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CHAPTER 1

Organizational Profile of Hindustan Aeronautics Limited (HAL)

1.1 Introduction

Hindustan Aeronautics Limited (HAL) is not just an organization it is a symbol of India’s aerospace
ambition and engineering excellence. It was founded in 1940 by the visionary Indian industrialist
Walchand Hirachand, with active support from the Maharaja of Mysore, His Highness Nalwadi
Krishnaraja Wodeyar. The company was originally established as Hindustan Aircraft Limited in
Bangalore and was later taken over by the Government of India during World War II to support British
aviation needs. After independence, HAL became a fully owned government enterprise and has since
evolved into a Maharatna Public Sector Undertaking (PSU) under the Ministry of Defence, Government
of India.

As part of my academic development, I had the opportunity to undergo internship training at Hindustan
Aeronautics Limited (HAL), Engine Division. HAL is one of India's most prestigious aerospace and
defense organizations, operating under the Ministry of Defence as a Maharatna Public Sector
Undertaking. It plays a key role in strengthening India’s technological capabilities in aircraft,
helicopters, gas turbine engines, avionics, and space systems. HAL stands as a symbol of self-reliance
and innovation in the nation’s strategic sectors.

From the legendary MiG-21s to modern multirole aircraft like the Sukhoi Su-30MKI, indigenous
fighter aircraft like the LCA Tejas, and helicopters like the ALH Dhruv, LCH Prachand, and LUH,
HAL has built and supported platforms that protect India's skies. It has
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not only manufactured foreign aircraft under license but also led numerous indigenous development
programs, proving its capability as a world-class aerospace and defense enterprise.

The company also plays a pivotal role in India’s space program by manufacturing key components for
ISRO’s launch vehicles such as PSLV and GSLV, along with structural assemblies for satellites.
Furthermore, HAL is home to advanced research centers like the Aeronautical Engine Research and
Development Centre (AERDC), which is actively working on indigenous engine projects like the
HTFE-25 (Hindustan Turbo Fan Engine) and HTSE- 1200 (Hindustan Turbo Shaft Engine), aimed at
reducing dependency on imported propulsion systems.

My internship at HAL, especially within the Engine Division at AERDC, exposed me to the core of
aerospace propulsion development. As a final-year student of Electronics and Communication
Engineering (ECE), this training gave me the opportunity to witness and participate in real-world
aerospace activities where mechanical systems, electronics, software, and communication engineering
converge. I was able to understand how engine control systems are designed, tested, and integrated
with sensors and real-time data acquisition hardware.

This experience not only gave me hands-on technical exposure but also inspired a deeper
understanding of HAL’s discipline, professionalism, and national commitment. Working in HAL’s
high-stakes, mission-critical environment helped me appreciate the importance of precision
engineering, cross-functional collaboration, and innovation values that define India’s growing stature
in global aerospace.

1.2 Evolution of HAL

The journey of Hindustan Aeronautics Limited (HAL) reflects the evolution of India's aerospace and
defense capabilities over more than eight decades. From its modest beginning in 1940 as Hindustan
Aircraft Limited, the organization has grown into one of the largest aerospace companies in Asia.
Initially set up with American collaboration and later taken over by the Government of India during
World War II, HAL’s role quickly expanded from repair and overhaul services to licensed production
and eventually to indigenous design and development of complex aerospace systems.

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In 1964, Hindustan Aircraft Limited was merged with the newly formed Aeronautics India Limited to
become Hindustan Aeronautics Limited, a unified entity that could handle all aspects of aeronautical
manufacturing and R&D. Throughout the 1970s and 80s, HAL built a strong foundation in licensed
production of aircraft such as the MiG-21, Jaguar, and Avro, and simultaneously began work on
indigenous programs like the HF-24 Marut and the ALH Dhruv helicopter.

The turn of the century saw HAL becoming a key player in India’s indigenous aerospace movement. It
played a pivotal role in projects such as:

 LCA Tejas: India’s first indigenous fighter aircraft.

 Sukhoi Su-30MK: Produced under license, one of the most advanced aircraft in the IAF.
 LCH Prachand and LUH: State-of-the-art helicopters built to serve high-altitude and utility
roles.
 HTFE-25 and HTSE-1200: Indigenous jet and turboshaft engine development under AERDC.
 PSLV/GSLV components: Contribution to India’s space missions in collaboration with
ISRO.

With divisions spread across Bengaluru, Koraput, Nashik, Hyderabad, Lucknow, Kanpur, and Korwa,
HAL has built end-to-end capabilities from design and manufacturing to testing and maintenance.

Figure 1.2.1: Fighter Aircraft

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Today, HAL stands as a Maharatna PSU, a status given to India's most valuable public sector
enterprises. It continues to evolve by embracing cutting-edge technologies like Artificial Intelligence,
Advanced Avionics, Additive Manufacturing, Digital Twin Simulations, and Unmanned Aerial
Systems (UAS) to meet the future needs of India's aerospace ecosystem.

1.3 Achievements of Hindustan Aeronautics Limited (HAL)

Hindustan Aeronautics Limited (HAL), one of India's most prestigious aerospace organizations, has
achieved extraordinary milestones since its inception. Over the course of more than eight decades,
HAL has transformed from a license-based manufacturer into a global aerospace powerhouse with
full design, development, testing, and production capabilities. Its most significant achievement lies in
its unwavering commitment to Atmanirbhar Bharat (Self- Reliant India) by building indigenous
aircraft, helicopters, engines, avionics systems, and structures, thereby reducing dependence on
foreign suppliers and technologies.

One of HAL’s landmark achievements was the development of India’s first indigenous fighter
aircraft, the HF-24 Marut, in the 1960s, under the guidance of renowned German engineer Kurt Tank.
This success laid the groundwork for the indigenous aircraft programs that followed. HAL played a
pivotal role in designing, developing, and manufacturing the Light Combat Aircraft (LCA) Tejas,
which today stands as a symbol of India’s engineering and defense capability. In addition to Tejas,
HAL has designed the HTT-40 basic trainer aircraft, the Do- 228 light transport aircraft, and several
advanced helicopters, such as the ALH Dhruv, LCH Prachand, and LUH, all of which serve in critical
defense roles, including high-altitude warfare and rescue missions.

HAL’s contribution to the licensed production of frontline fighter jets such as the MiG-21, MiG-27,
Jaguar, Sukhoi Su-30MKI, and the Hawk Advanced Jet Trainer has strengthened India’s air defense
capabilities over the decades. These large-scale manufacturing programs not only delivered modern
aircraft to the Indian Air Force but also generated in-house expertise and a skilled workforce in
aircraft manufacturing, testing, and maintenance.

One of HAL’s most ambitious achievements is its ongoing indigenous engine development under the
Aeronautical Engine Research and Development Centre (AERDC). Projects like the
HTFE-25 turbofan engine for fighter aircraft and UAVs, and the HTSE-1200 turboshaft engine for
helicopters, represent India's bold stride towards complete self-reliance in propulsion

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systems. These programs mark a historic shift from dependence on foreign engine suppliers
to homegrown technologies.

Beyond defense aviation, HAL has significantly contributed to India’s space missions by
supplying precision components and structures for ISRO’s PSLV and GSLV launch vehicles,
as well as for the Gaganyaan human spaceflight program. The company’s aerospace division
manufactures fuel tanks, inter-stage assemblies, and satellite structures with extremely tight
tolerances to meet ISRO’s exacting standards.

HAL has also expanded its global footprint by exporting aircraft, spare parts, avionics, and
helicopters to countries like Mauritius, Ecuador, and Vietnam. The Do-228 aircraft has
gained popularity in civil aviation, maritime surveillance, and disaster management across
various countries.

Additionally, HAL’s achievements extend into the future through its investments in
modernization and digital technologies such as digital twin simulation, real-time telemetry,
additive manufacturing, AI-based engine health monitoring, and autonomous flight systems.
Its research partnerships with DRDO, ISRO, and academic institutions reflect its position as a
center of innovation and excellence.

In essence, HAL's achievements are not only technological but also strategic enabling India
to protect its sovereignty, expand its aerospace capabilities, and become a global hub of
defense manufacturing.

1.4 Divisions of HAL

Hindustan Aeronautics Limited (HAL) operates through a robust network of specialized

divisions that contribute significantly to India’s aerospace, defense, and space sectors. Each
division is strategically focused on specific aspects of design, production, overhaul, and
development of aircraft, helicopters, engines, avionics, and aerospace systems. Hindustan
Aeronautics Limited (HAL) functions through several specialized divisions that cater to
India's aerospace, defense, and space sectors. Each division focuses on unique technological
domains essential for national development.

 Aircraft Division
This division is engaged in the design, development, testing, production, and

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maintenance of fixed-wing aircraft. It has manufactured key platforms such as the LCA

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 Tejas, India’s indigenous light combat aircraft, the HTT-40 basic trainer aircraft, and
other aircraft like Jaguar and Hawk under licensed production agreements. The
division plays a major role in achieving self-reliance in aerial combat systems and
pilot training infrastructure.
 Helicopter Division
The Helicopter Division handles the design and manufacturing of rotary-wing
platforms, including the Advanced Light Helicopter (ALH Dhruv), the Light Combat
Helicopter (LCH Prachand), and the Light Utility Helicopter (LUH). These
helicopters are powered by the ‘Shakti’ turboshaft engine, which was co-developed by
HAL and Safran and is known for its high-altitude performance. This division
supports both defense operations and civilian aviation needs across diverse terrains.
 Aerospace Division
HAL’s Aerospace Division focuses on fabricating high-precision structures and
assemblies for India’s space missions. It contributes to major ISRO projects by
manufacturing key components for the PSLV (Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle), GSLV
(Geosynchronous Satellite Launch Vehicle), and Gaganyaan (India’s crewed
spaceflight program). This includes critical elements like satellite frames, inter-stage
structures, and fuel tanks used in rocket launch vehicles.
 Avionics Division
The Avionics Division is responsible for developing sophisticated avionics systems
that are vital for the operation of modern aircraft and helicopters. It produces mission
computers, inertial navigation systems, and various cockpit display technologies such
as head-up displays (HUDs) and multi-function displays (MFDs). Additionally, the
division supports electronic warfare systems and radar technologies used in aircraft
like the LCA Tejas, Sukhoi Su-30MKI, Jaguar DARIN III, and several HAL
helicopter models.
 Engine Division (Bengaluru)
The Engine Division is dedicated to the manufacturing and overhaul of engines used
in both fighter jets and helicopters. For fighter aircraft, it produces engines such as the
R- 25 (MiG-21), R-29B (MiG-27), RD-33 (MiG-29), and the AL-31FP used in the
Sukhoi Su-30MKI. For helicopters, it supports the production of the Shakti engine co-
developed with Safran and used in platforms like the ALH Dhruv, LCH Prachand, and
LUH and the development of the HTSE-1200 high-thrust turboshaft engine.

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1.5 Products of HAL:

Su 30 MKI

Twin -seater, Multi-role, Long range Fighter / Bomber / Air Superiority Aircraft.

MIG-27

Single- seater Tactical Fighter/ Bomber with variable sweep wings

MIG -21 VARIANTS

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Single-seater Font line Tactical Intercepter / Fighter Aircraft

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Hawk- Advanced Jet Trainer

The Hawk is a tandem-seat Aircraft for ground attack, flying training and weapon training

Dhruv (Advanced Light Helicopter)

Dhruv is designing to meet the requirement of both military and civil operators.

Jaguar

Single-seater Tactical Fighter / Bomber with variable sweep wings

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Chetak

The Helicopter Division manufactures the variable and multi-purpose Chetak Helicopters for
Civil and Military applications both for Domestic and international customers

Cheetah

The Helicopter Division manufactures the versatile and multi-purpose Cheetah Helicopters for
Civil and Military applications both for Domestic and international customers

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 CHAPTER 2

AERDC

(AERONAUTICAL ENGINE RESEARCH AND DEVOLOPMENT)

2.1 Introduction

The Aeronautical Engine Research and Development Centre (AERDC) is a premier R&D
division under the Engine Division of Hindustan Aeronautics Limited (HAL). Established
with the vision of building self-reliant propulsion systems for the Indian aerospace sector,
AERDC is dedicated to the research, design, development, and testing of gas turbine engines
for a wide variety of aerial platforms. It plays a critical role in advancing indigenous aero-
engine technology in support of India’s defense preparedness and technological sovereignty.

