Electrical Circuit Analysis

Chapter-5
Sinusoidal Steady-State Analysis

Dr. Mukesh M Bhesaniya

Department of Electrical Engineering
G H Patel College of Engineering and Technology
Vallabh Vidyanagar, Gujarat, India

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 Content
Representation of sine function as rotating Phasor

Phasor diagrams

Impedances and Admittances

AC circuit analysis

Effective or RMS values, average power and complex power

Three-phase circuits

Mutual coupled circuits

Dot Convention in coupled circuits

Ideal Transformer

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 Introduction
Thus far our analysis has been limited for the most part to dc circuits: those
circuits excited by constant or time-invariant sources. We have restricted the
forcing function to dc sources for the sake of simplicity, for pedagogic reasons,
and also for historic reasons.
Historically, dc sources were the main means of providing electric power up
until the late 1800s. At the end of that century, the battle of direct current
versus alternating current began. Both had their advocates among the electrical
engineers of the time.
We now begin the analysis of circuits in which the source voltage or current is
time-varying.
In this chapter, we are particularly interested in sinusoidally time-varying
excitation, or simply, excitation by a sinusoid.
A sinusoid is a signal that has the form of the sine or cosine function.

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 Introduction
A sinusoidal current is usually referred to as alternating current (ac). Such a
current reverses at regular time intervals and has alternately positive and
negative values. Circuits driven by sinusoidal current or voltage sources are
called ac circuits.
A sinusoidal forcing function produces both a transient response and a steady-
state response, much like the step function, which we studied in previous
Chapter.
The transient response dies out with time so that only the steady-state
response remains.
When the transient response has become negligibly small compared with the
steady-state response, we say that the circuit is operating at sinusoidal steady
state. It is this sinusoidal steady-state response that is of main interest to us in
this chapter.

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 Sinusoids
Consider the sinusoidal voltage

v(t ) = Vm sin(t +  )
where
Vm = the amplitude of the sinusoid
ω = the angular frequency in radians/s
Ф = the phase
The sinusoid is shown in Fig. (a) as a function of its argument and in Fig. (b) as a
function of time.

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 Sinusoids
It is evident that the sinusoid repeats itself every T seconds; thus, T is called the
period of the sinusoid.
From the two plots, we observe that ωT=2π,

The fact that v(t) repeats itself every T seconds we can write,

That is, v(t) has the same value at as it does at t and is said to be periodic. In
general,
A periodic function is one that satisfies f (t) = f (t + nT), for all t and for all
integers n.
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 Sinusoids
As mentioned, the period T of the periodic function is the time of one complete
cycle or the number of seconds per cycle.
The reciprocal of this quantity is the number of cycles per second, known as the
cyclic frequency f of the sinusoid. Thus,

f =
1
Hz OR  = 2 f rad/s
T

Let us examine the two sinusoids

Only two sinusoidal values with the same frequency can be compared by their
amplitude and phase difference.
If phase difference is zero, they are in phase; if phase difference is not zero, they
are out of phase.
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 Sinusoids
Two sinusoids are shown in Fig. The starting point of v2 in Fig. occurs first in time.
Therefore, we say that v2 leads v1 by ф or that v1 lags v2 by ф.
If ф ≠ 0 we also say that v1 and v2 are out of phase. If ф = 0 then v1 and v2 are said
to be in phase; they reach their minima and maxima at exactly the same time.
We can compare and in this manner because they operate at the same
frequency; they do not need to have the same amplitude.

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 Sinusoids
A sinusoid can be expressed in either sine or cosine form. When comparing two
sinusoids, it is expedient to express both as either sine or cosine with positive
amplitudes. This is achieved by using the following trigonometric identities:

With these identities, it is easy to show that

Using these relationships, we can transform a sinusoid from sine form to cosine
form or vice versa.
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 Example
Ex: Find the amplitude, phase, period, and frequency of the sinusoid

Solution:

Hw Ex: Given a sinusoid, 5 sin(4t − 60o ) , calculate its amplitude, phase, angular
frequency, period, and frequency.

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 Example
Ex: Find the phase angle between i1 = −4 sin(377t + 25o ) and i2 = 5 cos(377t − 40 o ) ,
does i1 lead or lag i2?
Solution:

i1 = −4 sin(377t + 25o ) = 4 sin(377t + 180o + 25o ) = 4 sin(377t + 205o )

Since sin(ωt+90o) = cos ωt

i2 = 5 sin(377t − 40o + 90o ) = 5 sin(377t + 50o )

Therefore, i1 leads i2 by 155o.

