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ITP
29,2
Empowering the elderly
population through
ICT-based activities
318
An empirical study of older adults in Korea
Received 8 March 2015
Revised 16 June 2015 Mann Hyung Hur
Accepted 3 July 2015 Chung-Ang University, Seoul, Republic of Korea

Abstract
Purpose – The purpose of this paper is to focus on elderly people who have adopted Information
and Communication Technology (ICT) and participated in ICT-based activities, and explore
variables associated with their individual and collective empowerment by using data collected by a
questionnaire survey.
Design/methodology/approach – A set of 14 questions was developed to measure older adults’
perceived psychological empowerment. A factor analysis was conducted to condense 14 individual
variables into several large categories. Finally, a set of multiple regression analyses was employed to
identify variables associated with the elderly’s individual and collective empowerment.
Findings – Three factors, including a sense of meaning; competence/self-determination; and collective
empowerment were extracted from the 14 questions. Multiple regression models revealed that elderly
empowerment is not a matter of social skills, ICT skills, or complementary skills, but is more likely to
result from their being interested in ICT and ICT-based activities. Learning activities in ICT-based
activities and participation frequency were found to be predictors of both meaning and competence/
self-determination dimensions.
Research limitations/implications – The major finding of this study concerns the development of
a measure that assesses three factors of empowerment in older adults, i.e., sense of meaning,
competence/self-determination, and collective empowerment. This study represents an initial step in
establishing the measure, and therefore, further work is needed to establish its psychometric
properties, particularly external validity.
Originality/value – This study is one of the first studies to focus on older people’s empowerment
construct and its relation to ICT-based activities.
Keywords Behaviour change, Self-efficacy, Information seeking behaviour, IT capability
Paper type Research paper

Introduction
The elderly have traditionally been excluded from the deployment of Information and
Communication Technology (ICT). They are frequently described as technophobic.
This characterization has fostered a stereotype of the elderly as the age group with the
lowest rates of computer and internet usage (Neves and Amaro, 2012; Saunders, 2004).
However, the emergence of smartphones has helped the elderly to rapidly change their
attitudes toward ICT and the internet (Boontarig et al., 2012). The use of the internet by the
elderly has increased rapidly across the world in the last several years. In Korea, internet
use among old adults (above 60 years old) increased from 30 percent in 2011 to 71.6 percent
by 2013, with half of the elderly users participating in social networking services (SNS),
Information Technology & People such as Twitter, Facebook, Blogs, etc. (Korea Internet Security Agency, 2013).
Vol. 29 No. 2, 2016
pp. 318-333
Currently, both ICT and SNS have a major effect on the lives of older adults. ICT and
© Emerald Group Publishing Limited
0959-3845
SNS faciliate independent living for elderly people with age-specific barriers, such as
DOI 10.1108/ITP-03-2015-0052 impaired mobility, vision, and hearing, etc. (Gaßner and Conrad, 2010), allow governments
to deliver telecare services to older people and their families at home (Hedström, 2007), and An empirical
enhance their quality of life by electronically connecting them to all corners of society. study of older
ICT and SNS are advocated as a means for older people to overcome social exclusion and
promote social inclusion (Percival and Hanson, 2006). In this context, ICT-based activities
adults in
can be described as a potent tool for older adults’ individual and collective empowerment. Korea
However, so far, little research has been conducted on older adults’ empowerment
through ICT-based activities. Many studies have centered on improving their standing 319
in relation to the “digital divide” (Mildward, 2003) by facilitating their internet and SNS
engagement (Hill et al., 2008). However, skills permitting older adults to use the internet
and SNS effectively, i.e., ICT skills, social skills, and complementary skills, have rarely
been assessed in relation to active aging and empowerment. This study focussed on
elderly people who have adopted ICT and participated in ICT-based activities, and
explored variables associated with their individual and collective empowerment by
utilizing data collected by a questionnaire survey.

