 Hours d) 72 Hours [Ans:- D]
Q7. In 1 ml of water sample, 9 ml of pure water is added. Threshold odour Number
(TON) will be
a) 8 b) 9
c) 10 d) 11 [Ans:- C]
Q8. Titrant used for measurement of hardness is
a) EDTA b) EBT
c) Silver Nitrate d) Potassium Chromate [Ans:- A]
Q9. Aquascope is a device used to measure
a) Alkalinity b) PH
c) Hardness d) Nitrogen Content [Ans:- B]
Q10. Acceptable value of Nitrite in Raw water is
a) 45 mg/l b) 0.3 mg/l
c) Zero d) 0.15 mg/l [Ans:- C]
Q11. True colour in water is due to
a) Suspended Solids b) Dissolved Impurities
c) Gasses d) All of the above [Ans:- B]
Q12. Which of the following is incorrectly matched?
a)Virus : Polio b) Protozoa : Malaria
c) Bacteria : Typhoid d) Fungus : Chickenpox [Ans:- D]
Q13. Acceptable value of fluorides in water sample is
a) 0.5 mg/l b) 1.0 mg/l
c) 1.5 mg/l d) 2.0 mg/l [Ans:- B]
Q14. If hardness in water is 150 mg/l, it is classified as
a) Soft b) Slightly hard
c) Hard d) Very Hard [Ans:- C]
Q15. Which of the following form of Nitrogen content causes Blue Baby disease in Infants?

a) NH 3
−¿¿
b) NO 2

d) N 2
−¿¿
c) NO 3 [Ans:-
D]

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Q16. Main concentration of hydrogen ion represents
a) More Turbidity b) Less PH
c) Less Alkalinity d) All of the above [Ans:- B]
Q17. Odour in water sample is measured when it is
a) Hot b) Cold
c) Warm d) Any of the above [Ans:- B]
Q18. Spectrophotometer is used to measure
a) Colour b) Turbidity
c) Hardness d) Salts [Ans:- A]
Q19. Which of the following is NOT the physical Quality parameter?
a) Colour b) Turbidity
c) Alkalinity d) Specific Conductivity [Ans:- C]
Q20. For water supplies, Temperature range is between
a) 5℃−15 ℃ b) 10℃−20 ℃
c) 10℃−25 ℃ d) 20℃−35 ℃
[Ans:- C]

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 CHAPTER – 3
TREATMENT OF RAW WATER
3.1 Introduction
 Treatment of water becomes necessary before it is supplied to the distribution system
because water is taken from some source and therefore, it is not free from impurities.

 General Layout of Treatment system is shown below.

Intake structure Screening Purpose:- Sedimentation with

(For water Removal of coarse Plain sedimentation Purpose:- coagulation Purpose:-
storage) impurities Removal of fine impurities (Not
Removal of very fine
removed in screening)
impurities (i.e, Mud,)
Principle:- Turbulence and
velocity of water is reduced.

DISINFECTION

Purpose:- To kill
microorganism (Pathogenic
Filtration Purpose:- To Disease causing)
remove Bacteria, our and
Taste (100% not removed)
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 Miscellaneous
Water softening
Aeration
Removal of nitrates
chloridesetc
Purpose:- Removal dissolved
gases (H2S and methane)

 Before the water is allowed in the treatment system firstly it is stored in a structure known as
INAKE STRUCTURE.
 It is constructed near the source.

3.2. SCREENING:-
This is the 1st stage of treatment

Purpose:-
The only purpose of screening is to remove coarse impurities which may include plants, dead
animals, vegetables etc.

Screens are of 2 types

a. Coarse Screen : Opening b/w (2 – 10)cm

b. Fine screen : Opening less than 1cm.

1. Fine screen are not generally used because of choking problem.

2. Screen must be provided at some inclination because of following 2 main reasons.

i. Inclined screens provides more surface area as compared to perpendicular screens.

ii. Cleaning of inclined screens is easy.

3. Acc. To Govt. of India manual Screens should be inclined at an angle of 30o.

4. Screens are designed in such a way that the velocity of water through them is not more
than0.8 to1m/sec.

3.3 PLAIN SEDIMENTATION TANK

This is also known as Type – I setting.

Purpose:-
The purpose of plain sedimentation tank is to remove suspended impurities which are not
removed in screening.

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 The removal of such impurities is important because it may choke the filter during
Filtration process.

Principle:-
Plain sedimentation tank in based on:-
 Reducing Turbulence in water.
 Reducing the velocity of water such that impurities having specific gravity more than that of
water i.e.1 can be easily settled before the exit of the tank.

 Thus the basin in which the flow of water is retarded is known as sedimentation Tank or
clarifier or Basin.
 The velocity with which particle settles down in the tank is known assettling velocity.
 The settling velocity of the particle is analyzed by a law known as stokes’ Law.

 Acc. To stoke’s Law:

 Settling velocity if [ d <0.1 mm ]

g ( d2
(VS) = G−1 )
18 V
 Settling velocity of a particle mainly depends upon the surface area of the tank.

 Where, g = Acc. Due to Gravity d = dia. of particle (in mm).

G = Specific Gravity υ = Kinematic viscosity
If d > 1mm.
VS = 1.8√ gd ( G−1 )

Assumptions
i. Liquid is ideal
ii. Particles are evenly distributed across tank section.
iii. Any particle hitting the bottom of tank is removed.

Concept of Flow velocity &Settling velocity

Vf
VS

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Overflow Rate = 500 to 750 Ltr/hour/m 2.

By increasing the surface area, efficiency of tank increases.

Discharge Q
Settling Velocity VS = =
Area L×B

Discharge Q
Flow velocity Vf = =
Area B×H

Detention Time:- It is the theoretical average time for which water is detained in the tank.
It may also be defined as the average time required by the water to pass through the tank.
3
Volume m
Detention Time =
(
3
Discharge m / sec
( ¿ sec ) )
Note:- For Plain sedimentation Tank Detention period is nearly 4-8 hours.

Where as in sedimentations – cum – coagulation tank, Detention time is 2-4 hours.(Acc. To

GOI)

Note:- Sedimentation Tank may be circular rectangular

For rectangular sedimentation tank:- Volume = LxBxH
For circular sedimentation tank:- Volume = d2( 0.011 d +0.785 H )
Where d, = Diameter of tank
H = Height of tank

Note:
1. Overflow Rate = 500 to 750 ltr./hour/m2.

2. By increasing the surface area, efficiency of tank increases.

3. Length should not be more than 4 time its width velocity of flow sedimentation Tank 15 to 30
cm/sec

4. Velocity of flow in sedimentation tank is 15 to 30 cm/per mtr.

3.4 SEDIMENTION WITH COAGULATION

The impurities which are not settled in plain sedimentation tank (generally mud impurity) can be removed
in sedimentation coagulation tank.

Principle:-
In sedimentation coagulation tank, chemicals are used which are considered to have positive charge.
These chemicals are known as coagulants.

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These +vely charged chemicals combined to the impurities (Which are considered to have –ve charge).
and stabilizes them.

Now the mud impurities which are light in weightbecomes heavy and settles down.

The process basically consists of 3 processes

i. Flocculation : Mixing Technique

ii. Coagulation : Stabilization of impurities
iii. Sedimentation: Settling of Flocs (Flocs are stabilized particle of impurity and chemical).

Note:Coagulants increases the turbidity and lowers down the temperature

3.5 Chemicals used for coagulation.

i. Alum Al2 ( so4 ) 3 18 H 2 o

ii. Copperas ( Fe2 So 4 7 H 2 o )
iii. Chlorinated Copperas ( Fe2 So 4 7 H 2 o +Cl2 )
iv. Sodium Aluminate ( Na 2 Al 2 o 3 )

ALUM Al2( so 4 )3 18 H 2 o

Al2( So4 )3 18 H 2 o+3 C a ( HC o 3 )2 → 3 Ca So 4 + Al ( OH )3+ 6 Co2

When alum is added in water, it reacts with the bi-carbonate alkalinity and gives the precipitates of
Aluminium Hydroxide Al(OH)3(FLOCS).

666 grams of Al2( So4 )3 18 H 2 o →234 g of Al ( OH )3+ 6Co2

Limitations of using Alum

i. Alum imparts permanent Hardness in the sample (Ca So4 ¿ - Decreases the PH value of

water.

ii. The gasco 2Which is released is corrosive.

iii. Decrease the pH value of water.

iv. It work for a very small range of PH “6.5 – 8.3”

Dosage of Alum
 5mg/L for clear water
 85 mg/L for highly turbid water
 17 mg/L Normal Dose.

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 NOTE:- Iron salts may also be used as Coagulants because they can produce heavy FLOCS and
works in wide range of PH.
∴ They are frequently used for sewage.

For raw water supplies Alum is frequently used because iron salts have more
corrosiveness.
Alum is generally used because it is easily available and cheap.

