Calcium
Occurrence
Natural Sources:
o Calcium is one of the most abundant elements in the Earth’s crust.
o It is commonly found in minerals such as limestone (calcium carbonate), gypsum
(calcium sulfate), fluorite (calcium fluoride), and dolomite.
o Calcium compounds are prevalent in sedimentary rocks and in biological
materials (e.g., bones and shells).
Laboratory Preparation
Challenges:
o Calcium is highly reactive, especially with moisture and oxygen, which makes its
isolation in the lab challenging.
Methods:
o It can be prepared by reducing calcium salts (like calcium chloride) with a strong
reducing agent such as potassium or by using a metallothermic reduction.
o Example Reaction: CaO+2Al→Ca+Al2O3\text{CaO} + 2\text{Al} \rightarrow \
text{Ca} + \text{Al}_2\text{O}_3CaO+2Al→Ca+Al2O3 (performed under
controlled conditions to limit reactivity)
Industrial Preparation
Reduction Processes:
o Calcium metal is produced in small quantities using methods similar to laboratory
reductions.
o One common method involves the reduction of calcium oxide (obtained from
limestone) by aluminium metal (an aluminothermic reaction).
Electrolytic Methods:
o Alternatively, the electrolysis of molten calcium chloride (often mixed with other
salts to lower the melting point) can yield calcium metal.
Physical & Chemical Properties
Physical:
o Silvery-white, relatively soft, and lightweight.
o Lower density compared to many other metals.
Chemical:
o Very reactive; reacts with water to form calcium hydroxide and hydrogen.
o Burns in air to form calcium oxide (quicklime).
o Forms Ca²⁺ ions, which readily combine with various anions.
Type
Classification:
o Calcium is an alkaline earth metal found in Group 2 of the periodic table.
Uses
Metallurgical:
o Acts as a reducing agent in metallurgy.
o Used to remove impurities in iron and steel production.
Construction & Industry:
o Calcium compounds such as limestone and gypsum are key in cement and plaster
production.
Other Applications:
o Dietary supplements (as calcium carbonate).
o Production of calcium carbide and various specialty alloys.
Tests & Compounds
Tests:
o Flame Test: Calcium imparts a brick-red color to a flame.
o Precipitation Test: Addition of oxalate ions can precipitate calcium as calcium
oxalate.
Compounds:
o Calcium Oxide (CaO): Also known as quicklime.
o Calcium Hydroxide (Ca(OH)₂): Known as slaked lime.
o Calcium Carbonate (CaCO₃): Found in limestone and chalk.
o Calcium Chloride (CaCl₂) and Calcium Fluoride (CaF₂): Used in various
industrial processes.
Aluminium
Occurrence
Abundance:
o Aluminium is the third most abundant element in the Earth’s crust.
Ore:
o Primarily obtained from bauxite, which contains aluminium hydroxides like
gibbsite, boehmite, and diaspore, along with impurities.
Laboratory Preparation
Challenges:
o Due to a strong, self-healing oxide layer (Al₂O₃), aluminium is difficult to
prepare or work with in the laboratory.
Methods:
o In a controlled lab setting, aluminium can be obtained by reducing its halide (e.g.,
aluminium chloride) with a potent reducing agent such as potassium or
magnesium.
o However, such methods are seldom used because of the metal’s reactivity and the
ready availability of industrial-grade aluminium.
Industrial Preparation
Hall–Héroult Process:
o Step 1: Bauxite is refined to produce pure aluminium oxide (Al₂O₃) using the
Bayer process.
o Step 2: The purified Al₂O₃ is dissolved in molten cryolite (Na₃AlF₆) to lower its
melting point.
o Step 3: Electrolysis is performed to reduce Al³⁺ to aluminium metal.
Energy Consideration:
o The process is highly energy-intensive but is the principal method of aluminium
production worldwide.
Physical & Chemical Properties
Physical:
o Lightweight, silvery-white metal with excellent malleability and ductility.
o Good thermal and electrical conductivity.