Literature review
Empowerment
The concept of empowerment arose in relation to a reaction to oppression and inequality
within society. Power and powerlessness, as well as oppression and liberation, are key
concepts related to this term (Hage and Loresen, 2005). Empowerment is usually
described as a multidimensional social learning process of gaining control over one’s life
by acquiring the necessary knowledge and skills to improve one’s life situation (Payne,
1997; Saleebey, 2006). In addition, empowerment is usually examined in the context of
both individual and collective aspects (Hur, 2006).
Individual empowerment relates to the way that people think about themselves, as
well as the knowledge, capacities, skills, and mastery that they actually possess (Staples,
1990). Four dimensions can be discerned from the review of various studies in the extant
literature, i.e., a sense of meaning, competence, self-determination, and impact (Spreitzer,
1995, 1996; Hur, 2006; Zhang and Bartol, 2010). A sense of meaning refers to the value of
a task’s goal or purpose judged in relation to one’s ideals or standards (Wang and Lee,
2009). Meaning involves a fit between the requirements of work and life roles and beliefs,
values, and behaviors (Spreitzer, 1995, 1996). Competence refers to an individual’s ability
to perform a job properly. Self-determination is considered to constitute one of the most
critical factors in individual empowerment. It refers to a state of autonomy in one’s
decisions and circumstances. Self-determination reflects an individual’s sense of having
choice in initiating and regulating action (Deci et al., 1989). Impact refers to an
individual’s belief that he or she has influenced strategic, administrative, or operating
outcomes at work or in society (Hur, 2006).
Collective empowerment reflects psychological cognitions of how a group of people
overcomes barriers and gains capacities to change its social position. It refers to a
process by which individuals join together, help one another, learn together, and
develop skills to engage in collective action (Boehm and Staples, 2004; Fetterson, 2002).
Collective empowerment develops when people join in action together to resolve
particular social problems and achieve social change. Groups become empowered
through collective, collaborative action (Hur, 2006; Moyer et al., 1999; Staples, 1990).
Empowerment is a critical issue not only for the marginalized, but also for any
population group that feels a lack of capacity for life and work. This also applies to
older adults, because they are frequently marginalized as economically unproductive
and psychophysically dependent ones (Green, 1993; Angus and Reeve, 2006). In this
ITP sense, empowerment has been a focus of various disciplines, such as social work and
29,2 social welfare, education, and management. Many previous studies in these fields
proposed that an empowerment construct comprises four dimensions, i.e., meaning,
competence, self-determination, and impact, and explored the relationship between these
dimensions and active aging (Bowling, 2008), organizational commitment (Kraimer et al.,
1999), job satisfaction (Wang and Lee, 2009), and managerial effectiveness (Zhang and
320 Bartol, 2010). Although the empowerment construct has not been challenged, the
construct was found to be sensitive to organizational position and gender (Boudrias et al.,
2004), and the impact dimension was found not to load strongly on the empowerment
construct (Kraimer et al., 1999). In addition, few studies have focussed on the relationship
between older adults’ empowerment and ICT-based activities.

ICT-based networks and activities

ICT-based networks provide a great development opportunity for marginalized
populations, such as the elderly, the disabled, and other vulnerable groups, by
disseminating valuable information applicable to their quality of life (Blaschke et al.,
2009). The needs and concerns of older adults as computer users appear to differ from
those of younger users. The main activities that older adults engage in are (Wagner
et al., 2010): communication and social support (Mann et al., 2005); leisure and
entertainment (White and Weatherall, 2000); and information seeking (Opalinski, 2001),
particularly in the area of health-related information and education. Benefits from the
use of computers and the internet include increased contact with family and friends,
and health- and education-related information. ICT solutions are increasingly more
widely employed as a loneliness-reducing intervention, as well as a means to help older
people to help themselves. As a result, access to, and effective use of, ICT-based
networks promote the empowerment of elderly people and help them to gain power and
control over decisions that determine the quality of their lives (Nugent, 2007).
Not all ICT-based activities necessarily contribute to the alleviation of the digital
divide and the promotion of empowerment, although ICT is frequently characterized as
a dynamic development tool (Amirtham and Joseph, 2011). For example, individuals
have to be interested in ICT and SNS. They also must possess appropriate skills to
access ICT-based environments and communicate with others in these environments.
In addition, individuals should have proper objectives to gain access to the internet and
SNS; otherwise, they could easily contribute to the digital divide. Especially,
marginalized individuals, such as the elderly and the disabled, are often excluded from
ICT-based social environments, although powerful arguments exist that ICTs can
provide them with a greater range of choices (Letch and Carroll, 2008). Digital exclusion
often compounds social exclusion (Klecun, 2008). Therefore, overcoming weaknesses
and enhancing empowerment through ICT-based activities seem to depend on their
ICT-friendly habits and skills, as well as the specific purposes of the SNS activities.
Some authors argue that only some particular habits and skills can promote elderly
empowerment. Selwyn (2004) suggested several factors that may promote
empowerment, including individual interest in ICT, ICT skills, and social skills. Of
these three factors, Selwyn emphasized the primacy of the first factor. Newholm et al.
(2008) added three additional factors, i.e., complementary skills, feasability, and
available time. Of the three factors, complementary skills has frequently received
attention in the fields of management and leadership studies. Complementary skills
refers to capabilities through which one facilitates the absorption of the other or
compensates for the deficiency of the other (Cooney, 2004). Hill et al. (2008) suggested
four factors, i.e., perceptions, culture, interpersonal relationships, and operational skills. An empirical
Perceptions refer to attitudes toward ICT; whereas, operational skills represent ICT study of older
skills. Interpersonal relationships indicate social skills. All of these habits and skills are
advocated as instruments that promote self-efficacy in ICT-based activities. Of these
adults in
factors, ICT skills, social skills, and complementary skills seem to most frequently Korea
receive attention from researchers. However, few studies have investigated the habits
and skills that are significantly associated with older people’s empowerment. 321
Individuals have different reasons to engage in ICT-based activities. Some individuals
engage in these activities to collect information (Campbell, 2008); whereas, others do so to
build social relations (Thayer and Ray, 2006). In addition, individuals sometimes access
the internet for the purposes of online learning and shopping (White and Weatherall,
2000; Dorin, 2007). Hence, older adults’ empowerment may be promoted by particular
objectives of participating in ICT-based activities. These objectives can be summarized
as improvement of social relationships, information collection, learning, shopping, and
promoting job/business activities. Of these activities, learning has been identified as a
factor associated with elderly empowerment (Selwyn, 2004). The information collection
variable also has been described as a factor associated with elderly empowerment,
especially the elderly with health problems (Marschollek et al., 2007). However, few
studies have explored the relationship between older adults’ empowerment and its
relationship with objectives of participating in ICT-based activities.