Hw Ex: Find the phase angle between v1 = −10 cos(t + 5o ) and v2 = 5 sin(t − 10o ).
State which sinusoid is leading.

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 Phasors
Sinusoids are easily expressed in terms of phasors, which are more convenient to
work with than sine and cosine functions.

A phasor is a complex number that represents the amplitude and phase of a

sinusoid.

Phasors provide a simple means of analyzing linear circuits excited by sinusoidal

sources;
The notion of solving ac circuits using phasors was first introduced by Charles
Steinmetz in 1893.
Before we completely define phasors and apply them to circuit analysis, we need
to be thoroughly familiar with complex numbers.

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 Phasors
A complex number z can be represented in one of the following three forms:

The relationship between the

rectangular form and the polar form is
shown in Fig., where the x-axis
represents the real part and the y-
axis represents the imaginary part of
a complex number. Given x and y, we
can get r and ɸ as

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 Phasors
On the other hand, if we know r and ɸ we can obtain x and y as

Thus, z may be written as

Addition and subtraction of complex numbers are better performed in rectangular

form; multiplication and division are better done in polar form.
Given the complex numbers

The following operations are important.

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 Phasors
Mathematic operation of complex number:

1. Addition z1 + z 2 = ( x1 + x2 ) + j ( y1 + y2 )

2. Subtraction z1 − z2 = ( x1 − x2 ) + j ( y1 − y2 )

3. Multiplication z1 z2 = r1r2 1 + 2

z1 r1
4. Division = 1 −  2
z 2 r2

1 1
5. Reciprocal =  −
z r

6. Square root z = r  2

7. Complex conjugate z  = x − jy = r  −  = re − j

8. Euler’s identity e  j = cos  j sin 

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 Phasors
To transform a sinusoid to and from the time domain to the phasor domain
consider,

or

Thus

Where

V is thus the phasor representation of the sinusoid v(t). In other words, a phasor
is a complex representation of the magnitude and phase of a sinusoid.
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 Phasors
One way of looking at phasor is to consider the plot of the vector on the complex
plane. As time increases, the vector rotates on a circle of radius at an angular
velocity ω in the counterclockwise direction, as shown in Fig. (a).
We may regard as the projection of the vector on the real axis, as shown in Fig.(b).

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 Phasors
By suppressing the time factor, we transform the sinusoid from the time domain
to the phasor domain. This transformation is summarized as follows:

As a complex quantity, a phasor may be expressed in rectangular form, polar form,

or exponential form. Since a phasor has magnitude and phase (“direction”), it
behaves as a vector.
Phasors are graphically represented in Fig. below. Such a graphical representation
of phasors is known as a phasor diagram.

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 Phasors

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 Phasors
The sum of multiple phasors produces another phasor. That is because the sum of
sinusoids with the same frequency is also a sinusoid with that frequency:.

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 Phasors
Relationship between differential and integral operation in phasor listed as follow.
The derivative of v(t) is transformed to the phasor domain as

The integral of v(t) is transformed to the phasor domain as

These relations are are useful in finding the steady-state solution, which does not
require knowing the initial values of the variable involved. This is one of the
important applications of phasors.
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 Example
Ex: Transform these sinusoids to phasors:

Solution:

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 Example
Ex: Find the sinusoids represented by these phasors:

Solution:

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 HW Example
Ex: Express these sinusoids as phasors:

Ans:

Ex: Find the sinusoids represented by these phasors:

Ans:

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 Example
Ex: Using the phasor approach, determine the current i(t) in a circuit described by
the integro-differential equation

Solution: we obtain the phasor form of the given equation as

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 HW Example
Ex: Using the phasor approach, determine the voltage v(t) in a circuit described by
the integro-differential equation

Ans:

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 Example
Ex:

Solution:

(c) Ans:
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 Phasor Relationships for Circuit Elements
Now that we know how to represent a voltage or current in the phasor or
frequency domain, one may legitimately ask how we apply this to circuits
involving the passive elements R, L, and C.
What we need to do is to transform the voltage-current relationship from the
time domain to the frequency domain for each element.
We begin with the resistor. Figure below illustrates the voltage-current relations of
a resistor and phase diagram.