3.6. JAR TEST

In order to determine Optimum Coagulant quantities, a test is performed in the
laboratory known asJAR TEST.

 Standard 6 No. of Jars are used.

 Same Quantity (Quality) Sample is taken.
 Same type of coagulant is used but the coagulant quantity is different
 Paddles are rotated.
 Formation of Flocs is observed.
 The quantity of Alum which gives max. no of flocs is known as“optimum Coagulant
Quantity”.
 This quantity is now used for the treatment of water.

3.7. FILTRATION:-
It is the process in which water is allowed to pass through a granular material. (Sand and
gravel)

Purpose:-
Filtration removes colour, odour and Bacteria from the water.

Types of Filter
i. Slow sand filter
ii. Rapid sand Filter
iii. Pressure Filter.

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SLOW SAND FILTER:-

 Invented by James Simpson in 1829

 Requires Large cross-sectional area.
 Use for small plants
1
 Rate of filtration is very less about ׿ that of rapid sand Filter.
30
 Highly efficient in removing Bacteria (90 – 95%)
 Plan Area = 100 x 200 sqm
 Filter media = sand
D60
Having =1.8¿ 2.5−3.0
D10

Note:
i. Water is directly taken from the plain sedimentation and not from sedimentation cum
coagulation tank because Floc can choke the Filter media.

ii. Cleaning of slow sand Filter is done after 2 to 3 month by scrapping or removing sand
upto depth of ( 1.5−3 ) cm.

iii. After it cleaning it is not used form 1 to 2 days.

iv. Rate of filteration 100 to 200 l/hr/m2.

v. Eff. Size of sand particles 0.25 to 0.35 mm.

vi. The purpose of gravel is just to support the sand layer. It does not help in the process of
Filter.

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vii. Slow sand Filter are not used now a days

viii. Initial cost of slow sand Filter is high because it requires large area

RAPID SAND FILTER

 Rapid Sand Filter are highly used now a days because of the reason its Filtration is very high
and it requires small sectional area for installation.
 These are also known as “MECHANICAL SAND FILTER”
 The yield of this filter is “30 times more “than the slow sand Filter
 The filters gets water from sedimentation coagulation tank and then filtered water is treated
for disinfection.
 In these filters
D 60
=1 . 3 ¿1 . 7
D 10

 A manifold and lateral system of drainage is provided at the bottom to coiiect the
filtered water .
Perforation (where water is collected)

Laterals

Manifold

Important Design Parameters for Rapid sand Filter.

No. of Filter units = (N) = 1.22 √ Q

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Where,
Q = Plant Capacity in litre/day
Total cross – sectional area of Perforation = 0.2% of the total cross – sectional area of filters.
15cm

90cm Manifold

10cm
Laterals

Cross sectional area of Lateral = 2 to 4 times the cross sectional area of performation.
2 times →Diameter = 13mm
4 times → Diameter = 6mm
The cross – sectional area of manifold should be “2 times
The cross-sectional area of Lateral Drain”

LengthofeachLateral
≯ 60 .
DiameterofeachLateral
NOTE:-
1. In case of Rapid sand Filter cleaning is done by using Back washing [2% to 4% of filtered

water is used for Back washing]

2. The water for Back washing is stored in a trough during operation of the Filter.

3. During Back washing compressed air is introduced in the gravel layer to prevent formation

of Bubble, which may hinder the flow otherwise.

4. Rapid sand filters are less effective than slow sand Filter in removing Bacteria:-

5. These Filters can remove 80-90% of Bacteria

6. These are used because

7. Removes Turbidity 35 to 40 ppm.

8. Eff. Size of sand is 0.35 to 0.50 mm.

a. Rate of Filteration is high 30 times higher than SSF.(3000 to 6000 l/hr/m 2.)

b. Requires small cross sectional area.

Operational Troubles:
 Formation of Mud bails
 Cracking of filter

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 3.8. DISINFECTION:-
The Filtered water which we get after the process of Filtration is not free from pathogenic
Bacteria (harmful to human health).
Such Bacterias must be removed before the water is supplied to the distribution system in order
to save public health.
This is also known as sterilization

Methods of Disinfection:-
i. Boiling of water
ii. Treatment with excess lime
iii. Treatment with Ozone (O3). O3→ O2+O → Nascent oxygen (very effective in killing
oathogenicBateria)
iv. Treatment with iodine and Bromine
v. Treatment with UV rays (Suitable for swing pool water)
vi. Treatment with Potassium Permagnate (KMNO4)
vii. Treatment with silver

NOTE:-
1. “KMNO4” is widely used in Rural areas for the disinfection of “well water”.
2. At higher pH value of water disinfection efficiency decreases.

3.9. CHLORINATION:-

Is a process of disinfection in which chlorine is added as a disinfectant which helps in killing pathogenic

micro-organisms

Chlorine is mostly used because it is easily available & very cheap.

When chlorine is added in water. Following reactions takes place.

Cl2 + H2O → Hocl + Hcl

Hypochlorus Acid

Hocl→ H+ + Ocl

↓
( Hypochlorideion )

Hocl + NH3→ NH 2 cl+ H 2 o

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 ↓
( Monochloramine )

Hocl + NH2cl → NHCl 2 + H 2 o

↓
( DiChloramine )

Order:-

Hypochlorous Acid → Monochloramine → Dichloramine → Tric hloramine

NOTE:-

Hypochlorous Acid which is formed is most destructive being about “80% more effective then

Hypochloride ion”.

Types of chlorination
i. Plain chlorination
ii. Pre chlorination
iii. Post chlorination
iv. Double chlorination
v. Super chlorination
vi. De chlorination

i. Plain Chlorination:-
 Only chlorination
 No other Treatment is given
 For e.g Ground water
 Normal dosage:- 0.5mg/L

ii. Prechlorination:
Chlorination before Filtration
Normal dosage:- 5 – 10 mg/L

iii. Post chlorination:-

Chlorination after Filtration.

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 Normal dosage:- 0.1 – 0.2 mg/L for contact period of 20 minutes

iv. Double chlorination:-

Pre chlorination + Post chlorination

v. Super chlorination:-
If water sample is highly polluted then chlorine is added in excess amount known as SUPER
Normal dosage:- 5 – 15 mg/L
It is done is swining pools.

vi. Dechlorination:-
It is done in order to remove extra chlorine.
This is generally done after super chlorination.
Note: If bleaching powder is used, it is called hypochlorindation. Bleaching Powder contains
30 to 35% of chlorine.

NOTE:-The various agents which are used for Dechlorination

Sulphur dioxide gas
Activated carbon
Sodium thiosulphate
Sodium sulphide
Ammonia.

3.10. Testing of chlorine Residuals

 Orthotolidine test
 DPD Test (Diethyl – P – PhenyleneDiaminel)
 Chlorotex Test
 Starch Iodide Test

Orthotolidine Test:
10 ml of chlominated sample of water is taken in a glass tube. 0.1 ml of orthotolidine solution
the color formed is noted after 5 mins the formation of yellow colour, the greater is the residual
chlorine.

Note: To solve the public water supply from pathogenic bacteria, amount of residual chlorine
that must be kept is 0.05 to 0.5 ppm

Break Point chlorination:-

When chlorine is added in water and the water sample is clearer then we will get same amount
of residual chlorine as that amount of chlorine we are adding.

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 Applied Residual

Residual chlorine (mg/L) Chlorine is used by organic matter for oxidation

Chlorine used

By micro organism C Break Point chlorination

A
Applied chlorine (mg/L)

If the water is not pure, then micro organisms present in water will consume the chlorine and
get killed. So the slope will be less then the residual chlorine. This will take place upto point B.
At point B, all microganisms gets killed then the large amount of chlorine will be consumed in
the oxidation of organic matter.
It is represented by BC
At point C, all the organic matter has been oxidized therefore chlorine added after point C is of
No use and we get the chlorine same as applied chlorine.
Hence point C is known as Break point chlorination.

3.11. Water Softening’s:

Water softening process is used for removing the hardness of water.

Methods of removing temporary Hardness.

i. Boiling
ii. Addition of Lime

Methods of removing Permanent Hardness

i. Lime soda process

ii. Zeolite process (Iron exchange Method)
iii. Demineralization

3.12. AERATION:

Aeration is done to remove

 Colour
 Odour
 Taste
 Gases ( H 2 sand Co 2 )
In this process water is brought in intimate contact with air (oxygen)
The process of aeration is carried out by using:
i. Spray Nozzles
ii. Cascades
iii. Trickling Beds

ii iii
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Note:-
Aeration also helps in killing the Bacteria up to certain extent.