Previous studies on the elderly’s empowerment through ICT-based activities

The field of gerontology has focussed on ICT and SNS since the emergence of new social
networking methods around the late-1990s and the early-2000s, such as MySpace,
LinkedIn, and Facebook. Most studies in this field have focussed on the elderly’s use of
ICT and the internet, the use of ICT and the internet in elderly care (Marschollek et al.,
2007; Melander-Wikman, 2007), and social inclusion of the elderly in online communities
(Gamberini et al., 2008; Klecun, 2008). Older people’s adoption of ICT needs to be
treated as more than merely a question of usability improvement (Hernández-Encuentra
et al., 2009); it also has to be directed toward empowerment building.
Broadly speaking, research on elderly people’s empowerment through ICT and SNS, if
any, has been primarily involved with: the elderly’s digital empowerment; and their
psychological, socioeconomic, and political empowerment. The former has focussed
mainly on empowering elderly people’s usage and acceptance of ICT and SNS (Benoit
et al., 2009; Neves and Amaro, 2012) and playing and learning through ICT and SNS
(Downes, 2004). The latter has focussed on elderly people’s connectivity with others
through ICT-based activities (Ianculescu and Parvan, 2011), digital inclusion of elderly
people (Ramos et al., 2005), and social relationships among the elderly (Eggermont et al.,
2006). Some of these studies (e.g. Neves and Amaro, 2012) may have even misinterpreted
or improperly used the term “empowerment.”
A recent study was conducted based on the theoretical frameworks of individual
and collective empowerment in online communities (Petriča and Petrovčiča, 2014).
However, this study overlooked the dimensions of individual and collective
empowerment. This study did not focus on a specific population group, although the
patterns of empowerment can differ in accordance with the characteristics of a given
population group. Empowerment as a construct may be sensitive to some population
groups (Boudrias et al., 2004).
ICT policies for older adults extend beyond their digital empowerment, and focus
on empowering independence, quality of life, and aging, as well as individual and
ITP collective empowerment. Participating in ICT-based activities can build empowerment
29,2 and improve the aging process. These activities can assist elderly people to remain
independent and active at work or in their community (Gaßner and Conrad, 2010).
However, only few empirical studies have addressed these activities.

Methodology
322 Target population
This study focussed on older adults’ empowerment as a construct and its relationship
with ICT-based activities. Its target population comprised individuals who have
participated in continuing education programs provided by general social welfare
centers and elderly welfare centers in Seoul, Korea. Continuing education programs
consisted of foreign language classes, such as English, Chinese, and Japanese;
computer and internet classes; sports dance classes; health and fitness classes; and
culture classes.
Individuals older than 60 years of age were eligible to participate in the continuing
education programs. In Korea, general social welfare centers have been established to
provide an array of welfare services, varying from poverty relief for the poor and job
training programs to domestic abuse, health issues, and social care for community
members, etc. Elderly welfare centers are partially financed by local governments to
provide care to the elderly population.