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 Phasor Relationships for Circuit Elements
If the current through a resistor R is the voltage across it is
given by Ohm’s law as

The phasor form of this voltage is

But the phasor representation of the current is Hence,

This shows that the voltage-current relation for the resistor in the phasor domain
continues to be Ohm’s law, as in the time domain.
We should note from this Eq. that voltage and current are in phase, as illustrated
in the phasor diagram.
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 Phasor Relationships for Circuit Elements
For the inductor L, assume the current through it is the voltage
across inductor is

We can write the voltage as

which transforms to the phasor

But and Thus,

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 Phasor Relationships for Circuit Elements
This shows that the voltage has a magnitude of and a phase of
The voltage and current are 90o out of phase. Specifically, the current lags the
voltage by 90o. Figure below shows the voltage-current relations for the inductor
and the phasor diagram.

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 Phasor Relationships for Circuit Elements
For the capacitor C, assume the voltage across it is The current
through capacitor is

By following the same steps as we took for the inductor, we obtain

The voltage and current are 90o out of phase. The current leads the voltage by
90o. Figure below shows the voltage-current relations and phasor diagram.

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 Phasor Relationships for Circuit Elements
Summary of voltage-current relationship
Element Time domain Frequency domain

R v = Ri V = RI

di
L v=L V = jLI
dt
dv I
C i=C V =
dt jC

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 Example

HW Example:

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 Example

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 Impedance and Admittance
The impedance Z of a circuit is the ratio of the phasor voltage V to the phasor
current I, measured in ohms Ω.

V
Z = = R + jX
I
where R = Re(Z) is the resistance and X = Im(Z) is the reactance. The reactance X
may be positive or negative. We say that the impedance is inductive when X is
positive or capacitive when X is negative.
Thus, impedance Z = R + jX is said to be inductive or lagging since current lags
voltage, while impedance Z = R − jX is capacitive or leading because current
leads voltage.

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 Impedance and Admittance
The impedance may also be expressed in polar form as

The admittance Y is the reciprocal of impedance, measured in siemens (S).

1 I
Y = = = G + jB
Z V
where G = Re(Y) is the conductance and B = Im(Y) is the susceptance.
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 Impedance and Admittance
The relation between R, X, G and B is derived as follows:

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 Impedance and Admittance
Impedances and admittances of passive elements
Element Impedance Admittance

1
R Z=R Y =
R
1
L Z = jL Y=
jL
1
C Z = Y = jC
jC

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 Impedance and Admittance
Equivalent circuits at dc and high frequencies: (a) inductor, (b) capacitor.

 = 0; Z = 0

 → ; Z → 

 = 0; Z → 

 → ; Z = 0

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 Example
Find v(t) and i(t) in the circuit shown in Fig.

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 Example

Converting I and V in time domain we get,

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 Example

Solution:

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 HW Example
Find v(t) and i(t) in the circuit shown in Fig.

Ans:

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Kirchhoff’s Laws in the Frequency Domain
Both KVL and KCL are hold in the phasor domain or more commonly called
frequency domain.

Moreover, the variables to be handled are phasors, which are complex numbers.
All the mathematical operations involved are now in complex domain.

Furthermore, the following principles used for DC circuit analysis all apply to AC
circuit as well.
o voltage division
o current division
o circuit reduction
o impedance equivalence
o Y-Δ transformation

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 Example
Find the input impedance of the circuit shown in Fig. Assume that the circuit
operates at ω= 50 rad/s.

Solution:

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 Example

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 HW Example
Find the input impedance of the circuit shown in Fig. Assume that the circuit
operates at ω= 10 rad/s.

Ans:

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 Example
Determine vo(t) in the circuit shown below.

Solution:
To do the analysis in the frequency domain, we must first transform the time
domain circuit in to the phasor domain equivalent as shown below.

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 Example
The transformation produces

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 Example

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 HW Example
Determine vo(t) in the circuit shown below.

Ans:

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 AC Circuits Analysis
We know that Ohm’s and Kirchhoff’s laws are applicable to ac circuits. In this
section, we want to see how nodal analysis, mesh analysis, Thevenin’s theorem,
Norton’s theorem, superposition, and source transformations are applied in
analyzing ac circuits.
Since these techniques were already introduced for dc circuits, our major effort
here will be to illustrate with examples.
Analyzing ac circuits usually requires three steps.
1. Transform the circuit to the phasor or frequency domain.
2. Solve the problem using circuit techniques (nodal analysis, mesh analysis,
superposition, etc.).
3. Transform the resulting phasor to the time domain.