AERDC is located at HAL’s Engine Division premises in Bengaluru and is staffed by some
of the nation’s most skilled scientists, engineers, and technicians. With cutting-edge
infrastructure, simulation facilities, and advanced test beds, AERDC contributes significantly
to India's efforts in achieving technological independence in aircraft propulsion.

Figure 2.2.1: AERDC

One of the core strengths of AERDC is its multi-disciplinary approach to research, combining
mechanical design, thermal sciences, control systems, materials engineering, electronics, and
software integration. The center has developed several indigenous programs such as the
HTFE- 25 (Hindustan Turbo Fan Engine) for light combat aircraft and UAVs, and the HTSE-
1200 (Hindustan Turbo Shaft Engine) for helicopters like the ALH Dhruv and LCH
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Prachand. It is

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also responsible for auxiliary propulsion systems such as the Gas Turbine Electrical
Generator (GTEG-60), Air Turbine Starter (ATS), and Auxiliary Power Units (APUs).

AERDC works in collaboration with other national agencies like DRDO, ISRO, and
CEMILAC, ensuring adherence to stringent aerospace quality standards. The test beds under
AERDC, including the HTFE and HTSE Tether Test Beds, are highly advanced and capable
of simulating real-world operational conditions. These facilities provide accurate performance
data and enable iterative improvements before the engines are inducted into service.

AERDC’s contributions are not limited to indigenous engines but extend to performance
upgrades, reverse engineering, and import substitution of critical components. The center's
dedicated team of engineers, scientists, and researchers is continuously working towards
reducing India’s dependency on foreign propulsion systems and building a robust, future-
ready aerospace ecosystem.

2.2 Overview of AERDC

AERDC is structured into several sub-divisions, each focused on a specific domain of aero-
engine development. These include:

 HTFE Test Bed Division: Dedicated to the development and testing of the Hindustan
Turbo Fan Engine (HTFE-25), a 25 kN thrust class turbofan engine designed for
fighter jets, trainers, and UAVs.
 HTSE Test Bed Division: Works on the Hindustan Turbo Shaft Engine (HTSE-
1200), intended for helicopters like ALH Dhruv, LCH Prachand, and LUH.
 GTEG and APU Division: Focuses on auxiliary engines and starter units like Gas
Turbine Electrical Generator (GTEG-60) used in AN-32 aircraft and Auxiliary Power
Units (APUs) for fighter aircraft.
 Starter Engine Development: Engaged in the development of systems like Gas
Turbine Starter Units (for LCA), Starter Turbo Charger (for T-72 tanks), and Air
Turbine Starter (ATS-37) for aircraft like Jaguar.

Each division within AERDC is equipped with real-time test facilities, high-precision
instrumentation, and integration labs where engines are assembled, tested, calibrated, and
validated against performance benchmarks. These divisions work in coordination to support
HAL’s vision of designing world-class propulsion systems.

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2.3 Projects Undertaken by AERDC

The Aeronautical Engine Research and Development Centre (AERDC) has played a pivotal
role in designing, developing, and testing advanced propulsion systems that power a wide
array of Indian aerial platforms. These projects are focused on indigenous technologies to
achieve self-reliance in engine manufacturing and reduce dependence on foreign suppliers.

1. HTFE-25 (Hindustan Turbo Fan Engine 25 KN Thrust Class)

 A high-bypass, twin-spool turbofan engine developed for trainer aircraft, UAVs, and
light transport jets.
 Generates 25 KN of thrust, with a specific fuel consumption (SFC) of about 0.8
kg/kgf/hr and air mass flow rate of around 43.5 kg/s.
 Designed with modular construction for ease of maintenance and long-term support.
 Successfully tested in tethered test bed and cold start configurations at AERDC. These
projects reflect AERDC’s contribution to India's Atmanirbhar Bharat initiative in the
aerospace sector and highlight the organization’s growing capabilities in complex
aero- engine technology.

2. HTSE-1200 (Hindustan Turbo Shaft Engine – 1200 KW Class)

 Developed for helicopters such as the LCH (Light Combat Helicopter), ALH
(Advanced Light Helicopter), and LUH (Light Utility Helicopter).
 Produces 1200 kW power output for rotor propulsion in both high-altitude and hot-
weather conditions.
 Features include a reverse-flow combustor, two-stage free power turbine, and dual-
channel FADEC system.
 AERDC has developed specialized test beds for verifying endurance, efficiency, and
vibration characteristics.

3. PTAE-7 Engine (Pilotless Target Aircraft Engine)

 Compact single-shaft turbojet engine used in CATS-Wingman, CATS-Hunter, and

DRDO aerial target platforms.
 Built with four-stage axial compressor, single-stage turbine, and telemetry-based
control.

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  Produces around 373 daN thrust, operates at 29,500 rpm, and weighs just 65 kg.
 Certified by CEMILAC, this engine supports high-speed autonomous missions.

4. Auxiliary Power Unit (APU) and Air Turbine Starter (ATS)

 APU is used to provide power and air supply to start main engines like the PMF
(Primary Main Engine) and support aircraft systems on the ground.
 ATS receives compressed air from the APU to initiate engine spool-up and rotation.
 These systems are vital for fighter jets like Su-30MKI, LCA Tejas, and trainers.

5. Gas Turbine Electrical Generator (GTEG-60)

 Designed for the AN-32 aircraft, GTEG-60 is a starter gas turbine generator that
supports engine starting and auxiliary power needs.
 AERDC handles regular upgrades and system integration to meet operational standards.

6. STC – Starter Turbo Charger for T-72 Tank

 Provides the T-72 battle tank with a self-starting capability through high-pressure air
compression using a compact turbine engine.
 Demonstrates AERDC’s interdisciplinary capability extending into ground defense
applications.

7. APU and Gas Turbine Starter Unit for LCA & Jaguar

 These units are critical for launching operations of fighter aircraft on both airbases
and remote deployments.
 AERDC develops and tests these systems in dedicated testing facilities integrated
with telemetry and vibration diagnostic tools.

8. Adour Engine Support and Modernization

 AERDC works on maintenance, repair, and enhancement of the Adour 811 engine
used in the Jaguar Jet.
 Engines are tested in the Adour test bed with real-time monitoring of temperature,
thrust, vibration, and TGT (Turbine Gas Temperature).

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 9. Garrett TPE331-5 Engine (Dornier Do-228)

 AERDC supports and monitors performance of this centrifugal turbo-shaft engine.

 Used in Dornier 228, a light transport aircraft for multi-role operations.
 Produces 715 shaft horsepower (SHP) and is manufactured under license from
Honeywell (USA).

These projects show the breadth and depth of AERDC’s contribution to India’s aerospace
ecosystem. From UAVs to helicopters, and from fighter jets to tanks, AERDC continues to
innovate across all domains of propulsion technology, fulfilling both military and civilian
needs.

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 CHAPTER 3

ENGINES

3.1 Introduction

Jet engines are the heart of modern aircraft, providing the required thrust to propel planes,
helicopters, and unmanned systems through the skies. These engines work on the principle of
Newton’s Third Law: for every action, there is an equal and opposite reaction. Air is
compressed, mixed with fuel, combusted, and expelled at high speed to generate thrust. In
aerospace and defense applications, jet engines must be lightweight, powerful, fuel-efficient,
and highly reliable under extreme conditions.

During my internship at AERDC, HAL, I gained deep insight into how various types of jet
engines are developed, tested, and calibrated. From compact turbojets powering drones to
advanced turbofans and turboshafts used in fighter jets and helicopters, I observed and
learned the intricate design and performance characteristics of propulsion systems. I also
worked in the HTFE-25 test bed, which helped me understand the real-time monitoring,
calibration, sensor integration, and control logic used in engine development. This experience
strengthened my understanding of aerospace propulsion technology and highlighted the
importance of indigenous engine programs in strengthening India's self-reliance in defense.

3.2 TYPES OF AIRCRAFT ENGINES

At Hindustan Aeronautics Limited (HAL), I was exposed to various types of aircraft engines
used in both fighter aircraft and helicopters. Each engine type serves a specific purpose
depending on the operational requirement be it speed, altitude, agility, or endurance.
Understanding the differences in design, function, and application gave me valuable insight
into how engines are selected or developed for specific aircraft platforms.

Aero engines are the heart of any aircraft, providing the necessary thrust or power to propel
the vehicle through the air. During my internship at HAL, I learned about various types of
aircraft engines used in different platforms such as fighter jets, helicopters, transport aircraft,
and unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs). These engines vary based on their application, power
output, design configuration, and operating principles. Below are the major types of engines I
studied and observed:

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Turbojet Engines

Turbojet engines are one of the earliest types of jet propulsion systems. They operate by
compressing air, mixing it with fuel, combusting the mixture, and ejecting high-speed exhaust
gases to produce thrust.

Although these engines are not widely used in modern aircraft due to lower efficiency at
subsonic speeds, they are still studied and maintained in legacy aircraft.

The turbojet represents the next level of engine complexity. The turbojet also has a diffuser,
which decreases the fluid velocity and increases the incoming air pressure. Air enters the
compressor next, where the fluid is worked on and the density is increased, and this process is
accompanied by an elevation in pressure and a moderate increase in temperature.

The air then enters the combustor, where the injected fuel burns with the air. The temperature
and specific volume of the gas increase significantly. The turbine is used to extract some of
the energy from the air, and this energy is used to drive the compressor; the turbine and
compressor are on the same shaft. Finally, the hot and expanded air, which is still at moderate
pressure, flows through the nozzle and is accelerated to a high velocity to produce thrust.

 At HAL, I learned about the R-25 turbojet engine, which powers the MiG-21 fighter
aircraft.
 These engines are powerful and suitable for high-speed interception roles but lack fuel
efficiency at lower altitudes.
 They are simple in construction compared to modern engines, making them useful for
training and legacy missions

Example Studied: PTAE engine used in UAVs like CATS-Hunter and CATS-Wingman.

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Turbofan Engines

Turbofan engines are an advanced type of jet engine that includes a fan at the front to
generate additional thrust using bypass air.

This design makes them quieter and more fuel-efficient than turbojets, especially at subsonic
speeds. The turbofan is at one level of complexity above a turbojet engine. It is a heavier
power plant but has better fuel economy than a turbojet. Two fundamental types of turbofans
are used. Each will be described separately. Turbofans are always multispool engines.

In the front of the engine, the air is first diffused. The air enters the fan, which compresses the
air and increases the pressure somewhat. The air is then split at the "splitter," and a portion of
it enters the low-pressure compressor and continues down the "core" of the engine.
Eventually this core air exhausts through the primary exhaust nozzle and produces thrust. The
second stream of air is called the "bypass" air. In this engine type, the "bypass" air is
accelerated in the fan nozzle, producing a second or additional thrust. The fan and usually the
first few stages of the low-pressure compressor are driven by the low-pressure turbine. The
high-pressure compressor extracts its energy from the high-pressure turbine in a few cases,
three shafts are used.

 HAL manufactures and maintains several turbofan engines such as the AL-31FP,
which powers the Sukhoi Su-30MKI.
 I also became familiar with the HTFE-25, a 25 kN indigenous turbofan engine
currently under development at HAL’s AERDC.
 These engines are commonly used in modern fighter jets due to their balance of high
thrust, fuel economy, and reduced heat signature.

Example Studied: HTFE-25 engine under development at HAL, which provides 25 kN of

thrust for light fighter jets and UAVs.

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Turboprop Engines

Turboprop engines are hybrid systems that use a gas turbine to drive a propeller. They are
suitable for transport aircraft, surveillance planes, and trainer aircraft due to their efficiency at
low speeds and shorter runway requirements.

Another engine type is the turboprop. For this type, the core of the engine is similar to a
turbojet namely, a diffuser, compressor, and turbine are used. The core airflow is accelerated
through the exhaust nozzle, which produces one component of thrust.

A second component of thrust, and usually the largest, is obtained from the propeller. The
power for the propeller is extracted from the turbo shaft in the core that is a part of the turbine
work drives the propeller. A gearbox reduces the speed so that the propeller spins at a lower
speed than the compressor.