Data collection
A questionnaire was developed to measure both individual and collective empowerment
among elderly people who have participated in the continuing education programs.
The objective of this study was to identify factors that predict improvements in older
people’s empowerment. The study was carried out with the cooperation of social
workers in charge of the continuing education programs offered in the welfare centers.
A questionnaire was sent to the social workers in 30 centers via e-mail. The social
workers distributed the questionnaire to the participants of the continuing education
programs. Out of approximately 900 participants of the continuing education program,
246 responded to the questionnaire survey.
The average age of the 246 respondents was 69.4, ranging from 60 to 85 years of age.
Of the 246 resondents, 63.3 percent had a high school diploma or a high school
certificate. Only 10 percent graduated from a community college, and 14.7 percent
graduated from a four-year college. The sample comprised 30.3 percent males and
69.7 percent females. More females than males tended to participate in the continuing
education programs offered in the welfare centers. Of the respondents, 83.6 percent
were unemployed, and 6.9 percent were employed. The rest, or 9.5 percent, had part-
time jobs. The term, “unemployed,” may not be appropriate for older adults, because
many of them have retired. This study was interested in whether or not older people’s
economic activities, regardless of part-time or full-time, have a relationship with their
individual and collective empowerment.

Dependent variables
In this study, a set of multiple regression models was employed to explore significant
predictors of individual and collective empowerment. Using the extant literature on
empowerment theories, such as Spreitzer’s (1995) psychological empowerment, a set of
14 questions, as shown in Table I, was developed to measure older adults’ perceived
 Individual empowerment
An empirical
Competence/Self- Factor 3: collective study of older
Items for empowerment Meaning determination empowerment α adults in
Understanding the meaning of life 0.649 0.582 0.364 0.950 Korea
Understanding the meaning of daily
life activities 0.726 0.426 0.472
Finding attractiveness in daily life 323
activities 0.690 0.502 0.424
Having confidence in daily life activities 0.578 0.592 0.439 0.972
Having self-assurance in the
performance of daily life activities 0.393 0.765 0.424
Having confidence in newly formed daily
life activities 0.374 0.776 0.390
Having capabilities of expressing the self 0.332 0.814 0.362
Having capabilities of selecting better
alternatives 0.370 0.631 0.576
Having capabilities of making decisions
on particular problems 0.358 0.770 0.437
Having capabilities of making relations
with others 0.443 0.358 0.740 0.970
Having capabilities of working together
with others 0.330 0.465 0.732
Having capabilities of building teams Table I.
with others 0.253 0.360 0.861 Rotated component
Having capabilities of building coalitions 0.321 0.346 0.851 matrix: individual
Having capabilities of solving problems and collective
with others 0.328 0.375 0.813 empowerment

psychological empowerment. These questions related to one of four components of

individual and collective empowerment (i.e. meaning or awareness of limited potential,
competence, self-determination, and collective empowerment).
Each question was measured on a seven-point scale, with 1 ¼ entirely unchanged,
2 ¼ rarely changed, 3 ¼ slightly changed, 4 ¼ moderately changed, 5 ¼ mostly
changed, 6 ¼ almost entirely changed, and 7 ¼ entirely changed. For instance,
respondents were asked to give a rating of “1” if a particular pattern of life, such as
“capabilities of self-expression,” remained “entirely unchanged” after participating in
ICT-based activities for a certain period, give a rating of “4” if their pattern of life
“moderately changed,” or give a rating of “7” if the pattern “entirely changed.”
A factor analysis was conducted to condense 14 individual variables into several
large categories. As can be seen in Table I, three factors were extracted from the
14 questions. Factor 1 consisted of three questions, and it could be characterized as the
meaning factor. The reliability coefficient (α) of Factor 1 was 0.950, showing strong
internal consistency among the three variables. This meaning variable, representing a
dimension of individual empowerment, represents an awareness of an individual’s
limited potential to change the circumstance (Robbins et al., 1998).
Factor 2 consisted of six questions and represented the competence/self-
determination factor. The reliability coefficient of Factor 2 was 0.972, also exhibiting
strong intercorrelations among the six variables. In previous studies (Hur and Im,
2013), the first three questions were condensed into the competence dimension of
individual empowerment, and the latter three into the self-determination dimension
ITP of individual empowerment. Factor 3 consisted of five questions characterized as
29,2 collective empowerment. Its reliability coefficient was 0.970, showing strong internal
consistency among the five variables.
Therefore, the original set of 14 questions was divided into three factors, which
stand for the dimensions of both individual and collective empowerment. Two of the
factors correspond to individual empowerment, and the last factor stands for collective
324 empowerment. Each of the three factor scores was utilized as a dependent variable
in this study.