Problems:

Q1. Which of the following is NOT required for Ground Water Treatment?

a) Screening b) Sedimentation
c) Filtration d) All of the above [Ans:- D]
Q2. Alum in water induces
a) Hardness b) Alkalinity
c) Colour d) Taste [Ans:- A]
Q3. Detention time for plain sedimentation tank is
a) 1-2 Hrs b) 2-4 Hrs
c) 4-8 Hrs d) 8-12 Hrs [Ans:- C]
Q4. If viscosity is more, setting velocity will be
a) Less b) Zero
c) Infinity d) Reasonable [Ans:- A]
Q5. According to Govt. of India Manual (GOI), Screens should be inclined at
a) 10° b) 20° c) 30° d) 45° [Ans:- C]
Q6. Jar test is done to obtain
a) Optimum Quantity of coagulants b) Flocs
c) Impurities d) All of the above [Ans:- A]
Q7. Plan area required for slow sand filters is
a) 50 X 100 Sqm b) 100 X 200 Sqm
c) 150 X 250 Sqm d) 200 X 300 Sqm [Ans:- B]
Q8. Which of the following is NOT the element of disinfection?
a) Silver b) Iodine c) Ozone d) Alum [Ans:- D]
Q9. Yield of Rapid Sand Filter is
a) 10 times more than slow sand filter.
b) 15 times more than slow sand filter.
c) 20 times more than slow sand filter.
d) 30 times more than slow sand filter. [Ans:- D]
Q10. Which of the following is NOT the advantage of Rapid Sand Filters.
a) Requires less Area b) Less Bacteria Removal
c) More rate of filteration d) Requires Backwashing [Ans:- B]
Q11. Aeration is done to remove
a) Gases b) Taste
c) Bacteria d) All of the above [Ans:- D]
Q12. Which of the following represents break point chlorination?
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A
 a) B b) C
c) D d) A [Ans:- B]

Q13. Which of the following is widely used as disinfectant in Rural Areas for well water?
a) UV rays b) Ozone
c) Lime d) KMNO 4 [Ans:- D]
Q14. Number of filter units required for Rapid Sand Filter is
a)0.22 √ Q b) 1.22√ Q

c) 2.22√ Q d) 3.22√ Q [Ans:- B]

Q15. In Rapid Sand Filters Design, Ratio of Length of each Lateral to its Diameter must not be
greater than?
a) 60 b) 40
c) 50 d) 30 [Ans:- A]
Q16. Number of standard Jars used in Jar test are?
a) 3 b) 6
c) 9 d) 12 [Ans:- B]
Q17. Normal Dose of Alum in water is?
a) 10 mg/L b) 12 mg/L
c) 14 mg/L d) 17 mg/L [Ans:- D]
Q18. Flow viscosity in type-I setting is calculated as
a) Q/L×B b) Q/B×H
c) Q/L×H d) All of the above [Ans:- B]

Q19. Which of the following is used to remove temporary hardness?

a) Lime b) Boiling
c) Dimineralisation d) Both (a) & (b) [Ans:- D]
Q20. Detention time is calculated as
a) Q/A b) V/Q
c) Q/V d) Q×V [Ans:- B]
Where, Q is Discharge
V is Volume
A is Area

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 CHAPTER – 4
CONVEYANCE OF RAW WATER

4.1. Introduction
After the Treatment is over, the next step is to convey the water to the desired destinations. This
conveyance is done with the help of pipes known as CONDUITS

4.2. Types of Conduits:-

i. Gravity conduits
ii. Pressure Conduits

Gravity Conduits:-Theseare those in which water flows under the effect of gravity.
Such Conduits are used to supply water to low lying area. Gravity conduits can be in the form of
canals flumes or aqueducts
Pressure Conduits:-In Pressure Conduits, water is allowed to flow under pressure above
atmospheric pressure.

4.3. Various types of pressure pipes:-

Depending on material
a. Cast iron pipe
b. Steel pipe
c. RCC pipe
d. Asbestos pipe
e. Hiscellaneous

a. Cast Iron Pipes:

o Widely used for city water supplies.

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 o Sufficiently resistant to corrosion.
o Life 100 yrs.
o Generally manufactured in 3.5 mtrs length.
o Joint: Flanged socket

Advantages:
1. Moderate cost
2. Easy to Join
3. Strong & disable

Disadvantages:
1. Water carrying capacity decreases
2. Not used for high pressure > 700 kN /m2

Dresser coupling Joint is a mostly provided in Such pipes

b. Steel Pipes:
 Life 25- 50 yrs.
 Difficulty in making connection.
 Steel is much stronger than cast iron.
 Large pipes can be manufactured of steel.
 Get effected by acidic or alkaline water.
 They can withstand high internal pressure.

Note: Galvanised steel pipe are much more stronger than ordinary steel pipe.
This pipes are connected by rivets or welds.

c. RCC pipes: Theygenerally made from 1:2 :2 with max size of aggregate as 6mm,
Provided with circumferential reinforcement to carry loop tension.
Note: Now prestressed concrete has replaced RCC pipes.

d. Asbestos Pipes: Asbestos, silica and cement are converted under pressure to a dense
homogeneous material possessing high stnyth called Asbestos --- The Asbestos fibre is
thoroughly mixed with cement which serves as Reinforcement. Joint by simplex Joint
 Light & easy to transport
 Highly resistant to corrosion
 Costly
 Brittle in nature
 Very smooth
 Resist deflection upto 12o

e. Miscellaneous

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 1. Copper Pipes: Though costly but are highly resistant to acidic and alkaline waters.
2. Wrought Iron Pipes: Lighter than cast Iron pipes. More costly But corrode quickly &
less durable therefore they are protected by galvanizing the with zinc coatings ku
galvanized iron pipes.
3. Plastic pipes: Lighter & free from corrosion.

4.4. Layout of water supply pipes or conducts.

 Pipes or conduits are used for conveying water from source to city & also for distributing the
same within the city.
 When pipes are used for bringing water from source to city only 1 or 2 pipes of same size are
generally laid.
 When they are used for distributing the water, they may be of different size having many
connections and Branches.
 Conduits’ which carries water from Treatment Plants may made up of “steel or RCC”. Where
as
 Conduits which are used for distribution water are made of cast iron with Bituminous
coating.

NOTE:-1. Pipes are generally laid on or below the ground.

 Main conduits are above the ground.
 Distribution pipes are laid under the ground.

2. For temperature effects, metal pipes are provided with expansion Joints.

Problems:

Q1. Which of the following pipes are widely used for Water Supply in the city?

a) RCC Pipes b) Steel Pipes

c) Asbestos Pipes d) Cast Iron Pipes [Ans:- B]
Q2. “Conduit” term is used for pipes supplying?
a) Sewage b) Raw Water
c) Both (a) & (b) d) Neither (a) nor (b) [Ans:- B]
Q3. Which of the following pipes are highly corrosion resistant?
a) Cast Iron Pipes b) RCC Pipes
c) Steel Pipes d) Asbestos Pipes [Ans:- A]
Q4. Which of the following has life as long as 100 years?
a) Cast Iron Pipes b) RCC Pipes
c) Steel Pipes d) Asbestos Pipes [Ans:- A]
Q5. Cast Iron Pipes are preferred with

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 a) Cement coating b) Steel Coating
c) Bitumen Coating d) Soil Coating [Ans:- C]

CHAPTER – 5
Distribution Networks

a. Layout of Distribution Networks

i. Dead End System

ii. Grid Iron system
iii. Ring system
iv. Radial system

i. Dead End System

 Also known as Tree system.

 Adopted for older towns
 Simple design
 Less pressure
 Open end ∴ Maximum wastage
 And Diseases

ii. Grid Iron System

 In this system water mains are designed in such a way that it runs from centre of city or
locality and serves the water to the adjoining areas sufficiently.
 Good pressure
 No wastage

iii. Ring System

In ring system of distribution main pipe line designed in such a way that it covers boundary of a
city and distributes the water in that boundary.
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NOTE:- Ring system has same advantages and Disadvantages as that of Grid Iron
system.

iv. Radial System

Radial system of distribution is most efficient system having no wastage but the pumps are
required to transfer the water to the overhead tank.

b. Plumbing System
Plumbing is a general term which includes the material and Fixtures used in the installation and
maintenance of connection.
A general layout of House water connection is shown in Fig.
Ferrule Connection Goose Neck

Service Pipe Water meter

Stop cork Boundary

Main Pipe

c. Ferrule:
A ferrule is a right angled pipe made of “Brass” and is joined to a hole drilled in the water main
d. Goose Neck:
It is a small sized curved pipe made up of flexible material usually “Lead”.
It forms flexible connection b/w water main & service pipe.Service pipeSupplies the water to the
building through municipal main.Is made of Galvanized iron.Stop cork is provided before the
water enters into the water meter.Water meter measures and records the quantity of water
consumed it is generally provided inside the house.