Time to Freq Solve variables in Freq Freq to Time

Domain Domain Domain

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 Nodal Analysis
Use nodal analysis to find V in the following circuit.

Solution:

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 HW Example
HW: Use nodal analysis to find Ix in the following circuit.

Ans:

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 Mesh Analysis
Solve for io in the following Fig. using mesh analysis.

Solution:

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 Mesh Analysis
The circuit is shown below.

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 Mesh Analysis

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 HW Example
HW: Use mesh analysis to find Io in the following circuit.

Ans:

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 Circuit Theorems
Since ac circuits are linear, all the theorem applies to ac circuits the same way it
applies to dc circuits.
The superposition theorem becomes important if the circuit has sources
operating at different frequencies. In this case, since the impedances depend on
frequency, we must have a different frequency domain circuit for each frequency.
The total response must be obtained by adding the individual responses in the
time domain.
It is incorrect to try to add the responses in the phasor or frequency domain.
Why? Because the exponential factor is implicit in sinusoidal analysis, and that
factor would change for every angular frequency.
It would therefore not make sense to add responses at different frequencies in
the phasor domain. Thus, when a circuit has sources operating at different
frequencies, one must add the responses due to the individual frequencies in
the time domain.
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 AC Power Analysis
Our effort in ac circuit analysis so far has been focused mainly on calculating
voltage and current. Our major concern in this section is power analysis.
Power analysis is of paramount importance. Power is the most important quantity
in electric utilities, electronic, and communication systems, because such systems
involve transmission of power from one point to another.
Also, every industrial and household electrical device—every fan, motor, lamp,
pressing iron, TV, personal computer— has a power rating that indicates how
much power the equipment requires; exceeding the power rating can do
permanent damage to an appliance.
We will begin by defining and deriving Effective or RMS Values. We will then
introduce other power concepts.

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 Effective or RMS Value
The idea of effective value arises from the need to measure the effectiveness of a
voltage or current source in delivering power to a resistive load.
The effective value of a periodic current is the dc current that delivers the same
average power to a resistor as the periodic current.

In Fig., the circuit in (a) is ac while that of

(b) is dc. Our objective is to find Ieff that
will transfer the same power to resistor R
as the sinusoid i.

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 Effective or RMS Value
The total power dissipated by R is given by:

1 T R T 2
P=  i Rdt =  i dt = I rms
2 2
R
T 0 T 0

Hence, Ieff is equal to:

T
1
I eff =
T 
0
i 2 dt = I rms

The rms value is a constant itself which depending on the shape of the function
i(t).
The rms value of a sinusoid i(t) = Imcos(wt) is given by:

Im
I rms =
2

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 Instantaneous and Average Power
The instantaneously power, p(t)

p(t ) = v(t ) i(t ) = Vm I m cos ( t +  v ) cos ( t + i )

1 1
= Vm I m cos ( v −  i ) + Vm I m cos (2 t +  v +  i )
2 2
Constant Power Sinusoidal power at 2ωt

The sketch of instantaneous power is shown below. If p(t) > 0: power is absorbed
by the circuit; p(t) < 0: power is absorbed by the source.

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 Instantaneous and Average Power
The average power, P, is the average of the instantaneous power over one period.

1 T 1
P=
T  0
p (t ) dt = Vm I m cos ( v −  i )
2
1. P is not time dependent.
2. When θv = θi , it is a purely
resistive load case.
3. When θv– θi = ±90o, it is a
purely reactive load case.
4. P = 0 means that the circuit
absorbs no average power.

The instantaneous power changes with time and is therefore difficult to

measure. The average power is more convenient to measure. In fact, the
wattmeter, the instrument for measuring power, responds to average power.

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 Example
Assuming that Vs = 8 cos(2t – 40o) V in the following circuit, find the average
power delivered to each of the passive elements.

Solution:
Converting the circuit into the frequency domain, we get:

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 Example
Hence, the average power delivered to each of the passive elements is
calculated as follow.

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 Maximum Average Power Transfer
Consider the following circuit, where an ac circuit is connected to a load and is
represented by its Thevenin equivalent as shown in Fig. (b). The load is usually
represented by an impedance.