Independent variables
Independent variables were selected from three areas: individual habits and skills in
ICT-based environments; objectives of participating in ICT-based activities; and
demographic information. The first area, i.e., individual skills and habits in an
ICT-based environment, could be divided into an interest in what ICT can deliver, ICT
skills, social skills, complementary skills (Carreira and Potowski, 2011), discretionary
time (Ronan, 2011-2012), and participation frequencies. The second area, or objectives
of participating in ICT-based activities, could be categorized into the improvement
of relationships (Magnier-Watanabe et al., 2010), information collection, enhancement of
learning (Callaghan and Bower, 2012), and promoting work/business activities
(Hur and Im, 2013).
As seen in Table II, six independent variables assessing individual skills and habits
in ICT-based environments were measured on a seven-point scale, with 1 ¼ extremely
low, 2 ¼ very low, 3 ¼ low, 4 ¼ moderate, 5 ¼ high, 6 ¼ very high, and 7 ¼ extremely
high. Each variable was measured with a single item. For instance, respondents, in
answering questions, were asked to indicate “7” when their social skill was extremely
high, and “2” when their complementary skill was very low. Five independent variables
assessing the objectives of participating in ICT-based activities were also measured on
a seven-point scale, with 1 ¼ never, 2 ¼ rarely, 3 ¼ occassionally, 4 ¼ sometimes,
5 ¼ frequently, 6 ¼ usually, and 7 ¼ every time participate in ICT-based activities. Each
factor was also measured with a single item. For instance, respondents were asked to
indicate “6” when they “usually” participated in ICT-based activities for learning and
“3” when they “occasionally” participated in such activities to gather information. This
study included demographic information on age, education, and employment.

Statistical analysis
A set of multiple regression analyses was employed to identify variables associated with
the elderly’s individual and collective empowerment. Each of the three factors extracted
from the factor analysis, i.e., meaning, competence/self-determination, and collective
empowerment, was utilized as a dependent variable in the multiple regression analysis in
this study. The first two equations predicted individual empowerment, and the last one
predicted collective empowerment. A multicollinearity test was performed to diagnose a
phenomenon in which two or more independent variables are highly correlated.

Results
Overview
A set of three multiple regression analyses was conducted to explore variables associated
with two dimensions of individual empowerment, i.e., meaning and competence/self-
determination, and collective empowerment. As seen in Table III, no models were exposed
 Independent variables Measurements
An empirical
study of older
Individual skills and habits An interest in what ICTs deliver 7-point scale 1 ¼ Extremely low; adults in
in ICT-based environments ICT skills 7-point scale 2 ¼ Very low;
Social skills 7-point scale 3 ¼ Low; Korea
Complementary skills 7-point scale 4 ¼ Moderate;
Discretionary time 7-point scale 5 ¼ High; 6 ¼ Very
Participation frequencies 7-point scale high; 7 ¼ Extremely 325
high
Objectives of participating Improvement of relationships 7-point scale 1 ¼ Never;
ICT-based activities Information collection 7-point scale 2 ¼ Rarely;
Learning 7-point scale 3 ¼ Occasionally;
Shopping 7-point scale 4 ¼ Sometimes;
Promoting job/business activities 7-point scale 5 ¼ Frequently;
6 ¼ Usually;
7 ¼ Every time
Demographic information Age Age
Education 1 ¼ elementary, 2 ¼ middle, 3 ¼ high, Table II.
4 ¼ college, 5 ¼ graduate level Individual variables
Employment 0 ¼ unemployed, 1 ¼ part-time, and their
2 ¼ full-time measurements