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Problems:

Q1. Dead End system is also known as

a) Branch system b) Tree System

c) Wastage system d) All of the above [Ans:- D]

Q2. Which of the following systems have same advantages and disadvantages?

a) Dead end & Ring system b) Ring & Radial System

c) Grid Iron & Ring System d) Radial & Ring System [Ans:- C]

Q3. Distribution Reservoirs are constructed in

a) Radial system of distribution b) Ring system of distribution

c) Grid Iron system of distribution d) Branch system of distribution [Ans:- A]\

Q4. Which of the following distribution system is most efficient?

a) Ring System b) Radial system

c) Branch system d) Grid iron system [Ans:- B]

Q5. In which of the following systems, Boundary is created by Pipe network?

a) Ring system b) Radial System
c) Grid Iron System d0 Branch System [Ans:- A]

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 CHAPTER – 6
PIPE APPURTENCES

6.1. VALVES:

There are mainly 5 types of valves

1. Sluice valve 2. Air valve 3. Pressure valve 4. Drain valve 5. Check
valve

1. Sluice Valve:- These valves are used to regulate the flow in the pipe.
These are provided at Summits

2. Air Valves:

Are provided at the summit on b/s of the Sluice valve.

These are used to remove accumulated air.
3. Pressure valves:

These valves are used to reduced the effect the water hammer.

4. Drain valves:-
Are used to remove out water during repair works these are provided at lower points.

5. Check valves:

These are used to prevent the backflow of water.

Also known as Non-Return valve. Pressure and Air value
Sluice value Reservior2

Pressure & Air value

Check value
Reservior 1

Drain value
Question: Which of the following valves are automatics?
1. Pressure valve 2. Check valve 3. Sluice valve 4. Air valve 5. Drain valve
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 Which of the above is/are correct???
a. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 b. 1, 2, 3 only c. 3, 4, 5 only d. 1, 2, 4 only
Ans. D 1, 2, 4 only

PART:- 1

WASTE WATER

ENGINEERING

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 CHAPTER – 1
SEWAGE SYSTEM

1.1. What is Sewage??

Sewage is defined as the mixtures of solids and Liquids waste products.
Sewage is broadly classified as:
1. Sanitary sewage
2. Storm sewage
1. SANITARY SEWAGE:- It includes domestic sewage + Industrial sewage.
2. STORM SEWAGE:-Sewage due to rain.

1.2. What is sewerage??

It is system of collection sewage, transportation it and finally disposing it.
What is sewer??
These are the underground Pipes which are used to transport sewage.

Types of Sewerage System:-

i. Combined sewerage system
ii. Partially separated system
iii. Separated sewerage system

 Combined Sewage System:

Sanitary + Storm Sewage
 Separated Sewage System:
Separate sewers are provided for storm and sanitary sewage. (Separately).
 Partially Separated System:
In partially separated system a part of “STORM System” is used.
Why sewer is designed as a circular section??
To maintain the constant velocity.

1.3. Components of sewage system:-

LATERAL SEWER

MAIN SEWER
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 BRANCH SEWER

OUTFALL SEWER

House → Treatment Plant

House → Lateral Sewer → Branch sewer
→ Main sewer → outfall sewer
NOTE: - The sewer which collects sewage from home is called HOUSE SEWER.

The sewer which transports sewage to the treatment plant is known as OUTFALL SEWER.
1.4. Calculation of peak Discharge:- (Max. discharge)
Rational Formula:- is used for the calculation of “peak Discharge”.
1
Q1 = K × PC × A
36

Where, QP = Peak Discharge (in Cumecs)

K = Co –efficient of run off
PC = Critical rainfall (cm/hr)
A = Area [ Catc h mentArea ] ( h ectares )

NOTE:The sewage discharge is assumed to be 75-80% of Raw water; supplied to that city.
 Maximum daily flow of sewage = 2 x Average Daily Flow
 Maximum Hourly Flow of sewage = 1.5 x Maximum Daily Flow.

Question:-If the Peak discharge is 2.4375 cumecs catchment Area is 36 hectares, the critical rainfall
intensity is 5cm/hr.
a. 2
b. 1.5
c. 1
d. 0.5
1
Sol:- QP = × K × 5× 36
36
2.4375× 36
=K
5× 36
K = 0.49
K = 0.5
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 CHAPTER – 2
LAYING AND CONSTRUCTION OF SEWER

2.1. Introduction

Sewers are Laid underground.

The difference b/w Conduits and sewer is:-
Conduits Carry only water where as
Sewers carry both solids and Liquids.
Provision of Free board is given in the sewer Because
 Addition of storm water during rainy days FB
 Future increase in population.

2.2. Hydraulic Formulas For designing the velocity in sewer:-

1. Chezy’s Formula:
V = C√ RS
Where, V = Velocity
C = Chezy’s constant
wettedArea
R = Hydraulic Mean depth [ Wettedperimeter ]
S = Slope.
Note:-Case 1:- When sewers are designed to Run half
π 2
D D o
R= 4 =
4
πD
Case 2:- When sewers are designed to Rum full.
π D 2
R=
4 2 ( )
D
π×
2
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 2
D
16 D
R= =
D 4
2
Chezy’s Constant can be calculated using KUTTER’S EQUATIONS.
0.00155 s 1
2. C=
( 23+
S ) +
n
0.00155 s n
1+ ( 23+ ) ×
S √R
Where, n = Rugousity Co – efficient
WettedArea
R = Hydraulic Mean Depth [ WettedPerimeter ]
S = Slope.

3. Bezin’s Formula:-
156
C = K
1. 81+
√R
4. Manning Formula:-
2 1
V=
1 3 2
R .S
n
Where, n = Manning’s Co- efficient
R = Hydraulic Mean Depth
S = Slope

3. Relation b/w Chezy’s and Manning’s Formula:-

2 1 2 1
1
C√ RS= . R 3 . S 2 C=
1 3−2
.R
n n
1 1 2 2 1
1 1 6
C x ( R)2 ×(S )2= R3 S 3 C= .R
n n
2
1 R3
C= . 1
n 2
R

5. William Hazen’s Formula

V = 0.85CH R0.64 S0.54
Where, CH = Constant.

Question:-Which of the following Co-efficient are dimensionless?

1. Chezy’s Co-efficient
2. Manning’s Co-efficient
a. 1 only b. 2 only c. Both 1 and 2 d.Neither 1 Nor 2

1. Chezy’s Constant:

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 V = C√ RS
1
m
=C ( m) 2
sec
1
m 2
C= ×m( )
sec
−1
m
C= ×m 2
sec
1
C = m 2 /sec ¿ √
m
sec
2. Manning’s Co – efficient:
2 1
1 3 2
V= . R .S
n
2
m 1 3
= .m
sec n
2
3
n = m × sec
m
2
n = m 3 −1 × sec
−1
n=m 3
× sec
sec
n= 1
m3

2.3. Self cleansing velocity :-( Shiel d ' sEquation )

It is the minimum velocity which prevents the “SILTING” in Sewers. This velocity must be
generated “Once in a day”.
8k
It is given by:
Where,
√ F S
( G −1 ) g× d
K = Dimensional constant F = Co-efficient of Friction
GS = SP. Gravity G = Acc. Due to gravity
d = Diameter of Grain

2.4. Hydraulic Equivalent Sections:

When 2 sewers of different shapes discharges the same amount of water on the same
grade while flowing such two sewers can be said as Hydraulically Equivalent sections.

100 cm
100 cm

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 2.5. Hydraulically Efficient Section:

A section is said to be Hydraulically Efficient

which has Minimum Area.
Maximum Discharge

CHAPTER – 3
CHARACTERISTIC OF SEWAGE

3.1. Introduction
Characteristics of sewage are important to study because degree of Treatment given to sewage
depends on its characteristics only. (Mainly biological).

3.2. Biological characteristics involves:

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Decomposition of organic matter which may be
Biologically Active (or)
Biologically Inactive

3.3. What is Decomposition??

Breaking down of organic matter by the micro-organisms is known as decomposition.

Decomposition is mainly of 3 types:

1. Aerobic
2. Anaerobic
3. Facultative
1. In aerobic decomposition, breaking of organic matter by micro-organism is carried out in
presence of air (oxygen) and the bacteria which are responsible for such decomposition are
known asAEROBIC BACTERIA
2. In anaerobic → No presence of oxygen and the bacteria which are responsible for such
decomposition are known asANAEROBIC BACTERIA.
NOTE:-
In case of anaerobic decomposition “FOULGASES” are evolved mainly Co2, CH4, H2S
(Hydrogen Sulphide).

3. Facultative: may be carried out “in presence” or “absence of oxygen” The bacteria which
works under both conditions are known asFACULTATIVE BACTERIA.

3.4. Biological Characteristics:

1. Dissolved oxygen (D.O)
2. Chemical oxygen Demand (COD)
3. Theoretical oxygen Demand (TOD)
4. Bio – chemical oxygen Demand (BOD)

1. Dissolved Oxygen (D.o):-

Whenever the sewage is thrown or disposed into a river, we must ensure the Permissible
amount of D.O in it.
D.O is the amount of Oxygen which is dissolved in sewage at any temperature and time.
D.O is very very imp. Constituent in sewage because it affects the aquatic life of the stream in
which it is to be disposed.