 Although HAL is not currently developing its own turboprop engines, it maintains
and supports several such systems used in training and logistic aircraft.
 These engines are ideal for short-haul missions and low-altitude flights where jet
engines are less effective.

Example Studied: Garrett TPE331-5 engine used in the Dornier Do-228 aircraft.

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Turboshaft Engines

Turboshaft engines are primarily used in helicopters. Unlike other jet engines, turboshafts are
designed to convert thermal energy into rotational energy to drive the rotor blades.The last
aircraft engine type is the turboshaft. It is basically the same as the turboprop except that
thrust is not derived from the exhaust.

The gas from the core exhausts at a low velocity, and consequently additional thrust is not
obtained. These engines are used largely for helicopter applications, although it is noteworthy
that turboshaft engines are used to drive tanks and other ground vehicles with a transmission
attached to the shaft in lieu of the rotating blades.

 At HAL, one of the most significant turboshaft engines is the Shakti engine,
developed in collaboration with Safran (France).
 It is equipped with Full Authority Digital Engine Control (FADEC) and performs
excellently even in high-altitude environments like the Himalayas.
 The Shakti engine powers a range of indigenous helicopters:
 ALH Dhruv: Used for utility, logistics, and rescue operations.
 Rudra: An armed variant of Dhruv with integrated weapon systems.
 LCH Prachand: A Light Combat Helicopter designed for high-altitude warfare, anti-
armour, and close air support missions.
 LUH (Light Utility Helicopter): A lightweight platform used for logistics and
reconnaissance at high altitudes.
 These helicopters have proven their performance in extreme weather and terrain,
thanks to the reliability and efficiency of the Shakti engine.

Example Studied: HTSE-1200 engine used in ALH Dhruv, LCH Prachand, and LUH
helicopters.

3.3 GAS TURBINE ENGINE AND ITS WORKING

Gas turbine engines are a cornerstone of modern aerospace propulsion systems, converting
chemical energy in fuel into mechanical and thrust energy. These engines are widely used in
fighter aircraft, helicopters, and UAVs due to their high power-to-weight ratio, reliability, and
continuous high-speed operation. In HAL’s Engine Division and AERDC (Aeronautical
Engine Research and Development Centre), gas turbine engine development and testing form
a critical part of India’s aerospace capability.
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 Figure 3.3.1: Gas Turbine Engine

Fundamental Working Principle Brayton Cycle

A gas turbine engine operates based on the Brayton Cycle, which includes four key processes:
 Intake: Ambient air enters the engine through an air intake duct.
 Compression: The air is compressed to high pressure and temperature using axial or
centrifugal compressors.
 Combustion: The compressed air is mixed with fuel and ignited in the combustion
chamber, producing high-temperature, high-pressure gases.
 Expansion: These hot gases expand through the turbine stages, which drive the
compressor and then pass through the exhaust to produce thrust or shaft power.

This high-energy process enables aircraft to fly at high altitudes and speeds while maintaining
power and performance.

Main Components of a Gas Turbine Engine

 Air Intake System: Guides and regulates airflow into the engine with minimal
turbulence.
 Compressor Section: Uses rotating blades to compress the air; can be axial-flow,
centrifugal-flow, or a combination.
 Combustion Chamber: Fuel is sprayed into the compressed air and burned to
produce hot gases.
 Turbine Section: Extracts energy from the hot gases to power the compressor and
accessories.
 Exhaust Nozzle: Accelerates the remaining gases to generate forward thrust.
 Accessory Gearbox: Powers auxiliary units such as oil pumps, fuel control units,
and generators.

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 Importance of Gas Turbine Engines in Defense Aviation
Gas turbine engines ensure:
 High maneuverability and responsiveness in combat aircraft.
 Reliable power for mission-critical operations in both defense and civilian aviation.
 Reduced weight-to-thrust ratio, essential for fighter aircraft.
 Compact, scalable power sources for a wide variety of aerospace platforms.

With indigenous engine programs like HTFE-25 and HTSE-1200, HAL is contributing to India's
goal of self-reliance in aerospace propulsion technologies under the Make in India and Bharat
initiatives.

Advantages:

1. High Power to Weight Ratio:

 Gas turbine engines produce large amounts of power relative to their size and
weight, making them ideal for aircraft applications.

2. Continuous Combustion:

 Unlike piston engines, gas turbines operate on a continuous combustion

cycle, ensuring smoother and more efficient power delivery.

3. Reliable at High Altitudes and Speeds:

 Turbine engines maintain performance even at high altitudes and supersonic

speeds, making them suitable for military and commercial aviation.

4. Fewer Moving Parts:

 With fewer reciprocating components, these engines have reduced

mechanical wear, offering greater reliability and longer operational life.

5. Compact Design:

 Modern gas turbines are compact and modular, allowing for easier integration into
aircraft fuselage and maintenance-friendly architecture.

25
 6. Quick Startup and Acceleration:

 They can start quickly and accelerate rapidly, which is essential in combat
and dynamic flight scenarios.

7. Multifuel Capability:

 Many gas turbines can operate on different types of aviation fuels (e.g., Jet
A1, JP-8), increasing flexibility in operations.

8. Scalability and Versatility:

 Gas turbines are scalable for various applications from UAVs to helicopters to
large transport aircraft and adaptable for marine and industrial uses.

Working Principle of a Turbofan Engine

A turbofan engine operates on the Brayton cycle, combining the core gas turbine mechanism with
a large fan to enhance thrust and efficiency. It consists of two main sections: the core (gas
generator) and the fan (bypass section).

Figure 3.3.1: Turbofan Engine

1. Air Intake & Compression:

 Ambient air enters the engine inlet. A large front-mounted fan splits the air into
two streams:
 One part enters the core engine (core flow).
 The other bypasses the core (bypass flow), providing additional thrust.
 The core flow is compressed through a multi-stage axial compressor, raising its
pressure and temperature.

26
 2. Combustion:

 In the combustion chamber, compressed air is mixed with fuel and ignited.
 The resulting high-energy gases expand rapidly.

3. Turbine:

 The hot gases pass through turbines, which extract energy to drive
the compressor and the front fan via connected shafts.

4. Exhaust:

 The remaining high-speed gases are expelled through the exhaust nozzle,
producing thrust.
 In high-bypass turbofans, the majority of thrust is generated by the fan air, not
the core exhaust.

This configuration provides a balance between high thrust and fuel efficiency, especially in subsonic
flight regimes like in transport aircraft, fighter trainers, and UAVs.

Advantages of Turbofan Engines

1. High Thrust with Better Efficiency:

 The fan-driven bypass air produces more thrust with lower specific fuel
consumption compared to turbojets.

2. Quieter Operation:

 The bypass air envelops the hot core exhaust, reducing noise levels
significantly a critical factor in both military and commercial aviation.

3. Improved Fuel Economy:

 Especially in high-bypass variants, turbofans are more fuel-efficient than

turbojets at subsonic speeds.

27
 4. Cooler Exhaust:

 Lower exhaust temperatures help reduce infrared signature, important for

stealth and defense applications.

5. Versatility:

 Suitable for fighter jets, UAVs, transport aircraft, and trainers from low to
high thrust classes.

6. Environmental Compliance:

 Modern turbofan engines meet stringent emission and noise regulations set by
global aviation authorities.

7. Enhanced Altitude Performance:

 Performs well at cruising altitudes with stable thrust output.

Working of HTSE-1200 Engine

The HTSE-1200 is a turbo shaft engine designed to deliver mechanical power to helicopter
rotors. Its working involves multiple stages of air compression, combustion, and turbine-
driven power generation:

28
Figure 3.3.2: Turbo shaft Engine

29
 1) Air Intake:

 Ambient air enters through a radial air intake and is directed into the engine.

2) Compression:

 The air passes through a two-stage centrifugal compressor, increasing its

pressure and temperature.

3) Combustion:

 The compressed air then enters a reverse-flow effusion cooled combustor,

where it mixes with fuel and is ignited. The reverse-flow layout helps reduce
engine length and improves combustion efficiency.

4) Gas Expansion:

 The high-energy exhaust gases flow through a single crystal blade turbine,
which withstands high thermal stress.

5) Power Extraction:

 The gases then drive a two-stage free power turbine, which is mechanically
connected to the helicopter’s main gearbox, producing rotational energy to
spin the rotors.

6) Lubrication & Torque Measurement:

 A dual gear train gearbox with an integrated oil tank ensures proper
lubrication, and a built-in torque sensor monitors the power delivered to the
rotor.

Advantages of HTSE-1200

1) Indigenous Development:

 Promotes self-reliance in helicopter engine technology, reducing dependence

on foreign manufacturers.

30
 2) High Efficiency:

 Centrifugal compressors and reverse-flow combustor design improve fuel

efficiency and reduce weight.

3) High Altitude Performance:

 Optimized to function in high-altitude, hot-weather conditions, ideal for Indian

terrains like the Himalayas.

4) Durability:

 Single-crystal turbine blades increase engine lifespan and reliability under

extreme conditions.

5) Modular Design:

 Allows for easier maintenance and part replacement in field conditions.

6) Advanced Monitoring:

 Built in torque measurement system provides real-time data for performance

analysis.

7) Versatile Use:

 Suitable for both military (e.g., LCH, ALH) and civil rotary-wing applications.

3.4 ENGINES OBSERVED AND STUDIED DURING INTERNSHIP

During my internship at HAL’s Aeronautical Engine Research and Development Centre

(AERDC), I had the opportunity to see and study several advanced engines that are under
development or production for various Indian defense platforms. These engines reflect India’s
technological growth in the aerospace sector and are crucial for indigenous aviation
programs. Some of the key engines I observed are listed below:

31
Power Take-off Auxiliary Engine (PTAE):

Figure 2.6.1: PTAE

Key Features:

 Type: Single-shaft turbojet engine suitable for compact, high-thrust

applications.
 Compressor & Turbine: Features a four-stage transonic axial compressor
and a single-stage axial turbine for efficient airflow and energy conversion.
 Combustion & Control: Uses an annular straight-flow combustion chamber
and is controlled via an advanced electronic control unit (ECU).
 Fuel System & Certification: Includes an engine-driven fuel system and is
certified by CEMILAC for military airworthiness.
 Specifications: Weighs 65 kg, runs at 29,500 rpm, and delivers a thrust of 373
DAN. The engine is telemetry enabled for remote control and monitor.

Function

The PTAE engine is designed to power unmanned aerial vehicles such as CATS-Hunter and
CATS-Wingman, providing compact and high-speed thrust. It plays a crucial role in enabling
autonomous missions with reliable propulsion. Using telemetry-based electronic control, the
engine allows precise remote monitoring and operation. This ensures that the aircraft can
function without direct human intervention, increasing safety and flexibility. The engine
responds quickly to control inputs, which supports agile movements during combat or
reconnaissance tasks.

32
2) APU (Auxiliary Power Unit):

Figure 2.6.2: Auxiliary Power Unit

Key Features

 Provides compressed bleed air to the Air Turbine Starter (ATS) to start the main
engine (PMF).
 Supplies bleed air for cockpit and avionics air conditioning while on the ground.
 Generates AC electrical power when the aircraft is on the ground.
 Supports electrical systems during engine-off or emergency conditions.
 Ensures autonomous operation of key systems without ground support.