to multicollinearity problems. None of the VIF values in the three models exceeded 10.
Each individual model revealed a different set of variables that contributed to the
improvement of elderly empowerment.
As seen in Table III, the predictors of the competence dimension were divided
equally into all three areas of independent variables, i.e., perceived individual skills and
habits, objectives of participating in ICT-based activities, and demographic variables.
However, the predictors of the competence/self-determination dimension included the
variables of the objectives of participating in ICT-based activities and demographic
variables. The predictors of self-determination and collective empowerment included
perceived individual skills and habits in ICT-based environments, as well as the
objectives of participating in ICT-based activities.
Four of the six independent variables of the individual skills and habits in an
ICT-based environment were not associated with any of the dependent variables. Both
ICT skills and complementary skills were expected to be associated with competence/
self-determination, but this was not the case in this study. The social skills variable was
expected to be a significant predictor of collective empowerment, but this hypothesis
was not supported either.
Two of the five variables of the objectives of participating in ICT-based activities
were not associated with any of the dependent variables. The improvement of
relationship variable was expected to be a predictor of collective empowerment, and the
information collection variable was expected to be a predictor of the competence/self-
determination. However, no such evidence was found in this study.
Suprisingly, all three variables of the demographic information area were associated
with at least one of the three dependent variables. Elderly people’s employment
situation, such as unemployed, part-time, or full-time, predicted a sense of meaning;
age and education predicted competence/self-determination; and education predicted
collective empowerment.
 ITP
29,2

326

collective
Table III.

predictors of

empowerment
individual and
Analyses of the
Individual empowerment
Meaning Competence/self-determination Collective empowerment
Independent variables B t p B t p B t p VIF

Constant 0.233 0.167 0.868 −3.574 −3.396 0.001 −0.963 −2.703 0.008 –
Individual skills and habbits in An interest in what ICTs deliver 0.197 1.902 0.060* −0.031 −0.310 0.757 0.250 2.705 0.008** 4.267
ICT-based environments ICTs skills 0.126 1.377 0.172 −0.085 −1.077 0.285 0.029 0.302 0.763 2.659
Social skills −0.171 −1.374 0.173 −0.017 −0.156 0.877 0.088 0.667 0.500 4.653
Complementary skills −0.122 −0.999 0.320 0.084 0.795 0.429 0.020 0.160 0.873 5.177
Discretionary time 0.037 0.362 0.718 −0.034 −0.381 0.704 −0.092 −0.861 0.392 4.282
Participation frequencies 0.145 1.812 0.073* 0.132 2.692 0.008** −0.045 −0.432 0.667 4.403
Objectives of participating in Improvement of relationship −0.096 −1.151 0.253 −0.033 −0.464 0.644 −0.050 0.575 0.567 2.725
ICT-based activities Information collection 0.074 0.508 0.613 −0.012 −0.096 0.924 0.051 0.340 0.735 9.171
Learning 0.198 2.756 0.007** 0.197 3.681 0.000** −0.092 −0.701 0.485 6.503
Shopping −0.124 −2.250 0.027** 0.126 2.659 0.009** 0.015 −0.185 0.853 2.576
Promoting business activities −0.043 −0.546 0.587 0.043 0.620 0.537 0.229 3.876 0.000** 3.408
Demographic information Age −0.024 −1.383 0.170 0.028 2.047 0.044** −0.006 −0.322 0.748 1.147
Education −0.195 −1.047 0.229 0.279 1.918 0.058* −0.312 −1.882 0.063* 1.254
Employment situation 0.104 2.342 0.021** −0.055 −1.186 0.239 −0.042 −0.692 0.491 1.368
ANOVA: F (Sig.) F ¼ 8.436 (0.000) F ¼ 13.279 (0.000) F ¼ 6.550 (0.000)
Notes: *p ⩽ 0.10; **p ⩽ 0.05
Variables associated with the meaning dimension An empirical
Five of the 14 independent variables were significantly associated with the meaning study of older
dimension. Three variables were individual skills and habits in an ICT-based environment,
two were the objectives of participating in ICT-based activities, and one was a
adults in
demographic variable. Contrary to expectations, neither perceived social skills, ICT skills, Korea
nor complementary skills predicted the meaning dimension. Consistent with Selwyn’s
(2004) observations, this study showed a significant association between the variable 327
“an interest in what ICTs deliver” and the meaning dimension. Being interested in ICT was
a positive predictor of a sense of meaning for the elderly. The frequency of participation
variable was also a significant predictor of the meaning dimension. The more frequently
elderly participated in ICT-based activities, the greater was their sense of meaning.
Two of the five variables measuring the objectives of participating in ICT-based
activities were significantly associated with the meaning dimension. Learning and
shopping variables were both significantly affiliated with the meaning dimension.
Participating in ICT-based activities for learning could improve the meaning
dimension among Korean elderly people. However, shopping was negatively
associated with a sense of meaning. The use of ICT for shopping was associated
with a smaller reported change in empowerment. However, this may not be equivalent
to actual decreases in meaning.
The other three variables of the objectives of participating in ICT-based activities,
specifically, improving relationships, gathering information, and promoting business
activities, were not associated with the meaning dimension. The employment variable
was a significant predictor of the meaning dimension among the elderly in Korea.
In other words, the better the employment situation, the greater the sense of meaning.
However, age and education did not predict the meaning dimension for the elderly
population studied.