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Note:-
1. Whenever the sewage is discharged into the river its D.O is checked by method known
asWinkler’s method.
It is basically an oxidation Reduction Process.
2. If the temp. of the sewage is increased the D.O will increase.
3. Minimum D.O which must be kept in sewage before disposal is 4ppm.

COD: CHEMICAL OXYGEN DEMAND

It is the demand of oxygen to oxidize both biologically active and biologically inactive organic
matter

TOD:- THEORETICAL OXYGEN DEMAND

If the concentration of biologically active or inactive organic matter is known and their chemical
Formula where concentratn present in water is also known, Then oxygen demand is known
asTHEORETICAL OXYGEN DEMAND.

BOD:- BIO – CHEMICAL OXYGEN DEMAND

It is the amount of oxygen required by microorganism in order to carry out decomposition of

“Biologically active organic matter”.

Laboratory Test For Determining BOD:-

Step :- 1 Take sample

20ml

Step:- 2. Dilute the sample with Fresh water

80ml

100ml
20ml

Step:- 3. Calculate Dissolved oxygen using winkler’s method

Step:- 4. Put the sample in incubator at 20o c for 5 days.

Step:- 5 After 5 days, calculate Dissolved oxygen

Step:- 6 Calculate BOD using

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 Dilution
Dissolvedoxygen
Factor
( BOD )5= consumed × ↓
↓
VolumeofsampleafterDilution
( InitialDo−FinalDo )
VolumeofsamplebeoreDilution

Problem:-If 2.5ml of raw sewage has been diluted 250ml and D.O Concentrated of
Diluted sample at beginning of BOD test was 8 mg/L and 5 mg/L after 5 days.
Incubation at 20o C. Find BOD of raw sewage.

Sol:- Initial D.o = 8mg/L

Final D.O = 5 mg/L
2.5ml → 250 ml
BOD = D.O consumed x Dilution Factor
250
(8-5) x
2.5
= 3 x 100
= 300 mg/L

Problem:- 2% solution of sewage sample is incubated for 5 days at 20 o the

consumption dilution of oxygen was found to be 4ppm then BOD of sewage be:
a. 100 ppm b. 200 ppm c. 300 ppm d. 400 ppm

100
Sol:-D.o = 4ppm, =5 ( DilutionFactor 2% )
2
= 4 x 50
= 200ppm

NOTE:-It is not practically possible to calculate ultimate oxygen Demand

∴ BOD during 5 days at 20o c is generally taken as “STANDARD DEMAND”.

i. ( BOD )5 at 20o C is 68% of ultimate BOD
It is assumed that:
ii. ( BOD )10 at 20o cis 90 % ofultimateBOD

3. Concept of

i. 1st stage BOD

ii. 2nd stage BOD
iii.
A sample of sewage contains both carbonaceous matter and Nitrogen matter.

Microorganism, decomposes both these matters.

But Carbonaceous Matter is Firstly decomposed by micro organisms the demand of oxygen

required upto (A) is known as 1st STAGE BOD.

 After the decomposition of carbonaceous matter is over, microorganism starts

decomposition of Nitrogeneous matter.

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  The oxygen demand here is known as Nitorgeneous Biochemical oxygen Demand also

known as 2nd STAGE BOD.

NOTE:- We are mainly concern only with 1st stage BOD.

Nitrogenous Matter 2nd Stage BOD
B
BOD

A
Carbonaceous Matter

Ist stage BOD

Time
3.5. Ultimate Biochemical Oxygen Demand:-

It is the total demand of oxygen by the microorganism to decompose all the organic matter present in
the sewage.
Relation b/w ultimate BOD &( BOD )5
×t
( BOD )5 at =( BOD )u [1−10−k
2 oc
D
]
Where
( BOD )5=BODafter 5 dayat 20o c
( BOD )u=ultimateBOD
KD = De oxygenation Constant
T = time in days
 If the Temperature is not 20o c , then First of all
T −20
( K D )T O
C
= ( K D )20 [ 1. 047 ]
O

NOTE:- Ultimate BOD ( BOD )u does not depend upon Temperature.

Problem:-The 5 days at 30o C BOD of a sewage sample is 110 mg/L Calculate its 5 days BOD at 20 oC;

By assuming Deoxygenating constant at 20oC as “0.1”.

Sol:- Here, T = 30O C

T−20
Step1: ( K D )30 C =0 .1 [ 1−1 . 047 ]
O

30−20
( K D )30 C =0 .1 [ 1. 047 ]
O

( K D )30 C =0 .158
O

Step2:- Calculation of ( BOD )u

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 ×t
( BOD )30 C =( BOD )u [ 1−10−k
O
D
]
110o = ( BOD )u [ 1−10−0 . 158× 5 ]

= 131.3 mg/L

Step 3:-

×t
( BOD )20 C = ( BOD )u [ 1−10−K
O
D
]
= 131.3 [ 1−10−0 .1 ×5 ]
= 89.8mg/L

4. Concept of
Population Equivalent:-
Sewagehaving ( BOD )5 dischangefromindustries
Population Equivalent =
sewagehaving ( BOD )5 dischargebyperpersonperday

CHAPTER – 4
DISPOSAL OF SEWAGE
4.1. Introduction

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Before disposing the sewage effluent, it is important to study the source to which it would be
disposed off.
It is important to study the source (river, Land, sea or Lake) because only these studies can
decide the degree of treatment which should be given to sewage.

Disposal of sewage can be done in 2 ways.

1. By dilution
2. By Land or surface disposal

1. By Dilution:- Dilution is defined as the mixing of sewage with water, after its treatment.
The mixing may be done with river sea water or Lake.

 Mostly dilution is done in River Why???

Because the discharged sewage gets purified by the river or stream itself it is known as self
purification of River.
Self purification of river takes place with the help of abundant oxygen, oxidation –
Reduction process, sedimentation and sunlight.
Note:- Treatment required to the sewage depends on Dilution Factor.

4.2. What is Dilution Factor???

It is defined the ratio of quantity of diluted water to the quantity of sewage.

Types of Treatment Dilution Factor

No treatment is required >500

Primary treatment is required 300-500

Secondary treatment is required 150-300

Complete treatment is required <150

Self Purification of River:- When the sewage is discharged into natural body of water
initially it gets polluted but with the passage of time water gets clearer known asself purification
of natural stream.
Self purification can be achieved by physical as well as chemical forces.

Physical Forces: Sedimentation sunlight, Dispersion

Chemical Forces: Oxidation, Reduction

Zones of pollution in a River stream
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 1. Zones of Degradation

2. Zone of Active decomposition

3. Zone of Recovery

4. Zone of clear water

ZONE OF DEGRADATION ZONE OF ACTIVE DECOMPOSITION ZONE OF RECOVERY ZONE OF CLEAR WATER
Saturated Do
Turbidity High Survival of Fishes Survival of Fishes
No. Survival of Fishes Evolution of gases H2S1Co2, CH4
Survival of Fishes

40%

o
1. Zone of Degradation

 Sewage is added
 D.O. falls about 40%
 Turbidity is High
 There may or may not be survival of Fishes or any aquatic life

2. Zone of Active Decomposition

 Highly Polluted zone

 Organic matter fully decomposes here
 Evolution of gases mainly H S2 , Co 2 ,CH 4
 In this zone D.O Falls to ZERO
 BOD is maximum
 No survival of aquatic life

3. Zone of Recovery.

 During the movement of water it gets oxygen from atmosphere and recovers itself.
In this zone D.O increases But BOD decreases.
In this zone there may be survival of aquatic life.

4. Zone of clear water

 In this zone D.O reaches to saturation D.O

 Saturation D.O is the maximum D.O which may be present in the stream.

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NOTE:- If CS represents Concentration of sewage (BOD) conc.

QSrepresents Discharge of sewage

CR→ Concentration of River

QR→ Discharge of River

Then Concentration of Mixture will be

CS x QS + CR x QR = C mix ( Q R +Q S )

( C S × QS ) + ( C R ×QR )
Cmix =
QR +Q S Sewage

CS
QS

CR Cmix= ?
River
QR Q = QR + QS

Problem:- Sewage of a town is to be discharged into a river stream. The quantity of

sewage produced is 92.5l/sec. The concentration of sewage is 250 mg/l.
If the discharge in the river is 200l/sec & its concentration is 6mg/l, then a) what
should be the concentration of river at downstream site?
b) If BOD of diluted water is reduced to 20mg/l, then river discharge will be

CS = 250 mg/l
QS = 92.5 l/sec

CR = 6mg/L Cmix= ???

