Mesopotamian Mathematics
In ancient Mesopotamia (c. 3000–300 BCE), mathematics developed for practical applications such as surveying,
accounting, and astronomy. Babylonian scribes used a sophisticated sexagesimal (base-60) positional numeral system
that enabled them to perform complex calculations, including square and cube roots, and solve quadratic equations.
Clay tablets, such as the Plimpton 322 tablet, preserve problems that suggest a deep understanding of Pythagorean
triples long before Greek mathematics. Their methods reflect an algorithmic approach tailored to administrative
needs but also demonstrate early abstract reasoning.
Reference:
Robson, E. (2008). Mathematics in Ancient Iraq: A Social History. Princeton University Press.
Link
Egyptian Mathematics
Ancient Egyptian mathematics (c. 3000–300 BCE) centered on practical geometry for agriculture, architecture, and
taxation. Scribes recorded methods in hieratic numerals on papyri such as the Rhind Mathematical Papyrus and the
Moscow Papyrus. These documents show algorithms for multiplication and division, fractions, and approximations of
areas and volumes (e.g., the volume of a truncated pyramid). Egyptian mathematics relied on unit fractions and rule-
based solutions rather than algebraic formulas, yet enabled sophisticated architectural achievements such as
pyramid construction.
Reference:
Imhausen, A. (2016). Mathematics in Ancient Egypt: A Contextual History. Princeton University Press.
Link
Greek Mathematics
Greek mathematics (c. 600 BCE–300 CE) transformed problem-solving into rigorous deductive reasoning, laying the
foundation for mathematical proof. Mathematicians such as Euclid systematized geometry in Elements, presenting
axiomatic methods that influenced all later mathematics. Archimedes developed principles of calculus-like reasoning,
calculating areas and volumes via the method of exhaustion. Greek mathematicians also advanced number theory
and conic sections, with a strong philosophical interest in logic and abstraction that set their approach apart from
earlier empirical traditions.
Reference:
Netz, R. (2004). The Transformation of Mathematics in the Early Mediterranean World: From Problems to Equations.
Cambridge University Press.
Link
Indian Mathematics
Indian mathematicians (c. 500 BCE–1600 CE) made groundbreaking contributions in arithmetic, algebra, geometry,
and trigonometry. Texts such as the Āryabhaṭīya and Brahmasphuṭasiddhānta present algorithms for solving linear
and quadratic equations, rules for zero and negative numbers, and trigonometric tables based on sine functions.
Indian scholars developed an advanced decimal positional numeral system that would spread to the Islamic world
and Europe. They also worked on infinite series expansions centuries before European calculus.
Reference:
Plofker, K. (2009). Mathematics in India. Princeton University Press.
Link
Chinese Mathematics
Chinese mathematics (c. 1000 BCE–1600 CE) combined practical computation with theoretical advances. The Nine
Chapters on the Mathematical Art codified systematic methods for solving linear equations via elimination—a
precursor to modern matrix methods. Mathematicians such as Liu Hui and Qin Jiushao worked on geometry,
approximation of π, and solution of polynomial equations. Chinese tradition emphasized algorithmic procedures,
often presented in the context of real-world problems such as taxation, engineering, and astronomy.
Reference:
Martzloff, J.-C. (1997). A History of Chinese Mathematics. Springer.
Link
Islamic Mathematics
Islamic mathematicians (c. 8th–15th centuries CE) synthesized knowledge from Greek, Indian, and Persian sources,
expanding it into new fields such as algebra, trigonometry, and numerical analysis. Al-Khwārizmī’s works
systematized algebraic methods, introducing systematic solution of quadratic equations. Mathematicians such as
Omar Khayyam and al-Tusi developed geometric solutions to cubic equations and advanced trigonometric tables. The
translation movement in Baghdad’s House of Wisdom preserved and extended classical knowledge, transmitting it to
medieval Europe and shaping the Renaissance.
Reference:
Berggren, J. L. (2003). Episodes in the Mathematics of Medieval Islam. Springer.
Link
Mesoamerican Mathematics
Mesoamerican civilizations such as the Maya developed sophisticated mathematical systems independently. The
Maya used a vigesimal (base-20) system with positional notation and a symbol for zero—the earliest known in the
Americas. Their calendrical calculations were highly accurate, integrating astronomical observations into ritual and
civic life. The Maya Long Count calendar represents dates over thousands of years using a modified base-20 system,
demonstrating both computational skill and conceptual abstraction in representing time and cycles.
Reference:
Closs, M. P. (Ed.). (1986). Native American Mathematics. University of Texas Press.
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