Variables associated with the competence/self-determination dimension

Five of the 14 independent variables were significantly associated with the competence/
self-determination dimension. One of the six variables from the area of perceived
individual skills and habits in ICT-based environments was identified as a significant
predictor of the competence/self-determination dimension. The more frequently the
respondents participated in ICT-based activities, the greater were the levels of the
competence/self-determination dimension. However, three major skills in the ICT-based
environment, i.e., ICT skills, social skills, and complementary skills, were not
significant predictors of elderly collective empowerment.
Two of the five variables measuring the objectives of participating in ICT-based
activities were identified as significant predictors of elderly competence/self-determination
in Korea. Both learning and shopping variables were positively associated with the
competence/self-determination dimension. Participating more frequently in ICT-based
activities for learning and shopping contributed to the improvement of elderly competence/
self-determination. However, more frequent participation in ICT-based activities for
business purposes did not increase their competence/self-determination.
Both age and education variables were significant predictors of elderly competence/
self-determination. In a sample of older ICT users, younger age is associated with lower
competence/self-determination and older age with higher competence/self-determination.
The education variable predicted elderly competence/self-determination. Higher education
was associated with greater competence/self-determination in the elderly. However, the
employment variable was not a predictor of elderly competence/self-determination.
ITP Variables associated with collective empowerment
29,2 Only three of the 14 variables were significantly associated with elderly
collective empowerment. “An interest in what ICTs deliver” predicted elderly collective
empowerment. Being interested in ICTs was a positive predictor of a sense of
collective empowerment among the elderly. However, three major skills in an
ICT-based environment, i.e., ICT skills, social skills, and complementary skills, were
328 not associated with elderly collective empowerment.
Of the five variables measuring the objectives of participating in ICT-based
activities, only one variable was associated with older people’s collective empowerment
in Korea. More frequent participation in ICT-based activities for the promotion of
business activities increased their collective empowerment. However, learning and
shopping were not significant predictors of elderly collective empowerment. They were,
however, significant predictors of elderly competence/self-determination, as well as
their sense of meaning for living. ICT-based activities aimed at improving realtionships
and gathering information did not predict collective empowerment either.
One of the three demographic variables was associated with elderly collective
empowerment. The improvement in elderly collective empowerment was associated
with the employment situation variable. Higher education was associated with greater
elderly collective empowerment.

Summary
From theoretical perspectives, psychological empowerment comprises four dimensions,
i.e., meaning, competence, self-determination, and collective empowerment. However,
the empowerment construct was sensitive to this older group. In the current study on
older people’s empowerment in Korea, two dimensions of individual empowerment,
i.e., competence and self-determination, were condensed into one psychological
empowerment dimension. Competence refers to an individual’s ability to perform jobs
properly; whereas, self-detemination refers to a state of understanding of what to do to
resolve problems. In the factor analysis, this study revealed that the elderly understood
the two dimensions as a set of abilities to know what to do to perform jobs properly.
For older people, self-determination is connected positively with the capabilities of
activity, mental agility, and self-esteem; whereas, the lack of self-determinatioin is linked
to hopelessness and depression, which represent incapabilities or limited competence
(Hellström and Sarvimäki, 2007). However, the meaning dimension of elderly
empowerment was extracted independently, as it was done in other population groups
(Spreitzer, 1995, 1996; Wang and Lee, 2009; Zhang and Bartol, 2010).
ICT-based activities have contributed to the promotion of elderly people’s
perceived individual and collective empowerment, although the improvement was only
slight-to-moderate. ICT-based activities contributed to individual empowerment more
than did collective empowerment. These results demonstrated that older adults are
valued as competent and autonomous individuals while they are trying to integrate ICT
into their lives. The experiences of older people being valued, or individually empowered,
seem to constitute a starting point for pleasing each other, as well as others.
However, not all ICT-based activities predicted elderly people’s empowerment.
Contrary to the expectation, three major skills for active ICT-based activities, i.e., ICT
skills, social skills, and complementary skills, did not predict elderly empowerment.
This was an unconvincing result, since the three skills above have been frequently
described as an instrument for digital inclusion and self-efficacy (Cooney, 2004; Selwyn,
2004; Allison, 2005). According to a model of older people’s internet engagement which
offers a more sophisticated instrument for understanding the issue of the digital divide An empirical
and digital inclusion, three stages applicable to older people are theorized: internet study of older
adoption, or ownership of household internet connections; internet access, or access to
the internet inside and outside of the home; and internet use, or the usage of the internet
adults in
inside and outside of the home (Hill et al., 2008) The above mentioned three skills do not Korea
always seem to lead older adults to internet use, but rather to stage two in many cases.
Further studies are needed to clarify this issue. 329
Only one of the six variables measuring the area of individual skills and habits in the
ICT-based environments could be considered as a predictor of individual and collective
empowerment, specifically, “an interest in what ICTs deliver.” For the elderly
respondents, being interested in ICTs was a positive predictor of a sense of meaning and
collective empowerment. The frequency of participation in ICT-based activities was also
a predictor of individual empowerment, including a sense of meaning and competence/
self-determination. An interest in what ICTs deliver seems to promote participation in
ICT-based activities, and ultimately, older people’s individual empowerment.
In terms of the objectives of participating in ICT-based activities, ICT-based
activities for learning and shopping predicted a sense of meaning and competence/self-
determination; whereas, the activity “promoting business” predicted only collective
empowerment. However, goal-oriented ICT-based activities, such as “improvement of
relation” and “information collection,” predicted neither individual empowerment nor
collective empowerment.
In most cases, demographic information, such as age, education, and employment
situation, was predictive of elderly empowerment. In a sample of elderly ICT users, the
sense of meaning increased with better employment. Younger age was associated with
lower competence/self-determination, and older age was associated with higher
competence/self-determination. Higher education was associated with greater elderly
competence/self-determination and elderly collective empowerment.