QR = 200 l/sec Q = QR + QS
b)
( 250× 92.5 ) + ( 6 × 20 )
Cmix =
200+92.5

20QR + 92.5 x 20 = ( 250 ×92.5 )+ ( 6 ×QR )

20QR +1850 = 23125 + 6QR

( 20−6 ) QR=23125−1850

14QR = 21275

QR = 1519.64 L/sec

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4.3 Disposal of waste water in Lakes

The disposal of sewage in the Lake is very harmful as there is no mechanism of self

purification as is case of a river.

The study of Lakes is known as “LIMINOLOGY”

The Prime Pollutant in Lake is “PHOSPHOROUS” which causes “EUTROPHICATION”

4.4. Stratification in Lakes:-

During the summer, the surface of Lake gets heated up by sunlight.

Therefore, top most water being Lighter remains in the upper Layer where as

Cooler water remains at some depth.

The topmost Layer is Epilimmion.

NOTE:- The Epilimmion depth depends on depth of the Lake its depth varies from (1 – 20)m

4.5. Biological Zones in Lakes:-

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Biological zones are based on:-

Availability of sunlight and

Oxygen

1. Euphotic Zone:- It is the zone through Which sunlight passes and there is availability of free oxygen.
In this zone plant life exists

“Secchi disc” is used to measure the depth of Euphotic zone to some extent.

2. Littoral zone:

 This is shallow water zone near the shore.

 This zone depends on the slope of Lake bottom.

3. Benthic Zone:

 In Benthic zone there is deposition of sediments

 Bacteria is always present especially Anaerobic Bacteria

Productivity of Lake:- The ability of a lake to support the Food chain is known as Productivity of Lake
On the basis of productivity Lakes are classified as

LAKE PRODUCTIVITY

OLIGOTROPIC Productivity is very less therefore water is clearer.

MESOTROPIC Productivity is medium water is medium clearer

EUTROPHIC Productivity is very high therefore water is highly Turbid

NOTE:-Senescent Lakes:

Senescent lakes are old shallow Lakes having organic sediment deposit at their bottom.
They support water plants and ultimately becomes Marshes.

Eutrophication of Lakes:- It is a natural process which takes place because of the Nutrients
released in the Lakes.

4.6. These Nutrients are:-

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Nitrogen

Carbon

Mainly Phosphorous

These nutrients help in the growth of algae and finally silt up the Lake and make them shallow.

The clear water of the Lake becomes Turbid and because of continuous decomposition it

becomes highly dangerous.

On the basis of productivity due to eutrophication Lake may change from oligotropic to

Eutrophic.

Note: - Eutrophication is a type of pollution caused by phosphorous (Chief food of

algae)
Hence it is undesirable

Disposal on Land:- Sewage is disposed on the land if there is no alternative.

Methods of Land Disposal.

Surface disposal

Sub surface disposal

Disposal by sprinklers

4.7. Disposal of sewage in sea water:- Sea –water has very less capacity to tolerate or to

support sewage because.

It contains large amount of dissolved matter and approximately 20% less oxygen

Points to remember for disposal of sewage on sea – water;

1. Sewage must be disposed during low tide

2. Sewage should be discharged in deepsea only

3. Point of disposal should be away from shore.

Sewage sickness
Anaerobic
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When sewage is disposed continuously on particular piece of land then all voids get filled up
with sewage. Initially there exists aerobic condition but soon. Anaerobic condition comes in role,
which results in the evolution of foul gases such as “CH 4, H2S Co2”.
Thus the clogging of voids with the sewage and the evolution of gases is known as SEWAGE
SICKNESS.

NOTES:-

1. Gases released during the process of decomposition are:

Co2 , CH4, NH3, N2, H2S.

2. Characteristics of sewage

Physical Turbidity colour Taste odour Temperature Biological Microganisms (Mainly Pathogenic diseases ca
Chemical suspended solids
PH
Nitrogen content Gases H2 S, Co2 Alkalinity Dissolved oxygen

3. If the colour of sewage is yellow or grey or light Brown. Then sewage is said to be Fresh

sewage.

4. If the colour of sewage is Black or Dark Brown, then sewage is said to be STALE

SEWAGE.

5. When all the oxygen from sewage disappears, it is said to be SEPTIC SEWAGE

6. Fresh sewage is odourless. After 3-4 hours when all the oxygen present is exhausted then

it starts giving foul smell and becomes septic sewage.

7. Oxygen deficient / D.O deficient = saturation – Actual

D.O D.O

CHAPTER – 5

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 TREATMENT OF SEWAGE

5.1. Introduction

Treatment of sewage totally depends on the source, where it is to be disposed off.

Treatment of sewage is necessary in order to maintain the quality of source, where it is to be

disposed

Sewage treatment generally consists of 4 basic treatments.

1. Preliminary Treatment

2. Primary Treatment

3. Secondary Treatment

4. Tertiary Treatment

 General Layout of sewage Treatment

Preliminary Treatment Primary Treatment Secondary Treatment Tertiary Treatment

Objective: To remove Objective: To remove Objective: Decomposition Objective: To kill

the suspended, suspended organic of organic matter present Pathogeni
Coarse, Floating matters which is not in sewage. microorganism by
Matter from sewage separated in Devices: CHLORINAR
Devices: prelimary Treatment Aerobic Anaerobic
Gritchambers Devices: Filters Septic
Screens Sedimentation Tank Trickling Filter Imhalf
Detritus tank tank
Skimming tank Rotating
Comminutors Biological
Contractor (Attached )
Oxidation
Pond

5.2. PRELIMINARY TREATMENT:

In this Treatment, Floating materials are separated

 Large impurities are Broken down

 Products such as oil and grease are removed

The devices used in preliminary treatment are:

i. Screens ii. Grit chambers iii. Detritus tank iv. Comminutors

v. Skimming tank

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 i. SCREENS
Screen
These are classified into:

Coarse screen Medium screen Fine screen

a. Coarse Screen

Spacing is 50mm or more, also known as PACKS.

b. Medium screen:

Spacing is about 6 to 40mm

c. Fine Screen:

Spacing is 1.5mm to 3mm

Fine screens are generally not used, because they get choked easily.

ii. GRIT CHAMBERS:

These are the rectangular tanks which are used to separate grit or any other heavy organic
material from the sewage.

NOTE:- Maximum Flow velocity is 30cm/sec

iii. DETRITUS TANK:- Light material such as sand or Light organic material which is not
removed in the Grit chamber are allowed to settle in this detritus Tank.
In this tank Flow velocity (Vf) is reduced and detention time is increased.

iv. COMMINUTORS:

When the sewage is passed through the communitors it breaks the Larger sewage solid into
smaller size with the help of cutters attached in the comminutors
These are also known as SHREDDERS.

v. SKIMMING TANK:

These are used to remove oil and grease from the sewage.
They are generally placed before the sedimentation tanks.
If oil and grease are not removed from the sewage it forms scums which obstruct the
treatment in sedimentation tank.
A typical skimming tank is shown in Fig.
Baffle wall
Oil and Grease

Swimming Trough

Compressed air
NOTE:- The disposal of skimming is done either by burning or burial.
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 Sometimes it is converted to get soap lubricants or candles.

Skimming Tanks are not used in India.

Oil and Greasy material may also be removed through Aeration.

NOTE:- The Preliminary Treatment reduces the BOD of sewage to 15 to 30%

Oil grease

5.3. PRIMARY TREATMENT:

In Primary Treatment, Plain sedimentation and sedimentation with coagulation are used.
This treatment removes heavy suspended organic matter by the process known as
SEDIMENTATION.
The design and process of sedimentation Tank is same as that in case of raw water.

NOTE:- Sedimentation Tank removes 60 – 65% suspended particles from sewage.

30 – 35% of BOD is also removed from the sewage by plain sedimentation tank.

5.4. SECONDARY TREATMENT:

The Purpose of Secondary Treatment is only the biological decomposition of organic matter.

This decomposition may be Aerobic or Anaerobic

In secondary treatment effluent of Primary sedimentation tank is used.

There are various biological units in which Bacteria decomposes the organic material and gives the clear

effluent.

These biological units works under Aerobic and Anaerobic conditions.

Units working under Aerobic condition.

i. Filters

ii. Trickling Filters

iii. Oxidation pond

iv. Rotating Biological Contractors (RBC) units working under Anaerboiccndition

v. Imhoff tank
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vi. Septic tank
These units may be classified as

Aerobic Suspended culture units Aerobic Attached culture units

a. Aerobic Suspended Culture units:

In such units micro-organism are allowed to remain in suspension.

For e.g

Oxidation Pond
Activated sludge Process
Sludge digestion Tank etc.

b. Aerobic Attached culture Units:

In such unit micro-organisms are allowed to stick with some media or device but not in
suspension.
Sewage is allowed to pass through this media or de device, and decomposition is carried out.

For e.g.