Function:

The APU provides vital power support to an aircraft when the main engines are not running.
It supplies compressed bleed air to the Air Turbine Starter (ATS), which is essential for
initiating the main propulsion system. In addition to engine starting, the APU delivers
conditioned air to the cockpit and avionics compartments, maintaining temperature and
equipment safety on the ground. It generates AC electrical power to operate onboard systems
like lighting, displays, navigation, and communication when the aircraft is parked. This
function is crucial during engine-off operations, pre-flight checks, and maintenance
procedures. The APU also acts as a backup source during emergencies, ensuring
uninterrupted power supply for essential systems. By reducing dependence on external
ground support equipment, it enhances operational readiness and flexibility.
33
3) Hindustan Turbo Shaft Engine (HTSE-1200):

Figure 2.6.3: HTSE-1200

Key Features

 Radial air intake for efficient airflow to the compressor

 Two-stage centrifugal compressor for high-pressure air delivery
 Reverse-flow, effusion-cooled combustor to improve combustion efficiency and
reduce heat stress
 Single-crystal blade turbine for high strength and durability at high temperatures
 Two-stage free power turbine for effective rotor power delivery
 Dual gear train gearbox with integrated oil tank for lubrication
 Built-in torque measurement system for accurate load monitoring
 Engine dry weight: 235 kg

Functions:

The HTSE-1200 engine provides the mechanical power needed to rotate the main and tail
rotors of a helicopter. It converts fuel energy into rotational energy through its turbine and
gearbox system. This power is essential for the helicopter to lift off, hover, and maneuver.
The engine ensures smooth and continuous rotor operation in all flying conditions. It is
specially designed to perform efficiently in high-altitude and hot weather environments. The
built-in torque measurement system helps monitor and manage engine load precisely. The
engine also supports reliable flight in both civil and military helicopters. Its compact and
durable design makes it suitable for long missions and challenging terrains.
34
4) Hindustan turbo fan engine (HTFE) :

Figure 2.6.4: HTFE

Features

 Designed as a 25 KN thrust class turbofan engine for fighter jets, UAVs, trainers,
and transport aircraft
 Twin-spool engine with two-stage fan, five-stage high-pressure compressor,
annular combustor, and single-stage turbines
 Equipped with Full Authority Digital Engine Control (FADEC) for precise
and reliable engine operation
 Incorporates modular construction for ease of maintenance and
component replacement
 Capable of operating at various altitudes and flight conditions with high
fuel efficiency
 Specific fuel consumption (SFC): 0.8 kg/KGF-hr
 Air mass flow rate: 43.5 kg/s

Functions:

The HTFE-25 engine is developed to deliver 25 KN of thrust, suitable for fighter aircraft,
UAVs, trainers, and light transport planes. Its main function is to generate strong forward
motion by efficiently converting fuel energy into thrust through a turbofan mechanism. With
advanced digital control (FADEC), it ensures smooth, precise engine operation under various
flight conditions. The engine is designed for high efficiency, supporting long-range missions
with low fuel consumption.
35
5) Jaguar Jet Engine Adour MK804/811:

Figure 2.6.5: Jaguar Engine

Features:

 Twin Spool Design: Uses two rotating shafts for better efficiency and smooth
operation.
 Afterburner Equipped: Provides extra thrust during takeoff and combat by burning
fuel in the exhaust.
 Low Bypass Ratio: Ideal for high-speed fighter missions with quick response.
 Modular Construction: Makes maintenance and part replacement easier.
 High Thrust Output: Delivers powerful thrust while keeping engine size compact.

Function:

The Jaguar jet engine is designed to deliver the required thrust for deep strike, ground attack,
and reconnaissance missions. It converts chemical energy from aviation fuel into high-speed
exhaust gases that propel the aircraft forward. With the help of an afterburner, the engine
provides additional thrust during critical phases such as takeoff, climb, or combat maneuvers.
It ensures smooth and stable performance at low altitudes and high subsonic speeds, which is
ideal for tactical missions. The engine is built for durability, quick throttle response, and
sustained performance under high-temperature and high-pressure combat environments. It
supports multi-role operations and enhances the overall mission capability of the Jaguar
aircraft.

36
6) Garrett TPE331-5 Engine:

Figure 2.6.5: Garrett Engine

Feature:

 Engine Type: Single-shaft turboprop engine with a reverse-flow design.

 Compressor: Centrifugal compressor for compact and efficient air compression.
 Power Output: Rated at 715 shaft horsepower (shp) at 1,591 rpm output speed.
 Size & Build: Compact front area with an intake diameter of 0.7 meters, length of
1988 mm, and weight of 164 kg, making it ideal for light transport aircraft.
 Design Origin: Manufactured under license from Honeywell (USA), known for its
reliability and global use in transport aircraft.

Function:

The Garrett TPE331-5 engine powers the Dornier Do-228 aircraft, which is used for
transport, patrol, and utility roles. It is a turboprop engine that converts fuel energy into shaft
horsepower to rotate the propeller and generate thrust. This engine supports short takeoff and
landing (STOL) operations, making it ideal for small runways and remote areas. Its single-
shaft, reverse-flow design helps reduce the engine's size and improve aerodynamics. The
centrifugal compressor delivers high-pressure airflow efficiently in a
compact space. It offers quick throttle response and strong performance at low altitudes
and variable speeds. The engine is known for its high reliability and low maintenance,
essential for continuous flight operations. It supports multi-role aircraft missions such as
passenger transport, surveillance, and maritime patrol.
37
7) Shakti Engine

Figure 2.6.6: Shakti Engine

Features:

 The Shakti engine is a modern turboshaft engine developed to meet the

requirements of the ALH Dhruv Mk-3 and other Indian military helicopters.
 It includes an air intake module, a two-stage centrifugal compressor, and a reverse-
flow combustion chamber.
 The hot section consists of a single-stage gas generator turbine and a two-stage
power turbine, delivering power to the rotor through a reduction gearbox.
 The engine is equipped with dual-channel Full Authority Digital Engine Control
(FADEC), offering precise control and enhanced safety.
 It is optimized for high-altitude performance with low fuel consumption.
 The engine is co-developed by HAL and Safran (France) and designed for
operations in diverse terrains.

Function:

The Shakti engine provides the power needed to rotate the helicopter's main and tail rotors. It
ensures smooth performance in high altitudes and hot weather conditions. Its FADEC system
automatically controls engine operations for better fuel efficiency and safety. The engine
helps the ALH Mk-3 perform missions like rescue, transport, and patrol. It responds quickly
to throttle changes and supports reliable flight in critical situations.

38
 CHAPTER 4

FADEC

(FULL AUTHORITY DIGITAL ENGINE CONTROL (FADEC)

4.1 Introduction to FADEC

Full Authority Digital Engine Control (FADEC) is a sophisticated digital electronic system
designed to provide complete automation in the operation of aircraft engines. It replaces
traditional mechanical or hydro-mechanical engine control systems by taking full authority
over all aspects of engine performance. FADEC continuously monitors critical parameters
such as throttle lever angle, turbine temperature, engine pressure ratio, RPM, fuel flow, and
air intake data. Based on these real-time inputs, it adjusts various actuators to maintain
optimal performance, safety, and efficiency.

FADEC eliminates the need for manual intervention by pilots or maintenance personnel
during engine operation. It is used in a wide variety of aircraft engines including turbojet,
turbofan, and turboshaft engines found in military aircraft like the Sukhoi Su-30MKI, Jaguar,
and helicopters like ALH Dhruv and LCH Prachand, especially those developed and tested by
HAL.

Figure 4.1.1: Full Authority Digital Engine Control

39
4.2 Characteristics of FADEC

FADEC systems have a range of defining features that make them critical to modern aerospace
propulsion:

Complete Digital Control: FADEC fully controls engine functions without mechanical
backup, allowing precise and automated regulation of engine parameters.

Dual Channel Redundancy: Most FADEC units consist of two independent digital channels
(primary and backup), ensuring fail-safe operation in case one channel fails.

Sensor Integration: FADEC receives input from various sensors—temperature, pressure,

RPM, throttle position and dynamically adjusts control outputs accordingly.

Real Time Operation: Capable of making rapid decisions every millisecond, ensuring stable
engine behavior even during extreme flight conditions.

Adaptive Response: Can compensate for altitude, air temperature, load, and engine wear over
time to maintain efficiency.

Integrated Health Monitoring: Continuously checks the engine's condition and logs data for
fault analysis and maintenance prediction.

Seamless Avionics Integration: Communicates with the aircraft’s main flight control systems
and displays, enhancing pilot situational awareness.

4.3 Specifications of FADEC

A typical FADEC system in aerospace engines, such as those used at HAL, includes the
following specifications:

40
 Figure 4.1.2: Block Diagram

 Processor Type: Ruggedized microcontrollers or Digital Signal Processors (DSP)

capable of high-speed computation.
 Power Supply: Standard 28V DC aircraft electrical system input with backup
protection.
 Input Interfaces: Accepts inputs from:

 Thermocouples (TGT: Turbine Gas Temperature)

 Pressure transducers (Compressor, Oil, and Fuel Pressure)
 Speed sensors (N1, N2 rotational speeds)
 Throttle angle sensors

 Output Interfaces:

 Fuel metering valves

 Ignition systems
 Variable stator vanes
 Bleed air valves
 Actuators and stepper motors

 Communication Protocols: Typically ARINC-429, CAN bus, or MIL-STD-1553B

for avionics and telemetry integration.

41
  Memory: Non-volatile memory used to store engine health data, flight logs, and
system faults (used during post-flight diagnostics).
 Cooling & Enclosure: Air or liquid-cooled enclosures rated for aerospace vibration
and thermal conditions.

4.4 Advantages of FADEC

FADEC offers several operational, technical, and safety advantages that have revolutionized
aircraft engine management:

 Precision and Efficiency: Delivers optimal engine thrust and performance under all
flight conditions while minimizing fuel consumption and emissions.
 Safety Critical Automation: Constantly monitors and prevents unsafe engine
conditions such as over-speed, over-temperature, or fuel imbalance.
 Reduced Pilot Workload: Eliminates the need for manual control of fuel mixture,
ignition, and throttle coordination allowing pilots to focus on flying.
 Improved Engine Start-up & Shutdown: FADEC systems manage smooth
automatic engine starting and shutdown, preventing compressor stalls or hot starts.
 Enhanced Diagnostics & Maintenance: Logs performance data and faults, aiding
ground crews in preventive maintenance and reducing downtime.
 Software Flexibility: Updates can be made through software reprogramming instead
of hardware modifications, saving time and cost.
 Redundancy & Reliability: Dual-channel architecture ensures uninterrupted
operation even if one controller fails mid-flight.
 Weight and Space Saving: Compact and modular design replaces bulky mechanical
linkages and fuel controls.

4.5 Applications of FADEC in HAL Engines

FADEC systems are widely integrated into modern aerospace engines developed or supported by
Hindustan Aeronautics Limited (HAL). Their use has improved engine reliability, safety, and
mission readiness across platforms. Below are key examples:

1. HTFE-25 (Hindustan Turbo Fan Engine)

The HTFE-25, developed by HAL’s AERDC, is a 25 KN thrust class turbofan engine intended
for aircraft such as trainers, UAVs, and light combat jets. It uses a dual-channel FADEC
42
system

43
to precisely manage its high-speed compressor, combustor, and turbine operations. The
FADEC in HTFE ensures stable thrust generation, fuel optimization, and automatic fault
detection in real time, even during high-altitude or variable-load operations.

2. HTSE-1200 (Hindustan Turbo Shaft Engine)

The HTSE-1200 powers helicopters like the ALH Dhruv, LCH Prachand, and LUH. FADEC
plays a vital role in managing rotor power, fuel injection, engine temperature, and
performance in hot-and-high terrains. By automating throttle responses and providing rotor
torque balance, FADEC improves helicopter control, especially during hovering and rapid
altitude changes.

3. Shakti Engine (Co-developed with Safran)

The Shakti Engine, used in ALH Dhruv Mk-III and LCH, features dual-channel FADEC for
better engine life, low fuel burn, and altitude adaptability. It controls the engine's two-stage
centrifugal compressor and turbine system while providing safety protections such as over-
temp and surge prevention.

4. Adour Engine (Jaguar Fighter Jet)

FADEC in the Adour Mk 811 engine enhances the performance of Jaguar aircraft. It manages
air-fuel ratios, turbine RPM, and engine acceleration during mission-critical flights. Pilots can
rely on FADEC to perform stable high-speed operations with low pilot workload,
contributing to the aircraft’s combat effectiveness.

44
Figure 4.5.1: HAL Aircraft

45
 CHAPTER 5

CONTROL AND INSTRUMENTATION OF JET ENGINE

5.1 Engine Thrust

Engine thrust is the primary output of any jet propulsion system. It is the force generated by
the engine to push the aircraft forward. Thrust is typically measured using a load cell in a
tether test bed environment like HTFE.

 Accurate thrust measurement is essential to assess the engine’s performance.

 Thrust is measured in kilonewtons (KN), and sensors send real-time data to the
control room.
 In HAL’s HTFE Test Bed, thrust values are displayed through LabVIEW-based
indicator gauges.

5.2 Engine Torque

Torque is the rotational force generated by the engine shaft, especially in turboshaft engines
like the HTSE-1200.