Conclusion
The major finding of this study concerns the development of a measure that assesses
three factors of empowerment in older adults, i.e., sense of meaning, competence/
self-determination, and collective empowerment. This study represents an initial step in
establishing the measure, and therefore, further work is needed to establish its
psychometric properties, particularly its external validity. The application of this
measure is potentially broad when modifications are made based on older people’s
empowerment settings. This measure can be utilized with older adults in other
countries, as well as in other programs outside of ICT and levels of care (e.g. exercise
programs, assisted living facilities, etc.).
In a sample of older ICT users, sophisticated ICT skills and social skills may not
serve as an effective instrument for the promotion of older adults’ empowerment in
Korea. In other words, older people’s psychological empowerment, as shown in this
study, is not a matter of skills, i.e., ICT skills, social skills, or complementary skills, but
is more likely determined by their level of interest in ICT and ICT-based activities.
Therefore, a simple and easy ICT familarity program may constitute a potent tool for
older adults to be psychologically empowered by encouraging them to become
interested in ICTs and ICT-based actitities.
A sense of meaning among older adults is directly connected to an intrinsic interest
in life and work, and a fit between the requirements of a life role and behaviors
(Spreitzer, 1995, 1996). For older adults, a sense of meaning can be enhanced by
ITP arousing their interest in what ICTs deliver and by promoting ICT-based learning
29,2 activities. However, caution should be exercised in the case of online shopping because
it was found to be a negative predictor of a sense of meaning. In addition, elderly adults
may feel more empowered when they are better situated in job markets, since their
employment situation was positively associated with a sense of meaning.
Based on this study’s findings, older adults’ competence/self-determination,
330 described as a set of abilities to perform life and work activities and a sense of
having choice in initiating and regulating actions, can be strengthened by ICT-based
learning and shopping activities. It is easier to enhance competence/self-determination
among elderly people with higher education, since education was positively associated
with the enhancement of elderly competence/self-determination.
Collective empowerment refers to how a group of people gain capacities to
change its social position. Based on this study’s findings, elderly collective
empowerment, described as the potential of individuals to join together, help one
another, learn together, and work together, can be improved by arousing the
elderly’s interest in what ICTs can deliver and by promoting ICT-based work-related
activities. Finally, it is easier to achieve collective empowerment among the
better-educated elderly population.

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About the author

Mann Hyung Hur is a Professor of Welfare Policy in the Department of Public Administration,
Chung-Ang University, Seoul, Korea. His research interests include aging, information society,
internet addiction, and empowerment theories. His work has appeared in the Journal of
Community Psychology, Cyberpsychology, Behavior, and Social Networking, Asia Pacific Journal
of Social Work and Development, and International Journal of Social Welfare. Mann Hyung Hur
can be contacted at: [email protected]

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