Filters

Trickling Filters

Rotating Biological contractors:

FILTERS:- Filters work on the principle of FILTRATION. I,e. sewage is passed through Filter
media and organic impurities gets arrested in the media.
There are various types of Filters used in the sewage treatments as:
Contact Beds
Intermitant sand Filters
Trickling Filter

Contact Bed Filter:

These are used for small plants, not now a days.

Intermittent Filter:

These are also used in smaller, but their area required is more, because contact media here is
Finerthan that in contact beds.

Trickling Filters:
These are used highly now a days for the process of filtration of sewage.
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 These are universally used for secondary treatment of sewage.

In this filter sewage is spread over the filter media with the help of distribution arm.

The micro – organism present of sewage gets clogged on the upper Layer of filter media and

decomposes all organic matter from the sewage passing through the filter media.

Thus the resultant effluent is free from organic material.

The layer of organisms over filter media is known as SLIME LAYER.

With the passage of time, the thickness of SLIME LAYER increases.

Micro – organisms present at the bottom Layer no Longer gets organic matter, as the organic

matter Consumed by top Layer micro-organisms

Hence there will be detachment of slime layer known as SLOUGHING.

Distribution Arm
Sewage

Slime Layer

5.5. High Rate Trickling Filter:

The Conventional High Rate Trickling Filter have same control construction and operation

details as that of Trickling Filter.

The only difference is High Rate Trickling Filter is that Recirculation of sewage is done; in order

to achieve High efficiency.

The sewage can be circulated by pumping a part the effluent from Trickling Filter back to

Primary sedimentation Tank or before the trickling Filter.

Primary sediment at tank

Preliminary Preliminary Trickling Filter Tertiary unit

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NOTE:- Trickling filters removes 75% of BOD.

Remove 80% of suspended solids

Working of Trickling filter does not require any skilled Labor or supervision

Trickling Filters are self cleansing

Their operational cost is high.

 The Filters cannot treat raw sewage.

∴Primary sedimentation is must.

 There are various operational troubles in this filter

Fly nuisance

odour nuisance

Ponding Trouble

5.6 Efficiency of Trickling Filter:

100
η=
1+0 . 0044 √ μ
Where,

η=EfficiencyofTriclkingFilterinBODremoval

μ=organicLoadingRateinkg/ha−m/day

There are 2 terms which are highly application in design of Trickling Filters:-

i. Organic Loading Rate

ii. Hydraulic Loading Rate

5.7. Organic Loading Rate:

The mass of BOD applied per unit volume of the Filter media per day known as Organic Loading

Rate.

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It is represented in kg / ha – m /day

5.8. Hydraulic Loading Rate:

Amount of sewage applied per unit surface area of the filter per day is known as Hydraulic

Loading Rate.

It is represented in Millthe hydraulic Loading then

More efficiency of Fiion Litre / hectare / day.

Problem:- Greater is
1. lter

2. Less efficiency of Filter

3. More BOD removal

4. More suspended solids removal

5. Less BOD removal

6. Less suspended solids removal

a. 1,3,4 b. 2, 5, 6 c. 1 and 3 only d. 2 and 6 only

5.9. Efficiency of High Rate Trickling Filter:

100
¿
y
1+ 0.0044
Where,
√ V .F

Y = Organic Loading Rate in kg/day

V = Filter volume in ha – m
F = Recirculation Factor

R
I
F=1+ 2
0.1 R
1+
I [ ]
Where,
R
=RecirculationRatio
I

R = Volume of sewage recirculated

I = Volume of Raw sewage

Problem:-If 100,000l Sewage is allowed to come out from the PST (Primary
sedimentation Tank) and then sent for secondary Treatment by Trickling Filter. In
order to achieve good efficiency 60% of sewage coming out from Trickling Filter is
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 sent back to the primary sedimentation Tank. Then the recirculation factor for
high Rate Trickling Filter would be
a. 1.50 b. 1.80 c. 1.18 d. 1.81

PST Trickling Filter 100,000

60% of 100,000
R
I 60,000
F=1+ 2
R
[ 1+0.1
L ]
60,000
100,000
=1 + 60,000
1+0.1 ×
100,000
1+0.6
=
( 1+ 0.1× 0.6 )2
1.6
= 1.12
= 1.18
NOTE:- Since in case of filters [ ContactBedFilters , IntermittentFiltersandTricklingFilter ] . The micro
– organism are attached with Filter media. Hence the system is known as
ATTACHED CULTURE.

iii. ROTATING BIOLOGICAL CONTACT:- (RBC)

These are basically the circular disc having diameter 3 – 3.5m

The disc are joined together and RBC are made general 8m in Length.

40% of diameter is emerged in the sewage.

The Layer of micro – organisms is attached with the surface.

The disc is made to rotate.

During rotation micro-organisms get organic matter from the sewage as their food and

Decomposes them with the help of abundant air present in the atmosphere.

Layer of micro – organism

Disc

Organic matter

Sewage
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NOTE:- Since in this case micro-organism are attached Hence this system is ATTACHED CULTURE.

AEROBIC SUSPENDED CULTURE UNITS:

In this system or culture micro- organisms are not attached with any surface but remains in suspension.

The devices which come under this system are:

i. Sludge Digestion Tank

ii. Activated sludge Process

iii. Oxidation Pond

i. Sludge Digestion Tank:-

Dome
To collect Gases
Sludge DigestnProcess

Supernatant Liquor

Digested sludge

The sludge in the sedimentation Tank contains organic matter.

This organic matter must be disposed;

∴ Their decomposition is carried out under controlled Anaerobic conditions.

Such a process of stabilizing the sludge is known as SLUDGE DIGESTION

(Decomposition).

The whole process is carried out in a closed Tank known as SLUDGE DIGESTION TANK.

In sludge Digestion process, the sludge gets broken down into following 3 forms:

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 a. Digestion sludge

b. Super natent Liquor :- The liquid and very minute solid matters having very

c. Digested sludge:- High BOD about 3000 ppm. This is sent back for treatment along

with Raw sewage in the treatment plant.

5.10. Stages in Sludge Digestion Process:

 Acid Fermentation
 Acid Regression
 Alkaline Fermentation

 Acid Fermentation:-

This is the First stage in which the fresh sewage sludge is attacked by “Anaerobic” and “Facu Ha
– live Bacteria and acids are formed.

 Acid Regression:

This is the IInd stage in which Nitrogenous compounds are attacked by Bacteria.

(ii) Alkaline Fermentation:

This is the Final stage in which proteins and organic Acid are attacked by the Bacteria
In this stage large amount of methane gases are evolved.

Activated sludge Process:

Effluent from the primary sedimentation Tank is mixed with the activated sludge which contains

large no. of micro – organisms.

The mixture is entered in aeration tank. In this tank air is continuously supplied.

Micro – organism decomposes all the organic matter present in the sewage.

The effluent obtained from the Activated sludge plant is of “High quality”.

BOD removal is upto 80-95%

NOTE:- The efficiency of Trickling Filter and Activated sludge tank is almost same

But

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Activated sludge Tank is preper only because it requires less Area as compared to Trickling Filter.

Design considerations; in Activated sludge Process:

i. Aeration period

ii. Volumetric BOD Loading

iii. Food to micro – organisms Ratio

iv. Sludge Age

v. Sludge volume Index

VolumeofTank
Aeration period:-
RateofFlow ( Dischargeofsewage )

MassofBODapplied
Volumetric BOD Loading :-
VolumeofTank

Yo = BOD in mg/L

Q× Y o
Q = Total Discharge =
V

F
Food to micro – organisms Ratio / ratio
M

MassofBODApplied
=
TotalMicrobialMass

(Amount of micro – organisms Mass)

iv. Sludge Age:-

It is denoted by o

It is defined as the average time for which particles of suspended solids remains under Aeration.

v. Sludge volume Index (SVI):-

It is defined as “Volume occupied in m l by “1g of solid” in mixed liquor after setting for “30

minutes”.

It is determined experimentally

NOTE:- The adopted range of sludge volume Index (SVI) is 50 – 150 ml.

Such value indicates a Good settling sludge.

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Oxidation Pond:- are constructed in order to stabilize the organic matter present in the

sewage or industrial waste water.

∴ They are also known asSTABILISATION PONDS.

5.11. Oxidation Ponds may work under:

Aerobic conditions
Anaerobic conditions
Facultative conditions
Or all of them

In oxidation Ponds, sewage is collected and then micro organisms are introduced in the pond

which carries out the decomposition of organic matter.

Oxidation Ponds requires HIGH DETENTION PERIOD which may vary from few weeks to

several weeks.

Usually Detention Period is 2-6 weeks

Detention period highly depends on:-

 Sunlight

 Temperature

More sunlight and Temperature less the Detentio6

n period Oxidation Pond may get Raw sewage or Partially Treated sewage.

If raw sewage is introduced it is known as LAGOONS.

The effluent of oxidation Pond may be thrown or disposed into a river. But if the river is not

available near by it may applied to the fields.