Chemical:
o Rapidly forms a thin, protective oxide layer (Al₂O₃) that prevents further
corrosion.
o Reacts with acids and bases once the oxide layer is removed.
o Resistant to water and most atmospheric conditions due to the oxide coating.
Type
Classification:
o Aluminium is classified as a post-transition metal (or a "poor metal") and is
found in Group 13 of the periodic table.
Uses
Packaging:
o Widely used for foil, beverage cans, and other packaging materials.
Transportation:
o Employed in the construction of aircraft, automobiles, and trains due to its
lightweight and strength.
Construction:
o Used in window frames, doors, and various structural components.
Alloys:
o Combined with other metals (like copper, magnesium, and zinc) to produce
strong, lightweight alloys.
Tests & Compounds
Tests:
o Hydroxide Precipitation: When treated with sodium hydroxide, aluminium ions
form a white gelatinous precipitate of aluminium hydroxide.
o Complexation: Aluminium chloride in solution can be used to test for the
presence of aluminium by its characteristic reactions.
Compounds:
o Aluminium Oxide (Al₂O₃): Used as an abrasive and in refractory materials.
o Aluminium Chloride (AlCl₃): A catalyst in organic synthesis (e.g., Friedel–
Crafts reactions).
o Aluminium Sulfate (Al₂(SO₄)₃): Used in water purification and as a mordant in
dyeing.
o Aluminium Hydroxide (Al(OH)₃): Used as an antacid and in flame retardants.
Iron
Occurrence
Natural Abundance:
o Iron is one of the most abundant elements on Earth.
Ores:
o Commonly found as hematite (Fe₂O₃), magnetite (Fe₃O₄), limonite, and siderite.
Geological Presence:
o Iron is a major component of the Earth’s core, underscoring its natural prevalence.
Laboratory Preparation
Reduction Methods:
o In the laboratory, iron can be produced by reducing its oxides (e.g., Fe₂O₃) using
a carbon source (like coke) or hydrogen.
Controlled Reactions:
o Small-scale reactions involve heating iron oxide with carbon in a crucible.
o While such methods demonstrate the reduction process, pure iron is more
commonly obtained by industrial means.
Industrial Preparation
Blast Furnace Process:
o Raw Materials: Iron ore, coke (as a carbon source), and limestone (to remove
impurities).
o Process:
In the blast furnace, iron ore is reduced by coke at high temperatures,
forming pig iron.
The pig iron is then refined (by processes like the Bessemer converter) to
produce wrought iron or steel.
Importance:
o This process forms the basis of modern metallurgy and mass production of iron-
based products.
Physical & Chemical Properties
Physical:
o Dense, hard, and silvery-gray in its metallic form.
o High melting point.
o Ferromagnetic at room temperature, meaning it is attracted to magnets.
Chemical:
o Tends to oxidize (rust) when exposed to moisture and oxygen, forming hydrated
iron oxides.
o Exhibits multiple oxidation states, with +2 (ferrous) and +3 (ferric) being the most
common.
o The reactivity increases in powdered form due to the larger surface area.
Type
Classification:
o Iron is a transition metal, well-known for its role in alloy formation and catalytic
applications.
Uses
Steel Production:
o The primary use of iron is in the production of steel, an alloy essential to
construction, transportation, machinery, and infrastructure.
Cast Iron:
o Used for cookware, pipes, and heavy-duty components.
Other Applications:
o Iron compounds serve as pigments, catalysts, and nutritional supplements (e.g., in
treating anemia).
Tests & Compounds
Tests:
o Colorimetric Tests:
Potassium Thiocyanate Test: Fe³⁺ ions react with thiocyanate ions to
give a blood-red complex.
o Magnetic Tests:
The ferromagnetic nature of iron is used as a simple physical test.
Compounds:
o Iron Oxides:
Hematite (Fe₂O₃) and Magnetite (Fe₃O₄) are used as pigments and in
magnetic storage media.
o Iron Chlorides:
FeCl₂ and FeCl₃ find use in water treatment and as catalysts.
o Other Salts:
Iron sulfate and other coordination compounds are applied in various
chemical processes and nutritional supplements.