 Torque is a critical parameter in helicopters, as it drives the main rotor blades.

 A torque sensor integrated within the gearbox helps monitor power delivery.
 Monitoring torque ensures balanced load distribution and prevents mechanical failure.

5.3 Engine Speed

Engine speed refers to the revolutions per minute (RPM) of various rotating parts in the engine.

 Typically, both high-pressure and low-pressure spool speeds are monitored.

 Sensors track the rotational speeds of the turbine and compressor stages.
 This data is fed into FADEC, which adjusts fuel flow and maintains optimal speed for
varying flight conditions.

5.4 Turbine Gas Temperature (TGT)

TGT is the temperature of exhaust gases exiting the turbine section.

46
  It is a key indicator of combustion efficiency and overall engine health.
 Thermocouples are used to measure TGT and are placed at specific turbine exit points.
 Abnormal TGT can signal problems like over-fueling, compressor surge, or cooling
issues.

5.5 Vibration Monitoring

Vibration sensors are installed to monitor abnormal oscillations in the engine structure.

 Accelerometers are placed on the engine casing and rotor bearings.

 High vibration levels can indicate mechanical imbalances, loose components, or
bearing failures.
 Continuous monitoring ensures timely maintenance and prevents catastrophic failure.

5.6 Engine Warming System

The warming system prepares the engine components before a cold start.

 Preheating helps reduce thermal stress during ignition.

 Systems may use hot air circulation or electrical heaters to bring components to
operational temperature.
 This is particularly important in cold weather testing or high-altitude operations.

5.7 Aircraft Indication Systems (AIDS)

Aircraft Indication Systems (AIDS) display real-time data about engine and aircraft
performance.

 Indicators include fuel pressure, oil temperature, barometric pressure, and engine
health.
 These are developed using platforms like LabVIEW and CoPilot in HAL’s test beds.
 AIDS support both the operator PC and host PC, enabling engineers and pilots to
monitor systems efficiently.

47
 CHAPTER 6

Sensors Used in Jet Engines

In aerospace propulsion systems, real-time measurement, analysis, and control are essential for
ensuring safety, efficiency, and performance. Jet engines operate under extreme conditions
involving high temperatures, pressures, and rotational speeds. Hence, the integration of high-
precision sensors is critical. These sensors interface with engine control systems like FADEC
and testing platforms like NI PXI LabVIEW-based test benches to capture vital data on
engine health, performance, and response.

During my internship at HAL's AERDC, I observed and interacted with various advanced sensors
used in the HTFE (Hindustan Turbofan Engine) and Adour test beds. Below is a detailed
explanation of the most important sensors used in the testing and operational monitoring of
jet engines.

6.1 Linear Variable Differential Transformer (LVDT)

Figure 6.1.1: Linear Variable Differential Transformer

The Linear Variable Differential Transformer (LVDT) is an essential electromechanical sensor

used extensively in aerospace and control system applications to measure precise linear
displacement. It plays a critical role in real-time position sensing, which is vital in aircraft
engine control, especially for feedback systems in actuator movements and variable geometry
components.

48
Working Principle:

Figure 6.1.1: Function

An LVDT consists of a primary coil centered between two secondary coils, with a movable
soft iron magnetic core that travels linearly inside the coil assembly. When an alternating
current (AC) signal is supplied to the primary coil, it induces voltages in the two secondary
coils. The movement of the magnetic core causes the induced voltages in the secondary coils
to vary differentially.

 If the core is centered, the voltages in both secondary coils are equal and opposite,
resulting in zero net output.
 When the core moves in one direction, the voltage in one coil increases while the
other decreases.
 The differential voltage output is directly proportional to the linear displacement of
the core, which is then converted to an analog signal readable by control systems.

This allows the LVDT to provide continuous, highly accurate position feedback without any
physical contact between moving parts, making it extremely reliable and long-lasting.

Applications in Aerospace:

LVDTs are widely used in aerospace engine control systems, including:

 Measuring the position of fuel control valves, ensuring precise fuel metering during
different phases of engine operation.

49
  Monitoring the movement of variable stator vanes (VSVs), which are critical for
maintaining compressor efficiency and avoiding stall conditions.
 Providing feedback for actuator systems, such as afterburner nozzle controls and
thrust vectoring mechanisms in advanced military aircraft.

They are chosen for their ruggedness, precision, and ability to operate reliably in harsh
environments like jet engine compartments where vibration, temperature, and
electromagnetic interference are significant.

Use in HAL HTFE Test Bed:

During my internship at HAL's AERDC HTFE Test Bed, I closely observed and understood the
implementation of LVDTs in engine control and monitoring systems.

 The LVDT sensors were interfaced with National Instruments’ SCB-68A signal
conditioning boards and connected to PXI-6355 multifunction I/O cards for real-time
data acquisition.
 These were visualized and processed using LabVIEW Real-Time software, enabling
engineers to monitor actuator responses, vane positions, and other displacement-
critical parameters during live engine testing.
 Their integration into the test bed made it possible to analyze system behavior
dynamically, adjust control algorithms, and validate engine responses under varying
loads and conditions.

Advantages of LVDT:

 Frictionless and wear-free operation due to non-contact design, ensuring long-

term reliability.
 Excellent linearity and repeatability, making it ideal for aerospace-grade
precision control systems.
 High sensitivity and resolution, suitable for detecting even minute movements
 Robust construction, capable of functioning in high-temperature, high-
vibration, and electromagnetic environments typical of aircraft engines.
 Compatible with real-time control systems and can be calibrated easily using
multifunction calibrators like Fluke 753.

50
 6.2 Pressure Transducers

Figure 6.2.1: Pressure Transducers

Pressure transducers are essential components in jet engine control and instrumentation systems.
They convert applied fluid or gas pressure into an electrical signal, which can then be
interpreted by engine monitoring systems for real-time performance evaluation. These sensors
are widely used in aerospace due to their precision, reliability, and ability to operate under
extreme conditions.

Working Principle:

A pressure transducer typically consists of a diaphragm, a strain gauge, and a signal conditioning
circuit. When pressure is applied:

 The diaphragm deflects, causing a deformation in the strain gauge.

 This deformation alters the electrical resistance in the strain gauge.
51
  The change in resistance is converted into a voltage signal proportional to the applied
pressure.
 The signal is then read and processed by the aircraft’s control or test systems.

There are different types of pressure transducers, including piezoresistive, capacitive, and
piezoelectric, each suited for specific aerospace applications.

Applications in Aerospace:

In jet engines, pressure transducers are vital for measuring:

 Compressor inlet and outlet pressures to ensure efficient air compression.

 Combustion chamber pressure to monitor safe and controlled combustion.
 Fuel line pressure which affects fuel delivery and engine thrust control.
 Oil system pressure critical for lubrication and cooling of engine components.
 Turbine inter stage pressure for performance diagnostics and optimization.

Use in HAL HTFE Test Bed:

During my internship at HAL AERDC, I learned how pressure transducers are used in the HTFE
25 KN jet engine test bed for live engine performance monitoring:

 Sensors were installed at multiple pressure points, including air intake, compressor
stages, fuel lines, oil channels, and turbine sections.
 The analog signals generated by these transducers were acquired through SCB-68A
signal conditioning boards and PXI-6355 multifunction I/O cards.
 The data was then visualized using LabVIEW RT software, allowing real-time
tracking of pressure variations across the engine.
 The system helped engineers detect anomalies, calibrate fuel-air mixtures, and
validate engine performance against design parameters.

This hands-on observation helped me understand how precise pressure data is critical for
maintaining safe and optimal engine operation.

Advantages of Pressure Transducers:

 High accuracy and fast response time, essential for real-time engine diagnostics.

52
 Robust and compact design, ideal for high-pressure, high-temperature environments.

53
  Long-term stability and low drift, ensuring consistent performance over time.
 Integration with real-time control and data acquisition systems like National
Instruments hardware.
 Helps in early fault detection, improving engine safety and performance.
 By continuously monitoring pressure variations, transducers help in early detection of
anomalies, contributing to predictive maintenance, improved safety, and optimized
engine performance.
 Easily interfaces with real-time control and data acquisition systems such as National
Instruments PXI platforms, enabling synchronized data processing and closed-loop
control.

6.3 Thermocouple Sensor

Figure 6.3.1: Thermocouple Sensor

Thermocouples are one of the most widely used temperature sensors in aerospace engine
systems. They are simple, robust, and capable of measuring extremely high temperatures with
quick response time. Thermocouples are indispensable for monitoring the thermal health of a
jet engine, especially in high-stress zones like combustion chambers and turbines.

One of the primary reasons thermocouples are so extensively used in aerospace engines is their
ability to withstand extreme temperatures, often exceeding 1200°C. This makes them ideal
for real-time monitoring in high-stress environments such as combustion chambers, turbine
inlet and outlet sections, and exhaust zones. In jet engines, controlling and optimizing
combustion requires precise temperature data, and thermocouples offer the speed and
durability necessary to perform this task reliably.

54
Working Principle:

A thermocouple consists of two dissimilar metal wires joined at one end. When the junction
experiences a change in temperature:

 A voltage (known as Seebeck voltage) is generated due to the thermoelectric effect.

 The voltage is proportional to the temperature difference between the junction (hot
end) and the reference end (cold end).
 This voltage is then converted into temperature readings using standard calibration
tables.

Different types of thermocouples (Type K, J, T, E, etc.) are used based on temperature range
and accuracy needs. In jet engines, Type K (Nickel-Chromium/Nickel-Alumel) is commonly
used due to its high-temperature resistance and stability.

Applications in Aerospace:

Thermocouples are used extensively in engine testing and operations to measure:

 Turbine Gas Temperature (TGT)

 Exhaust Gas Temperature (EGT)
 Compressor outlet and inlet air temperatures
 Combustion chamber temperatures
 Fuel and oil temperature

Accurate temperature measurement is crucial for controlling fuel flow, adjusting airflow,
monitoring thermal stress, and maintaining engine efficiency and safety.

55
Use in HAL HTFE and Adour Test Bed:

During my internship at HAL AERDC, I observed the use of thermocouples in both HTFE and
Adour Test Beds:

 In the HTFE test bed, thermocouples were installed at various engine zones to track
temperature gradients in real-time. These readings were fed into SCB-68A channels
and processed using PXI-6355 multifunction cards.
 In the Adour test bed, I directly witnessed the failure and replacement of a
thermocouple during the Jaguar engine test (Engine No. 811). It helped me understand
the critical role thermocouples play in ensuring safe test operations.
 The real-time data from thermocouples was visualized and analyzed using LabVIEW
RT and CoPilot software, enabling accurate performance validation and fault
diagnosis.

Advantages of Thermocouples:

 Certain types (e.g., thermocouples like Type B, R, or S) can measure extremely high
temperatures up to 1700°C, making them ideal for turbine exhaust and combustion
chamber monitoring.
 Quick reaction to temperature changes is essential in dynamic engine environments,
ensuring accurate real-time thermal profiling.
 Designed for harsh aerospace and industrial conditions, these sensors can endure
vibration, pressure fluctuations, and thermal shocks without performance degradation
 Their straightforward construction makes them economical for widespread
deployment in multi-point sensor arrays, especially in engine test beds.
 Seamless Integration with PXI and LabVIEW
 Easily compatible with National Instruments PXI-based systems and LabVIEW RT
software, enabling real-time data acquisition, control, and thermal analysis.

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 6.4 Resistance Temperature Detector (RTD)

Figure 6.4.1: Resistance Temperature Detector

Resistance Temperature Detectors (RTDs) are precision temperature sensors that operate based
on the principle that a metal’s electrical resistance increases with temperature. They are
6known for high accuracy, excellent repeatability, and stability over time, making them ideal
for critical temperature measurement applications in aircraft engines.

Working Principle:

An RTD is made of a pure metal (usually platinum, such as in a PT100), and it exhibits a
predictable increase in resistance as temperature rises. The key principle is:

Resistance ∝ Temperature

The resistance is measured and converted into temperature using calibration standards. Unlike
thermocouples, RTDs are not based on thermoelectric voltage but instead rely on ohmic
resistance.
57
The most commonly used RTD in aerospace is the PT100, which has a resistance of 100 ohms
at 0°C and increases linearly with temperature.

Applications in Aerospace:

RTDs are widely used in jet engines and test facilities to measure:

 Oil temperature in gearboxes and lubrication systems.