The current is given by

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 Maximum Average Power Transfer
The average power delivered to the load is

Our objective is to adjust the load parameters RL and XL so that P is maximum. To

do this we set derivative of P with respect to RL and XL equal to zero.

Set these derivatives equal to zero.

and

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 Maximum Average Power Transfer
Combining these conditions leads to the conclusion that for maximum average
power transfer, ZL must be selected so that XL=-XTh and RL=RTh i.e.,

For maximum average power transfer, the load impedance ZL must be equal to
the complex conjugate of the Thevenin impedance ZTh. The maximum average
power is given by

In a situation in which the load is purely real, the condition for maximum power
transfer is obtained from

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 HW Example
The variable resistor R in the following circuit is adjusted until it absorbs the
maximum average power. Find R and the maximum average power absorbed.

Ans:
RL=2.576 Ω
Pmax= 3.798 W

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 Complex Power
Considerable effort has been expended over the years to express power relations
as simply as possible. Power engineers have coined the term complex power,
which they use to find the total effect of parallel loads. Complex power is
important in power analysis because it contains all the information pertaining to
the power absorbed by a given load.
Complex power S is the product of the voltage and the complex conjugate of the
current:

V = Vm θ v I = I m θ i

1 
V I = Vrms I rms  θ v − θ i
2

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 Complex Power
1
S= V I = Vrms I rms  θ v − θ i
2
 S = Vrms I rms cos (θ v − θi ) + j Vrms I rms sin (θ v − θi )

S = P + j Q

P: is the average power in watts delivered

to a load and it is the only useful power.
Q: is the reactive power exchange
between the source and the reactive part
of the load. It is measured in VAR.
Q = 0 for resistive loads (unity pf).
Q < 0 for capacitive loads (leading pf).
Q > 0 for inductive loads (lagging pf).
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 Complex Power
Introducing the complex power enables us to obtain the real and reactive
powers directly from voltage and current phasors.

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 Example
The voltage across a load is v(t) = 60 cos(ωt – 10o) V and the current through the
element in the direction of the voltage drop is i(t) = 1.5 cos(ωt + 50o) A. Find: (a)
the complex and apparent powers, (b) the real and reactive powers, and (c) the
power factor and the load impedance.
Solution:

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 Example

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 Three-Phase Circuit
Three-phase systems are important for at least three reasons.
First, nearly all electric power is generated and distributed in three-phase, at the
operating frequency of 50 Hz in India or 60 Hz in some other parts of the world.
When one-phase or two-phase inputs are required, they are taken from the three-
phase system rather than generated independently. Even when more than three
phases are needed—such as in the aluminum industry, where 48 phases are
required for melting purposes—they can be provided by manipulating the three
phases supplied.
Second, the instantaneous power in a three-phase system can be constant (not
pulsating), as we will see later. This results in uniform power transmission and less
vibration of three-phase machines.
Third, for the same amount of power, the three-phase system is more
economical than the single phase. The amount of wire required for a three-phase
system is less than that required for an equivalent single-phase system.
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 Balanced Three-Phase Voltages
Three-phase voltages are often produced with a three-phase ac generator (or
alternator) whose cross-sectional view and generated voltage are shown in Fig.
The generator basically consists of a rotating magnet (called the rotor) surrounded
by a stationary winding (called the stator).

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 Balanced Three-Phase Voltages
A typical three-phase system consists of three voltage sources connected to loads
by three or four wires (or transmission lines). A three-phase system is equivalent
to three single-phase circuits. The voltage sources can be either wye-connected as
shown in Fig. (a) or delta-connected as in Fig. (b).

Let us consider the wye-connected voltages in Fig. (a) for now. The voltages van,
vbn, and vcn are respectively between lines a, b, and c, and the neutral line n.
These voltages are called phase voltages.
102050302:Electrical Circuit Analysis DR. MUKESH M BHESANIYA 79
 Balanced Three-Phase Voltages
If the voltage sources have the same amplitude and frequency and are out of
phase with each other by 120o the voltages are said to be balanced. This implies

Since the three-phase voltages are 120o out of phase with each other, there are
two possible combinations as shown below.