Oxidation Pond

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 5.12. Anaerobic Stabilization Units:-
1. Septic Tank

2. Inhoff Tank

The units which are operated under anaerobic conditions are called Anaerobic stabilization

units.

These units will receive untreated sewage.

The units which comes under this category are

septic Tank

Imhoff Tank.

1. Septic Tank:-

 It is primary a sedimentation Tank

 Detention Period is 12-36 hours.

 Removes “60-70% of dissolved matter.

 Effluent from such tanks are highly foul.

 Tanks are covered with RCC slabs.

 Vent pipe is provided to dispose off gases.

 Septic Tanks are generally provided in the areas where sewers have not been laid

 The digested sludge from Tank is periodically removed at intervals of “6 – 12 months” and

not exceeding “3 years”.

2. Imhoff Tank:-

 Is the improvement over the septic Tank.

In this Tank incoming sewage is not allowed to get mixed up with sludge

There are 2 chambers in this tank.

Upper chamber is known as sedimentation chamber

Lower chamber is known as Digestion chamber

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 Bafflewall Bafflewall

Inlet SEDIMENTATION CHAMBER Outlet

DIGESTION CHAMBER Sludge

Imhoff tank is designed by KARL IMHOFFF

These ALSO Known as 2 – storied Digestion Tank

In this tank sewage moves slowly from inlet towards outlet.

During its movement solid waste settle down a sedimentation and gets digested in Digesting

chamber.

Detention time is 2-4 hours, usually 2 hours These are not used now – a – days.

5.13. Tertiary treatment:-

Is generally provided to remove bacterial count from sewage

Chlorination of sewage is same as that of water supplies

In sewage also pre-chlorination & post chlorination can be done

Since it is very costly process, hence not adopted for normal sewage Treatment.

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 CHAPTER – 6
DISPOSAL OF INDUSTRIAL AND MUNICIPAL SOLID WASTE

6.1. What is solid waste??

It includes all those solid and semi-solid material which is discarded by community

Solid waste from domestic and commercial activities is known as Municipal solid waste (MSW)

or known as Refuse

The waste which is generated by an industry is known as Industrial waste (solid)

Human excreta and animals excreta comes under semi-solid waste.

Agricultural waste also comes under Municipal solid waste

Waste from Hospitals and Nursing homes is known as Bio-medical waste. This waste is highly

dangerous and ∴ disposed separately by Burial.

6.2. Municipal solid waste is classified as:

1. Garbage

2. Rubbish

1. Garbage:- Includes all organic matter which may come from kitchens, Hotels, Resturants

2. Rubbish:- These are other than organic material which may be combustible or Non –

Combustile

Combustible Non – Combustible

Paper, Cardboard Glass Mirror

6.3. Methods of Disposal of solid waste:-

1. Sanitary Land Filling ‘

2. Shredding and Pulverization

3. Compositing

4. Incineration and Thermal Pyrolysis

NOTE:- About 90% of MSW is disposed by Land Dumping i.e sanitary Land Filling.

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1. Sanitary Land Filling:- This is also known as controlled Tipping.

In this method refuse is dumped and compacted is layer of about 0.5m in thickness, then it

is covered with good earth.

This covering is done when depth of filling reaches to 1.5m

The thickness of earth is 15cm

Soil
Soil 15 cm
1.5 m
0.5 ms
2. Shredding and Pulverization: 0.5 ms

In this process the volume of MSW is reduced by cutting crushing and grinding then it is
disposed by filling in Trenches.

3. Compositing:

It is a biological method in which refuse is decomposed either under aerobic conditions or

anaerobic conditions.

6.4. In India there are 2 methods of compositing:

Indore Method

Bangalore Method

Indore Method:- It works under aerobic condition Manual turning of refuse is done

6.5. Bangalore Method:

Work under anaerobic condition

Manual turning is not done.

NOTE:- Sometimes Earthworms are used for decomposition organic matter. This is known as
VERMI COMPOSTING.

This method is very costly but quicker.

4. Incineration and Thermal pyroIysis:

Incineration includes Burning of refuse at high Temperature in absence.

Thermal physolysis includes burning of refuse in presence of air.

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 CHAPTER – 7
SEWAGE COLLECTION FROM HOUSES AND BUILDINGS

7.1. Introduction
The sewage from the houses is thrown to the Municipal sewers with the help of various Fittings

and Fixtures.

This is known as Plumbing system.

Plumbing system includes Transportation of sewage from the House to the nearby sewer.

7.2. General requirements of a efficient plumbing system:

i. Sewer pipes must not be placed within the walls.

ii. They must be placed at sides.

iii. Proper ventilation

iv. Drains must be straight

v. The house sewer level must be sufficiently high so that

vi. There would not be Back Flow.

vii. There must be good no. of Traps at suitable point’s water tight joints.

Traps are basically the Bent pipes which are attached at the end of waste pipes.

NOTE:- Waste Pipes are of 2 types:

Soil pipe: it carries human excreta.

7.3. Sullage pipe: it carries other waste from kitchen

The purpose of the trap is to prevent the passage of foul gases from the pipes to the outside.

NOTE:- The effectiveness of the Trap depends on depth of water seal.

P – Trap Q – Trap

Depth of water seal

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 S – Trap

1. Floor Traps

2. Gully Traps

3. Intercepting Traps

1. Floor Traps:

Floor Traps are generally used to admit waste water from the floors of rooms, kitchens or

bathrooms

2. Gully Traps:

Are provided at the junction of a room or a roof drain or any other drain

3. Intercepting Traps:

Are provided at the junction of house sewer and the Municipal sewer

The purpose of Intercepting Trap is to present the entry of foul gases of the Municipal sewer

to the house sewer.

The Purpose of Intercepting Trap is to present the entry of foul gases of the Municipal sewer

to the House sewer.

7.4. PLUMBING SYSTEMS USED IN DRAINAGE WORK OF A BUILDING

1. Two – pipe system:

Sullage pipes and soil pipes are provided separating with ventilation system.

2. One – pipe system:

One pipe for sullage and soil with ventilation system is provided.

3. Single stack system.

One pipe is provided with No ventilation system.
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4. Partially ventilated single stack system.

This is an important over single stack system is which ventilation is provided for water

closest.

5. Sanitary Fittings and Accessories:

All the Fittings which are required to receive human excreta and sullage waste of the house

comes under sanitary Fittings.

For e.g:- Water Closests (W.C)

Urinals

Wash Basins

Kitchen sinks

6. Anti – syphonage Pipe:

Is a pipe extended from the vent pipes?

Its purpose is to maintain the sufficient depth of water seal in the water closet.

AIR POLLUTION AND NOISE POLLUTION

Pollution literally means fouling the Natural Habitatand Environment.

The substances which render the environment polluted are known as POLLUTANTS

If such pollutants are found in the air, then pollution is said to be AIR POLLUTION.

Air pollutants may be classified as two main:

1. Primary Pollutants 2. Secondary pollutants

1. Primary pollutants:- Which are emitted naturally or directly by automobiles, burning of coal or

wood etc. are primary pollutants For e.g.

Oxides of sulphur (So2)

Oxides of Nitrogen (Nox)

Suspended particular Matter

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 2. Secondary pollutants:

These are not released directly.

These pollutant either formed by the reaction of primary pollutants with other pollutants or with

moisture, sunlight.

For e.g

Sulphuric Acid (H2So4)

Ozone (O3)

PAN (PeroxyAcetyle Nitrate)

LAPSE RATE: - In the atmosphere as the height increases, temperature decreases. This variation is

known as Lapse Rate.

At a particular place, the prevailing Lapse Rate is known as ENVIRONMENT LAPSE RATE (ELR)

The theoretical Lapse rate is known as ADIBATIC LAPSE RATE (ALR)

3 Conditions

Conditions1:- ELR >ALR :Unstable atmosphere. Condition: 2 ALR>ELR Stable

Atmosphere

Height
ALR
Height
ALR
ELR
ELR

Temp.
Temp.

Condition 3 : ALR = ELR Neutral Atmosphere

Height
ALR
ELR

Temp.

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Negative Lapse Rate:

ELR > ALR

Looping Plume

ELR = ALR

Fanning Plume
Neutral Plume

ELR < ALR

Coning Plume

of pollutions (generally particulate Matter in Industries) Devices used are:

1. Gravitational settling chambers 2. Cyclone collector

Outlet
Outlet

Particulate Matter

Gases

Particular Matter
Inlet

Inlet

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 3. Electrostatic Precipitator 4. Wet scrubbers
Outlet
Outlet
Sprayers

+ve Electrodes having +ve change

+ve Particular having –ve change

-ve
Particulate Matter

Inlet

Inlet
NOISE POLLUTION:
Noise is defined as unwanted sound pollutant which produces undesirable psychological and
physiological effect in an individual; by interfering in the social activities such as work sleep, Rest etc.
Sound is measured in Decibel (bd)

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