 Coolant and fuel temperature in pumps and lines.
 Ambient air temperature in the intake section.
 Engine casing and stator temperatures to monitor thermal expansion.

They are typically used in areas where high precision and reliability are required over long
periods.

Use in HAL HTFE Test Bed:

During my internship at HAL AERDC, I observed the deployment of RTDs in the HTFE Test
Bed environment:

 RTDs were embedded into engine oil lines and component casings to track gradual
thermal changes.
 These RTDs were interfaced with SCB-68A signal conditioning hardware, connected
to PXI-6355 multifunction I/O modules for data acquisition.
 The resistance changes were continuously monitored and visualized using LabVIEW
RT, with readings logged for performance benchmarking.
 The use of RTDs helped engineers perform thermal health monitoring of engine
components during high-speed test runs.

Advantages of RTDs

 RTDs provide highly accurate and repeatable measurements over a wide temperature
range, making them ideal for precision thermal monitoring in aerospace systems.
 Their resistance-based sensing mechanism ensures minimal drift over time,
supporting consistent readings during extended test cycles.
 RTDs exhibit a nearly linear resistance-temperature relationship, simplifying the
signal processing and calibration process.

58
  Constructed using stable materials like platinum, RTDs are well-suited for harsh
industrial and aerospace environments involving vibration, pressure, and fluctuating
temperatures.
 RTDs easily integrate with PXI-based multifunction DAQ modules (like PXI-6355)
and LabVIEW RT software, enabling seamless real-time monitoring, logging, and
control in test bed setups.

6.5 Magnetic Pickup Sensor (MPS)

Figure 6.5.1: Magnetic Pickup Sensor

Magnetic Pickup Sensors (MPS) are non-contact sensors used to detect the speed or presence of a
rotating component by generating a voltage signal based on magnetic field variations. In
aircraft engines, they are widely used to measure RPM (rotations per minute) of shafts, gears,
or turbine rotors, enabling real-time speed monitoring and control.

Working Principle:

Magnetic pickup sensors operate based on Faraday’s Law of Electromagnetic Induction. The
sensor contains a permanent magnet and a coil. When a ferromagnetic object (such as a gear
59
tooth or shaft notch) passes near the sensor tip, it disturbs the magnetic field, inducing a voltage
pulse in the coil.

Each pulse corresponds to one gear tooth or rotation, and the frequency of pulses is directly
proportional to the rotational speed of the engine component.

These voltage pulses are then processed by control systems (e.g., FADEC or LabVIEW RT
modules) to calculate RPM in real-time.

Applications in Aerospace:

In aircraft and jet engines, magnetic pickup sensors are used for:

 Turbine speed monitoring (N1/N2 shafts)

 Main shaft and gearbox RPM measurement
 Fuel pump or oil pump rotation feedback
 Rotational speed tracking of testbed dynamometers or rotors

They are crucial in ensuring safe engine operation, especially during startup, acceleration, and
shutdown cycles.

Use in HAL HTFE Test Bed:

 Used in engine RPM measurement, directly mounted near the turbine shaft to generate
pulse signals.
 The signals were routed through SCB-68A breakout modules and captured using PXI-
6355 multifunction I/O cards.
 These pulse signals were visualized in LabVIEW RT interface, where I could see real-
time speed changes during engine throttle variations.
 The MPS data was also used to trigger safety interlocks and validate engine health
during performance runs.

Advantages of Magnetic Pickup Sensors:

 Magnetic pickup sensors detect the movement of ferromagnetic targets (like gear
teeth) without any physical contact, eliminating mechanical wear, friction, and the
need for lubrication, which significantly enhances longevity.

60
 These sensors are capable of accurately detecting rapid changes in rotational speed,
making them ideal for high speed rotating systems such as jet turbine shafts and
engine gearboxes.
 Designed to withstand extreme temperatures, high vibration, and electromagnetic
interference, magnetic pickup sensors are especially suited for aerospace and defense
applications.
 With minimal moving parts, their rugged yet straightforward design ensures long-term
reliability, reduced failure rates, and low maintenance requirements key factors in
engine test environments.

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 CHAPTER 8

TOOLS & EQUIPMENT

At the Aeronautical Engine Research and Development Centre (AERDC), under Hindustan
Aeronautics Limited (HAL), I had the unique opportunity to undergo industrial training at the
HTFE (Hindustan Turbo Fan Engine) 25 kN test bed control room. This advanced test facility
is used for real-time testing, calibration, and performance validation of indigenous gas turbine
engines. The test bed integrates high-end instrumentation from National Instruments (NI) and
is controlled using LabVIEW Real-Time and CoPilot software environments.

The tools and equipment used in the HTFE test bed are highly specialized for acquiring,
processing, analyzing, and simulating real-time aerospace engine parameters. Below is a
detailed account of the major tools and equipment I used, structured in a module-wise format
with working principles and their industrial advantages. The HTFE-25 is a 25 kN class
turbofan engine designed and developed for applications in unmanned aerial vehicles, trainer
aircraft, business jets, and regional transport aircraft.

This engine is a milestone in India’s effort to develop self-reliant propulsion technology. The
engine has an air mass flow rate of approximately 43.5 kg/s, a specific fuel consumption
(SFC) of around 0.8 kg/kgf-hr, and operates with sophisticated control mechanisms. As part
of the test bed team, I was deeply involved in various operations related to engine testing and
system design. My daily tasks and learnings included:

 Real time Control System: I worked with LabVIEW and CoPilot software to design
and simulate control and monitoring systems for aircraft engines.
 Sensor Interface and Calibration: I learned how to configure and calibrate sensors
like load cells, barometers, pressure sensors, fuel flow, and thrust sensors, using Fluke
753 Documenting Process Calibrator and SCB-68 interface boards.
 RT Controllers and Data Acquisition: I worked with PXI-1088 RT Controllers
from National Instruments, gaining experience in setting up, monitoring, and
controlling test parameters through real-time inputs and outputs.
 Multifunction I/O Cards: I interfaced with NI 6355 multifunctional DAQ cards,
MIL Bus cards, and real-time communication protocols used in engine monitoring and
control systems.

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  Operator and Host PCs: I was involved in designing user interfaces for both host
and operator PCs, where telemetry, sensor data, and control parameters were
displayed and logged.
 Control System Integration: I actively participated in integrating the software with
the hardware to ensure real-time responsiveness, safety interlocks, and feedback loops
for high-thrust jet engine testing.
 Operator and Host PCs: I was involved in designing user interfaces for both host
and operator PCs, where telemetry, sensor data, and control parameters were
displayed and logged.
 Control System Integration: I actively participated in integrating the software with
the hardware to ensure real-time responsiveness, safety interlocks, and feedback loops
for high-thrust jet engine testing.
 Worked with dual-channel controller systems and assisted in fault identification and
safety protocol simulations.
 Learned the fundamentals of telemetry-based control systems, which play a major role
in remote monitoring and autonomous engine management.

This experience gave me a comprehensive understanding of real-time embedded systems, control

architectures, aerospace-grade sensor configurations, and test protocols.

Beyond technical learning, I developed a great appreciation for the systematic, disciplined
approach adopted by HAL engineers, and their commitment to national excellence.

This hands-on training at the HTFE Test Bed under AERDC has motivated me to pursue a career
in aerospace systems and defense technologies.

It gave me confidence, skill, and vision to contribute to India's mission of self-reliance in

aerospace propulsion.

This experience provided me with a comprehensive understanding of real-time systems,

embedded control architectures, aerospace-grade sensor integration, and formal engine test
protocols.

I gained exposure to both hardware and software layers involved in jet engine development, from
data acquisition to control room instrumentation.

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 PXI-1088 Chassis
The PXI-1088 is a high-performance modular chassis that serves as the backbone of
the HTFE test bench. It hosts various PXI modules, providing synchronized
communication and power distribution between them.
 PXIe-8881 Controller
This is an embedded, dual-channel real-time controller based on high-speed Intel
processors (e.g., Xeon or Core i7). Installed in the PXI chassis, it executes
deterministic LabVIEW RT tasks with precise timing and low latency
 PXI-6355 Multifunction I/O Module
This high-speed data acquisition module enables real-time analog and digital
input/output operations. With multiple analog input channels, it captures vital signals
from engine sensors like pressure, thrust, temperature, and fuel flow.
 SCB-68A Signal Conditioning Board
Connected to the PXI-6355, the SCB-68A provides easy wiring and signal
conditioning. It helps in managing sensor data input with better grounding, shielding,
and voltage scaling.
 MIL-Bus Card Controller
MIL-STD-1553 communication modules (often integrated in a MIL-bus card) are
used for interfacing with avionics subsystems. These ensure reliable and fault-tolerant
communication between engine control units and other aircraft systems.
 Dual-Channel Real-Time System
In the test bed, you used a dual-channel RT setup where one controller functions as
the Host PC and the other as the Operator PC. The Host PC processes core engine
data and logic, while the Operator PC manages the GUI for real-time monitoring,
error detection, and operator commands.
 PXI Timing and Synchronization Module
Ensures all connected PXI modules operate in sync using shared clocks and triggers.
Essential for time-correlated data acquisition across multiple I/O channels and control
systems during engine test cycles.
 PXI High-Speed Digital I/O Card
Used to simulate and test high-speed digital signals from engine sensors such as RPM
pickups or fault detectors. Helps in validating timing-sensitive events like ignition or
pressure surge alerts.
 Host PC and Operator PC

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 The Host PC runs LabVIEW-based user interfaces for real-time monitoring, while the
Operator PC handles manual inputs and visual indicators for critical engine health
parameters. Together, they provide an interactive control environment for the HTFE
engine.
 LabVIEW Real-Time and CoPilot Software
All PXI hardware modules are programmed and monitored using LabVIEW RT and
CoPilot software. These tools enable real-time engine simulation, control system
programming, indicator development, and sensor calibration, making them the
software backbone of the entire test setup.
 NI PXI-6683H Timing and Synchronization Module
The PXI-6683H is a high-precision timing module used for synchronizing data
acquisition and control systems within the test bed. supports GPS-based time-
stamping and IEEE 1588 Precision Time Protocol.

8.1 Tools & Equipment Used in HTFE Test Bed

Module 1: PXI-1088 Chassis (PCI Extensions for Instrumentation)

Figure 8.1.1: PXI 1088 Chassis

Working Principle:

The PXI-1088 is a modular test platform that provides the backbone for housing multiple
PXI- based data acquisition and control cards. It serves as a central chassis with a rugged
mechanical structure, enabling power distribution, timing synchronization, and
communication between the cards.

65
Industrial Use:

In the HTFE test bed, the PXI-1088 hosted critical modules like the PXIe-8881 controller,
PXI- 6355 multifunction I/O cards, digital I/O, and timing modules. It supported real-time
data acquisition and precise timing coordination.

Advantages:

 High-speed backplane communication (up to 24 GB/s).

 Rugged design suitable for aerospace environments.
 Modular scalability for various control and instrumentation needs.

Module 2: PXIe-8881 Real-Time Embedded Controller

Figure 8.1.2: PXIe 8881

Working Principle:

The PXIe-8881 is a high-performance controller based on Intel Xeon or Core i7 processors. It

runs a real-time operating system that enables deterministic execution of engine control tasks.
In the HTFE setup, dual PXIe-8881s were used: one for the Host PC and another for the
Operator PC, creating a dual-channel control system.

Industrial Use:

Used for executing real-time tasks such as reading sensor inputs, processing test logic, and
issuing commands to actuators. It was also used to manage safety shutdown systems and
failure recovery mechanisms.

66
Advantages:

 Real-time, low-latency processing.

 Supports high-throughput data handling.
 Enables safe execution of critical test protocols.

Module 3: PXI 6355 Multifunction I/O Module

Figure 8.1.3: PXI 6355

Working Principle:

This I/O module handles analog and digital signal acquisition and output. It features up to 64
single-ended or 32 differential analog input channels, 4 analog output channels, and 48 digital
lines. It supports high-resolution 16-bit data acquisition with sampling rates up to 1.25 MS/s
per channel.

Industrial Use:

Used to acquire data from sensors such as fuel pressure transducers, thrust load cells,
barometric pressure sensors, and thermocouples. It plays a key role in real-time feedback and
engine parameter logging.