102050302:Electrical Circuit Analysis DR. MUKESH M BHESANIYA 80

 Balanced Three-Phase Voltages
One possibility is shown in Fig. (a) which is known as the abc sequence or positive
sequence and expressed mathematically as

The other possibility is shown in Fig. (b) which is known as the acb sequence or
negative sequence and expressed mathematically as

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 Balanced Load
Like the generator connections, a three-phase load can be either wye-connected
or delta-connected, depending on the end application. Fig. (a) shows a wye-
connected load, and Fig. (b) shows a delta-connected load. The neutral line in Fig.
(a) may or may not be there, depending on whether the system is four- or three-
wire.
A wye- or delta-connected load is said to be unbalanced if the phase
impedances are not equal in magnitude or phase. A balanced load is one in
which the phase impedances are equal in magnitude and in phase.

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 Three Phase Connections
Since both the three-phase source and the three-phase load can be either wye- or
delta-connected, we have four possible connections:
1. Y-Y connection (Y-connected source with a Y-connected load)
2. Y-Δ connection (Y-connected source with a Δ-connected load)
3. Δ-Δ connection
4. Δ-Y connection
A balanced Y-Y system is a three-phase system with a balanced Y-connected
source and a balanced Y-connected load.

VL = 3V p , where
V p = Van = Vbn = Vcn
VL = Vab = Vbc = Vca
102050302:Electrical Circuit Analysis DR. MUKESH M BHESANIYA 83
 Y-Δ Connection
A balanced Y-Δ system is a three-phase system with a balanced Y-connected
source and a balanced Δ-connected load.

I L = 3I p , where
I L = I a = Ib = I c
I p = I AB = I BC = ICA

Phasor diagram illustrating the relationship

between phase and line currents is shown
in Fig.

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 Δ -Δ Connection
A balanced Δ-Δ system is a three-phase system with a balanced Δ-connected
source and a balanced Δ-connected load.

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 Δ-Y Connections
A balanced Δ-Y system consists of a balanced Δ-connected source feeding a
balanced Y-connected load.

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 Example
Calculate the line currents in the three-wire Y-Y system shown below.

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 Example
Solution:
This is a balanced Y-Y system.

Using the per-phase circuit shown above,

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 Example
Solve for the line currents in the Y-Δ circuit of following circuit.
Take ZΔ= 60 ∠ 45°Ω.

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 Example
Solution:
Convert the delta-load to a wye-load and apply per-phase analysis.

Using the per-phase circuit shown above,

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 Example
Refer to the Δ-Δ system shown below. Find the line and phase currents. Assume
that the load impedance is ZL = 12 + j9 Ω per phase.

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 Example

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 Example
A balanced Y-connected load with a phase impedance of 40 + j25 is supplied by a
balanced, positive sequence Δ-connected source with a line voltage of 210 V.
Calculate the phase currents. Use vab as reference.
Solution:

102050302:Electrical Circuit Analysis DR. MUKESH M BHESANIYA 93

 Example

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 HW Example
A Y-connected balanced three-phase generator with an impedance of 0.4 + j0.3
per phase is connected to a Y-connected balanced load with an impedance of
24 + j19 per phase. The line joining the generator and the load has an impedance
of 0.6 + j0.7 per phase. Assuming a positive sequence for the source voltages and
that find: (a) the line voltages, (b) the line currents.

One line voltage of a balanced Y-connected source is Vab= 240 20 V. If source is

connected to a Δ-connected load of 20 40 Ω. Find the phase and line currents.
Assume the abc sequence.

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 Power in a Balanced System
Let us now consider the power in a balanced three-phase system. The average
power per phase Pp for either the Δ-connected load or the Y-connected load is
p/3 or

where Vp and Ip are the phase voltage and phase current. The total average
power is the sum of the
average powers
102050302:Electrical in the
Circuit phases: DR. MUKESH M BHESANIYA
Analysis 96
 Power in a Balanced System
The total average power is the sum of the average powers in the phases:

Similarly, the total reactive power is

and the total complex power is

Alternatively, we may write

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 Example
A Y-connected balanced three-phase generator is connected to a Y-connected
balanced load with an impedance of 10 + j8 per phase. The line joining the
generator and the load has an impedance of 5 - j2 per phase. Assuming a positive
sequence for the source voltages and Va=110. Determine the total average power,
reactive power, and complex power at the source and at the load.
Solution:

102050302:Electrical Circuit Analysis DR. MUKESH M BHESANIYA 98

 Example

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 Unbalanced Three-Phase Systems
An unbalanced system is due to unbalanced voltage sources or an unbalanced
load. Since the load is unbalanced, impedances are not equal. The line currents
are determined by Ohm’s law as

VAN V V
Ia = , Ib = BN , I c = CN ,
ZA ZB ZC

I n = −( I a + I b + I c )

To calculate power in an unbalanced three-phase system requires that we find the

power in each phase.