Advantages:

 High-speed and high-resolution measurements.

 Seamless integration with LabVIEW RT.
 Enables accurate monitoring of dynamic engine parameters.

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Module 4: SCB 68A Signal Conditioning Board

Figure 8.1.4: SCB 68

Working Principle:

The SCB-68A is a signal breakout board with two channel banks Channel 0 and Channel 1
supporting 40 total configurable channels. It facilitates the safe routing and conditioning of
analog, digital, and counter signals between the PXI modules and physical sensors.

I was involved in testing and validating pin configurations across both channels. This included
tracing sensor signal flow, verifying voltage readings, and ensuring proper grounding for
high- fidelity signal acquisition. I learned to interpret pin mappings using LabVIEW channel
references and the DAQ Assistant module.

Industrial Use:

Used to connect sensors to the PXI-6355 card. I personally tested voltage responses on all
channels using a Fluke 753 calibrator and digital multimeter, validating the full pin
configuration and proper grounding.

Advantages:

 Reduces signal noise with shielding and grounding.

 Easy sensor interfacing and troubleshooting.
 Supports multiple signal types and test flexibility.

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Module 5: Fluke 753 Multifunction Calibrator

Figure 8.1.4: Multifunction Calibrator

Working Principle:

The Fluke 753 is a precision signal generator capable of simulating voltage (0–10V), current,
resistance, and frequency. It is used to inject known signals into the system for testing and
calibration of measurement channels.

I used this calibrator to simulate voltage signals ranging from 0 to 10 volts, which were then fed
into the SCB-68A signal conditioning board connected to PXI-6355 multifunction I/O cards.
My task involved verifying the accuracy of Channel 0 and Channel 1, as well as
understanding the complete 40-channel pin configuration of the SCB board.

Industrial Use:

I used this tool to simulate real sensor signals into the SCB-68A, verifying sensor pathways and
system response. This was done before engine ignition to ensure calibration integrity and
system safety.

Advantages:

 Portable, versatile, and accurate.

 Reduces need for live sensor testing.
 Enables pre run validation of test systems.

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Module 6: MIL-STD-1553B Bus Communication Interface

Figure 8.1.5: MIL-STD-1553B

Working Principle:

This communication protocol is used in avionics systems for robust, redundant, and fault-
tolerant data exchange between the engine control units (e.g., FADEC) and subsystems. Data
is transmitted in a Manchester II encoding format at a 1 Mbps rate, ensuring noise immunity
and synchronization.

The message structure includes command words, data words, and status words, ensuring clear
and secure exchanges between engine FADEC units and onboard systems.

Industrial Use:

Used to emulate actual aircraft communication conditions, especially for interfacing with
onboard avionics systems like flight computers and cockpit indicators.

Advantages:

 Dual-redundant reliability.
 Standardized in military and aerospace.
 Real-time and fault-tolerant data communication.

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Module 10: LabVIEW RT and CoPilot Software

Figure 8.1.6: LABVIEW

Working Principle:

LabVIEW Real-Time executes deterministic control loops, while CoPilot visualizes FADEC
logic and simulation indicators. The data from these sensors is fed into LabVIEW RT-based
applications that run on both host and operator PCs through a real-time Ethernet architecture.
Engineers use LabVIEW GUIs (Graphical User Interfaces) to design custom gauges and
indicators that display live sensor outputs, allow controlled test execution, and log
performance data for post-analysis

Industrial Use:

I developed fuel pressure and temperature indicators using LabVIEW and assisted with CoPilot
GUI development.

Advantages:

 Customizable instrumentation.
 Live data plotting and analysis.
 Seamless control loop integration with hardware.

71
 1) NI SCB-68A – Signal Conditioning Breakout Board:

Figure 3.1.2: Signal Conditioning Breakout Board

The NI SCB-68A is a high-density signal conditioning and connectivity terminal block designed
for use with National Instruments’ PXI-based data acquisition (DAQ) hardware. It features a
68-pin layout and provides two independent channel banks – Channel 0 and Channel 1, each
supporting 20 I/O lines, totaling 40 configurable signal channels for analog input, analog
output, digital I/O, counter/timers, and system reference signals.

At the HTFE (Hindustan Turbo Fan Engine) test bed inside the Aeronautical Engine Research
and Development Centre (AERDC), I worked directly with the SCB-68A board connected to

72
the PXI-6355 multifunction I/O card. I was involved in testing and validating pin

73
configurations across both channels. This included tracing sensor signal flow, verifying
voltage readings, and ensuring proper grounding for high-fidelity signal acquisition. I learned
to interpret pin mappings using LabVIEW channel references and the DAQ Assistant module.

The board was used to route real-time signals from various sensors like barometric pressure
transducers, thrust load cells, temperature sensors (RTDs/thermocouples), and fuel pressure
indicators. These were connected via well-labeled terminal strips, which enabled me to
understand hardware-level signal conditioning and how different sensor types are interfaced
in safety-critical aircraft engine control systems.

3) NI PXI-6355 Multifunction I/O Card:

Figure 3.1.3: Multifunction I/O Card

One of the key hardware components I worked with during my internship at the HTFE test
bed under AERDC was the NI PXI-6355 Multifunction I/O Card developed by National
Instruments. This card is designed for high-speed and high-accuracy data acquisition tasks
and is essential for engine testing environments like HAL’s. The PXI-6355 features up to 32
differential or 64 single-ended analog input channels with 16-bit resolution and supports a
sampling rate of up to 1.25 MS/s per channel, making it ideal for capturing real-time signals
from various sensors. It also includes four 16-bit analog output channels, 48 digital I/O lines,

74
and support for precise timing through counter/timer channels.During my training, I used this

75
card to acquire sensor data from thrust load cells, fuel and oil pressure transducers,
temperature sensors, and barometric instruments. The card was interfaced with SCB-68A
terminal blocks to manage signal routing and conditioning. Through LabVIEW RT and
DAQmx software, I configured the card to handle real-time data acquisition, generate analog
outputs for actuator control, and monitor digital signals for safety systems. This experience
helped me understand the complete flow of data from physical sensors to software indicators
and reinforced my understanding of real-time embedded control systems used in aerospace
engine test beds.

4) Fluke 753 multifunction calibrator

Figure 3.1.4: multifunction calibrator

During my internship at the HTFE test bed under AERDC, I gained hands-on experience
working with advanced calibration and signal testing tools used in the aerospace industry.
One of the key instruments I worked with was the Fluke 753 multifunction calibrator, a
precision device capable of generating and measuring voltage, current, resistance, and
frequency. I used this calibrator to simulate voltage signals ranging from 0 to 10 volts, which
were then fed into the SCB-68A signal conditioning board connected to PXI-6355
multifunction I/O cards. My task involved verifying the accuracy of Channel 0 and Channel
1, as well as understanding the complete 40-channel pin configuration of the SCB board.

By applying simulated signals and monitoring the outputs through LabVIEW RT, I was able
to confirm whether the channels responded correctly and were properly mapped to the
76
corresponding input sensors. This process allowed for the validation and calibration of
various

77
engine sensors including barometric pressure, oil temperature, thrust sensors, and fuel
pressure transducers.

In addition to the Fluke calibrator, I also used a digital multimeter to cross-check the output
voltages and confirm signal integrity at different test points on the SCB board. This dual-
instrument approach ensured the reliability of the system before actual engine integration.

5) LABVIEW design tool

Figure 3.1.5: Software tool

At Hindustan Aeronautics Limited (HAL), particularly within the Aeronautical Engine

Research and Development Centre (AERDC) under the HTFE (Hindustan Turbo Fan Engine)
test bed, National Instruments (NI) hardware and LabVIEW Real-Time (RT) software play a
critical role in ground-based engine development and testing activities. Although LabVIEW
and NI hardware are not used directly onboard operational jet engines, they form the
technological backbone in the control room environment, supporting activities such as data
acquisition, real-time monitoring, system calibration, and safety management during engine
test cycles. At the heart of this setup lies the PXI (PCI Extensions for Instrumentation)
chassis, such as the PXI-1088, which houses real-time controllers (PXIe-8881) and
multifunction I/O cards (like PXI-6355). These modules connect to signal conditioning
interfaces such as SCB- 68A, which receive analog and digital signals from various aircraft-
grade sensors mounted on the engine covering parameters like fuel pressure, oil temperature,
barometric pressure, and thrust.

The data from these sensors is fed into LabVIEW RT-based applications that run on both host
and operator PCs through a real-time Ethernet architecture. Engineers use LabVIEW GUIs

78
(Graphical User Interfaces) to design custom gauges and indicators that display live sensor
outputs, allow controlled test execution, and log performance data for post-analysis. The
Fluke 753 multifunction calibrator is used to inject known signals (typically 0 to 10V) into
the SCB- 68A channels for system verification and calibration, ensuring signal accuracy
before actual engine runs. Calibration results are verified using digital multimeters.

79
 CHAPTER 7

ADOUR TEST BED EXPERIENCE

7.1 Adour test bed

Figure 7.1.1: Adour engine

Parameters Tested:

The following key performance and health parameters are tested and monitored in the Adour
Test Bed:

 Base Engine Length: 2.90 m

 Base Engine Diameter: 22.2 inches
 Thrust(dry): 25 KN
 Thrust(wet): 37.5 KN

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Pressure and temperature at various engine stages, Thrust measurement in KN, Fuel flow rate
monitoring, Turbine Gas Temperature (TGT) Turbine Fuel Entry Temperature, Vibration
levels of rotating components, Base Engine Weight: 794 kg

Support Hardware:

Engine Stand/ Structure:

The engine stand consisted of a lower riser stand, mid riser stand, thrust stand, engine cradle,
containment shield, and an Inlet Control Device (ICD) mobile stand.

Figure 7.1.2: Linear Variable Differential Transformer

The Parameters recorded during the test were:

1. Pressure:
a.) Airmeter Static and Total Pressure
b.) L.P Compressor Delivery Pressure
c.) H.P Compressor Delivery Pressure
d.) Jet Pipe Static Pressure
e.) Fuel Inlet Pressure
f.) Fuel Burner Pressure
g.) Fuel Vapour Gutter Pressure
h.) Main Oil Pressure

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 2. Temperature:
a.) Air Intake Temperature
b.) L.P Compressor Delivery Temperature
c.) H.P Compressor Delivery Temperature
d.) Turbine Gas Temperature
e.) Engine Oil Temperature and Fuel Temperature

3. Others:
a.) HP Shaft Speed
b.) LP Shaft Speed
c.) Thrust
d.) Fuel Flow Rate
e.) Vibration

The Thrust is measured using Strain Gauge. Two load cells are connected to the engine and there
is little movement of the engine due to Newton’s Third Law (due to exhaust Velocity). This
deflection corresponds to the Thrust produced.

The Tests Conducted to the Engine during this period were:

1.) L.P Compressor Working Line Setting
2.) Performance Rating R/H unit
3.) L.P Compressor Working Line to R/H lit.
4.) Part Throttle Reheat (PTR) Rating
5.) Boost Ratio Setting and R/H Performance

Technical Observation:

During my visit, I had the opportunity to observe a live test of the Adour Mk 811 engine. The test
run was conducted with full instrumentation, and I witnessed the engine’s start-up,
stabilization, and performance declaration phases. At one point, a thermocouple sensor
malfunctioned, and the team had to replace it quickly. I observed how they disconnected the
wiring, replaced the thermocouple, and reconnected the system with precision and speed.

Note: RDT is called the RunDown Time. It gives us the total no. of hours taken to take down the
test. This time is generally 6 hours including the mounting and dismounting

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 Figure 7.1.3: Test Bed

7.2 ADOUR MK. 811 ENGINE

Figure 7.2.1: Mk 811

Adour Engine is a bypass Jet Engine of modular construction. The Adour has two-stage low
pressure and five-stage high pressure axial flow Compressors which are driven by separate,
single stage high pressure and low pressure Turbines connected through co-axial shafts, with
low pressure shaft passing through high pressure shaft.

Main Characteristics:

Intake: 0.564
Length (m): 2.90
Weight (Kg): 794

83
Thrust: 2500 N (dry)

84
Wet Thrust: 3700 N ( including the afterburner System)
SFC: 0.80
Bypass Ratio: 0.74:1
HP speed: 104 ± 0.75
LP speed: 104 %
TGC: 640°C
TEC: 1212°C
Oil Consumption: 0.57/hour

This engine has been divided into 12 modules.

Figure 7.2.1: Modules

These are:

1. LP COMPRESSOR: The fluid first enters the fan and then the low-pressure (LP)
compressor, which is usually on the same shaft as the fan. The low Pressure
compressor consists of one stage titanium rotor blades (27 blades) then one stage
aluminium stator blades then one stage aluminium rotor blades (32 blades). Here the
compressor ratio is 1:25
2. LP STATIC COMPRESSOR: This Module only has stator blades which are made
of Aluminium. The stator has a very aggressive blade design that almost completely
reverses the direction of the fluid. Because of this arrangement, the stator cannot spin
with the fluid it can spin only in the opposite direction, forcing the fluid to change
direction as it hits the stator blades.
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3. INTERNAL GEAR BOX: The design of the internal gearbox is complicated by the
heat and small space available in which to connect the driveshaft. Module 3 is where
bypass of air starts and the twin spool concept also starts here. It is a low bypass type
of engine
4. HP COMPRESSOR: The High pressure compressor has 5 stage rotor and 4 stage
stator. The rotor blades are titanium while the stator blades are made up of
aluminium. Here the compressor ratio is 1:45. The no. of blades in the Rotors are:

1st stage: 41 blades 2nd

stage: 45 blades 3rd
stage: 49 blades

4th stage – 47 blades 5th

stages – 49 blades

5. HP NOZZZLE GUIDE VANES: Nozzle Guide Vanes are placed just after the
Combustion Chamber. It is made of Steel to withstand high temperatures. They are
the stator blades of turbine. They are convex and shaped like airfoils. They direct the
airflow onto the turbine blades while at the same time converting pressure energy into
kinetic energy. Gases coming from the combustion chamber pass through the nozzle
guide vanes, where because of their convergent shape they accelerate. On passing
through the NVGs, gases are given a “spin” or a “swirl” in the direction of the rotation
of the turbine rotor blades. The latter absorb this energy, causing the turbine to rotate
at a high speed.
6. LP NOZZLE GUIDE VANES: After passing through the turbine, the pressure
energy has already been converted into Kinetic Energy. So Low Pressure NGV‟s are
used to guide and accelerate the remaining amount of flow. LP NGV has 24 blades.
7. HP TURBINE: It consists only of one stage. It has 78 nemonic rotor blades.
8. LP TURBINE: It also has only one stage. It consists of 94 rotor blades. Here again,
since the flow has been converted into low pressure by NGV, LP turbine is used.
9. EXHAUST CONE: Exhaust Cone are present after the Turbine Stage to guide the air
from the nozzle and accelerate it to gain high Thrust. The exhaust cone acts as an
aerodynamic cover for the tubine hub/shaft and is part of the convergent duct
geometry at the very aft of the exhaust that converts the high pressure gas coming off
the last turbine stage into high velocity gas as it exits the engine (creating more

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thrust).

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 10. HS GEARBOX: Module 10 consists of gear box and many small accessories like LP
pump, HP pump, AC generator, air starter. The accessory drive is usually arranged as
a curved casing, so that the various accessories are mounted close to the engine. The
casing is a pair of light alloy castings. Separate machined mounting pads are provided
for each accessory. The drive within the casing is provided by a train of spur gears.
Accessories are arranged on both sides of the driveshaft entry, in reducing order of
their speed.
11. FUEL TANK AND FILLET: Module 11 consists of oil tank (21 pins cap), fuel
control unit, re-heat fuel control unit. Oil control unit has 3 filters oil filter, LP fuel
filter, RH fuel filter. Oil System basically has three functions

a) Reduce Vibration
b) Cooling of the Engine Parts
c) Lubrication of the parts such as bearings.

The capacity of this engines Oil Tank is 21 pints (1 pint=0.57 litres). The grade of Oil used
here is OX27. The rate of Consumption is 1 pints/hour.

12. JET PIPE (AFTERBURNER): This module has catalytic ignitors which are fitted to
the afterburner. The afterburner system has a separate combustion System which is
done by ignitors fitted in it. The Thrust which we obtain after activating the
afterburner is called Wet Thrust. In this engine, the wet Thrust is 37.5 KN.

Parameters Tested:

The following key performance and health parameters are tested and monitored in the Adour Test
Bed:

 Pressure and temperature at various engine stages

 Thrust measurement in KN
 Fuel flow rate monitoring
 Turbine Gas Temperature (TGT) Turbine Fuel Entry Temperature
 Vibration levels of rotating components

These parameters are essential to ensure safety, engine health, and airworthiness certification.

Technical Observation:
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 Figure 7.2.3: Test bed

During my visit, I had the opportunity to observe a live test of the Adour Mk 811 engine. The
test run was conducted with full instrumentation, and I witnessed the engine’s start-up,
stabilization, and performance declaration phases. At one point, a thermocouple sensor
malfunctioned, and the team had to replace it quickly. I observed how they disconnected the
wiring, replaced the thermocouple, and reconnected the system with precision and speed.

Learning Experience:

This hands-on exposure gave me a clear understanding of:

 Real-time engine diagnostics and safety protocols

 How aerospace-grade sensors like thermocouples are used and replaced
 The importance of coordination, accuracy, and discipline in live engine testing
 The dynamic environment in which engineers operate, where sound levels are
extreme and exhaust flames are visible during high-thrust testing

7.3 Hawk Engine (Adour Mk 871)

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 Figure 7.3.1: Mk 871

The Adour Mk 871 is a low bypass twin-spool turbofan engine, manufactured under license
by HAL for the Hawk-I Advanced Jet Trainer (AJT) used by the Indian Air Force. This
engine is a further development of the Adour Mk 811 (used in Jaguars) with improvements in
fuel efficiency, component life, and maintainability.

Main Characteristics:

 Engine Type: Twin-spool turbofan

 Length: 3.29 m
 Weight: Approx. 844 kg
 Dry Thrust: 26.00 KN
 Bypass Ratio: 1.3:1
 Specific Fuel Consumption (SFC): ~0.85
 Compressor: 2-stage LP + 5-stage HP axial compressor
 Turbine: Single-stage HP + LP turbine
 FADEC Controlled: Dual channel system

Modular Construction 12 Modules:

Just like the Adour Mk 811, the Adour Mk 871 engine is modular and consists of the
following components:

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1. LP Compressor

 axial stages to compress incoming air for the HP section

 Made of titanium and aluminum alloys for strength and lightweight

2. HP Compressor

 stages provide higher compression ratio

 Rotor blades made of titanium; stators of corrosion resistant aluminum

3. Combustion Chamber

 Annular design for efficient fuel-air mixing

 Equipped with ignitors and fuel nozzles for clean combustion

4. HP Turbine

 Extracts energy from hot gases to drive HP compressor

 Made of nickel-based superalloys with cooling passages

5. LP Turbine

 Drives the LP compressor and fan

 Engineered to withstand high-temperature, high-speed operation

6. Bypass Ducts and Nozzles

 Separates bypass and core flows

 Directs low-temperature air to cool the engine and increase thrust

7. Internal Gearbox (IGB)

 Drives accessories like fuel pump, oil pump, starter motor, etc.

8. Accessory Gearbox (AGB)

 Located externally for easier access during maintenance

 Drives sensors and control systems

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 9. Oil and Fuel Systems

 Includes pumps, filters, heat exchangers, and storage tanks

 Lubricates, cools, and cleans internal parts

10. FADEC Control Unit

 A digital control system that manages thrust, fuel flow, ignition

 Enhances efficiency and safety, reduces pilot workload

11. Nozzle and Exhaust Cone

 Converts pressure energy into thrust

 Optional fitment of afterburner for future upgrades

12. Mounting and Support Structure

 Interfaces with aircraft frame

 Designed for vibration damping and heat resistance

Parameters Tested at the Hawk Engine Test Bed:

 Turbine Gas Temperature (TGT)

 Compressor pressure ratio
 Fuel flow rate (L/min)
 Thrust generation (Dry thrust only, no afterburner)
 Engine speed (HP/LP RPM)
 Oil pressure and temperature
 Vibration and strain gauge readings

Technical Observation:

During my time at the test bed, I saw a live engine test performed after routine overhaul. The test
involved multiple throttle runs at idle, medium, and full throttle, and system monitoring using
PXI-based DAQ systems and LabVIEW visual interface.

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The engine startup sequence, the data acquisition, and the automatic FADEC control response
under different loading conditions helped me understand the interaction between control logic
and mechanical parts.

Learning Experience:

 Observed the integration of software (LabVIEW, CoPilot) and hardware (sensors,

actuators) in jet engine testing.
 Understood how dual spool architecture increases thrust efficiency and modular
maintenance.
 Learned about health monitoring, calibration, and sensor data logging from a real
flight qualified engine. Experienced real-time collaboration between HAL engineers
during live test events. Witnessed how engine faults are detected and addressed,
similar to the Adour Mk 811 case.

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 7.4 Shakti Engine Overview (Used in ALH Mk III, LCH, LUH)

Figure 7.4.1: Shakti Engine

The Shakti engine is a turbo-shaft engine jointly developed by Hindustan Aeronautics Limited
(HAL) and Safran Helicopter Engines (France), specifically tailored to power India’s
indigenous rotorcraft like the Advanced Light Helicopter (Dhruv Mk III), Light Combat
Helicopter (LCH Prachand), and Light Utility Helicopter (LUH). It is based on Safran’s
Ardiden 1H1 model and produced under license by HAL.

This engine meets the demanding operational needs of both military and civilian helicopters,
including high-altitude performance, low specific fuel consumption, and robust FADEC
based control.

Main Characteristics:

 Engine Type: Turbo-shaft engine

 Power Output: Approx. 1,000 1,400 shaft horsepower (shp)
 Length: 1.279 m
 Dry Weight: 205 kg
 Compressor Type: Two-stage centrifugal compressor
 Combustion: Reverse-flow, effusion-cooled combustor
 Turbine: Two-stage power turbine
 Gearbox: Integrated reduction gear unit with dual-channel FADEC
 Intake Diameter: 0.503 m
 Control System: Dual-channel FADEC for digital engine management
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Module Breakdown and Features:

1. Air Intake Module

 Streamlines airflow into the compressor

 Optimized for high-altitude air density and engine protection

2. Centrifugal Compressor (2 stage)

 Highly efficient compression in a compact space

 Made of lightweight, high-strength alloys

3. Reverse-Flow Combustor

 Shortens engine length and improves fuel-air mixing

 Effusion cooling increases component life under thermal stress

4. Turbine Section (2-stage)

 Extracts energy from exhaust gases to drive rotor

 Constructed using advanced materials for high-temperature resilience

5. Reduction Gearbox

 Converts high turbine speed to optimal rotor RPM

 Includes torque measurement and lubrication system

6. FADEC System

 Fully automates engine start, operation, and fault handling

 Enhances fuel efficiency, reliability, and reduces pilot workload

Parameters Monitored at the Shakti Test Bed:

 Engine torque and power output

 Oil pressure and temperature
 Fuel flow and combustion efficiency
 Turbine Gas Temperature (TGT)
 Vibration analysis for rotors and shafts
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  Speed sensors (for gas generator and free turbine)
 Compressor discharge pressure and inlet air temperature

Technical Observation During Visit:

At the HAL Shakti Engine Test Bed, I witnessed the live testing and performance declaration run
of the Shakti engine installed on a test stand with PXI-based instrumentation. The test
procedure included FADEC-controlled auto-start, ramp-up, load simulation, and safety
shutdown.

One notable observation was the real-time measurement of engine torque and turbine inlet
temperature using advanced thermocouples and strain gauges. I saw how engineers calibrate
and interpret sensor outputs to validate engine health.

Learning Experience:

 Gained hands-on understanding of turbo-shaft operation and FADEC systems

 Learned how sensor calibration and diagnostics are performed pre-flight
 Understood the working of two stage centrifugal compressors and gear reduction
systems
 Observed HAL’s test protocols for reliability and endurance testing
 Appreciated the synergy between mechanical, electronic, and software teams during
engine tests
 Saw the use of LabVIEW and PXI modules for test data visualization and logging
 Learned the importance of thermal management and torque balancing in helicopters

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