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 Unbalanced Three-Phase Systems
The unbalanced Y-load is connected to balanced voltages of 100 V and the acb
sequence. Calculate the line currents and the neutral current.
Take ZA=15Ω, ZB=10+j5Ω, ZC=6-j8Ω.
Solution:
The line currents are

The current in the neutral line is

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 Magnetically Coupled Circuit
The circuits we have considered so far may be regarded as conductively coupled,
because one loop affects the neighboring loop through current conduction.
When two loops with or without contacts between them affect each other
through the magnetic field generated by one of them, they are said to be
magnetically coupled.
The transformer is an electrical device designed on the basis of the concept of
magnetic coupling. It uses magnetically coupled coils to transfer energy from one
circuit to another.
Transformers are key circuit elements. They are used in power systems for
stepping up or stepping down ac voltages or currents. They are used in electronic
circuits such as radio and television receivers for such purposes as impedance
matching, isolating one part of a circuit from another, and again for stepping up or
down ac voltages and currents.

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 Energy in a Coupled Circuit
The coupling coefficient, k, is a measure of the magnetic coupling between two
coils; 0≤k≤1.

M = k L1L2

The instantaneous energy stored in the circuit is given by

1 2 1 2
w = L1i1 + L2i2  MI1 I 2
2 2

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 Analysis of Magnetically Coupled Circuit
Consider the magnetically coupled circuit shown below. Here L1 and L2 are self
inductances and M is mutual inductance.

The frequency domain representation of above circuit is shown below.

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 Determination of Voltage Polarities
Although mutual inductance M is always a positive quantity, the mutual voltage
may be negative or positive, just like the self-induced voltage. However, unlike the
self-induced voltage whose polarity is determined by the reference direction of
the current and the reference polarity of the voltage, the polarity of mutual
voltage is not easy to determine, because four terminals are involved.
The choice of the correct polarity for is made by examining the orientation or
particular way in which both coils are physically wound and applying Lenz’s law
in conjunction with the right-hand rule.
Since it is inconvenient to show the construction details of coils on a circuit
schematic, we apply the dot convention in circuit analysis.
By this convention, a dot is placed in the circuit at one end of each of the two
magnetically coupled coils to indicate the direction of the magnetic flux if current
enters that dotted terminal of the coil.

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 Dot Convention
Given a circuit, the dots are already placed beside the coils so that we need not
bother about how to place them. The dots are used along with the dot convention
to determine the polarity of the mutual voltage. The dot convention is stated as
follows:
If a current enters the dotted terminal of one coil, the reference polarity of the
mutual voltage in the second coil is positive at the dotted terminal of the second
coil.

Alternate Rule for the Dot Convention

When the reference direction for a current leaves the dotted terminal of a coil,
the reference polarity of the voltage that it induces in the other coil is negative
at its dotted terminal.

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 Dot Convention
Consider the following circuit.

The voltage induced in coil 1 by the current in coil 2 is negative at the dotted
terminal of coil 1.
The voltage induced in coil 2 by the current in coil 1 is positive at the dotted
terminal of coil 2.

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 Dot Convention
Consider the following circuit.

di di
−v + i R + L −M =0 1 2

dt dt
g 1 1 1

di di
iR +L −M =0 2 1

dt dt
2 2 2

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 Example
Calculate the phasor currents I1 and I2 in the following circuit.

Solution:

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 Example

From above equations we get,

Hence,

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 Ideal Transformer
An ideal transformer is a unity-coupled, lossless transformer in which the primary
and secondary coils have infinite self-inductances.

V2 N 2 I 2 N1 1
= =n = =
V1 N1 I1 N 2 n

V2>V1→ step-up transformer

V2<V1→ step-down transformer
(a) Ideal Transformer
(b) Circuit symbol

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 Applications
Transformer as an Isolation Device to isolate ac supply from a rectifier.

Transformer as an Isolation Device to isolate dc between two amplifier stages.

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 References
1 Title: Fundamentals of Electric Circuits
Author(s): C. K. Alexander and M. N. O. Sadiku
Publisher: McGraw Hill Education
2 Title: Network Analysis
Author(s): M. E. Van Valkenburg
Publisher: Prentice Hall

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 Thank you

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