ELECTRICITY

Notes and Solved Textbook Questions

 INDEX
Sr. No. Contents Page Number
1 Chapter Notes 3-15
2 List of Diagrams 16-17
3 Solved In-text Questions 18-21
4 Solved Textbook Exercises 22-27

1
 Chapter notes
I. ELECTRICITY CURRENT AND CIRCUIT
A continuous and closed path of an electric current is called an electric circuit.

Electric current is the amount of charge flowing through a particular area in unit time.

Conventionally, the direction of flow of positive charges is considered as the direction

of current. Hence the direction of current is opposite to the flow of electrons, which
are negatively charged.

If a net charge Q, flows across any cross-section of a conductor in time t, then the
current I, through the cross-section is

I = Q/t

The SI unit of electric charge is coulomb (C)

1 coulomb = charge contained in 6.024 x 1018 electrons

Charge of 1 electron = - 1/6.024 x 1018 = -1.6 x 10-19 C

Charge of 1 proton = +1.6 x 10-19 C

SI unit of electric current is ampere (A)

Current is said to be 1A if 1C of charge flows through a particular point in 1s

1A = 1C/1s

Small quantities of current are expressed in milliampere (1 mA = 10-3 A) or in

microampere (1 μA = 10-6 A)
Ammeter is used to measure electric current in a circuit. It is always connected in
series in a circuit through which the current is to be measured.

Below is a schematic diagram of a typical electric circuit which has a cell, an electric
bulb, an ammeter and a plug key. Electric current flows in the circuit from the positive
terminal of the cell to the negative terminal of the cell through the bulb and ammeter.

2
II. ELECTRIC POTENTIAL AND POTENTIAL DIFFERENCE
Charges do not flow in a wire by themselves, just as water in a perfectly horizontal
tube does not flow. Water needs a pressure difference to flow. Similarly, electrons
need a difference in electric pressure called the potential difference along the
conductor.

A cell provides the potential difference for the electrons to flow in a simple circuit.

Electric potential difference between two points in an electric circuit carrying some
current is the work done to move a unit charge from one point to the other

Potential difference (V) = Work done (W) / Charge (Q)

V = W/Q

The SI unit of electric potential difference is volt (V)

Therefore

1V = 1J / 1C = 1 JC-1

The potential difference is measured by an instrument called the voltmeter. The

voltmeter is always connected in parallel across the points between which the
potential difference is to be measured.

3
III. CIRCUIT DIAGRAM
Different components of the circuit like cells, resistors, connecting wires, plug keys and
so on can be easily drawn using its symbols.

Symbols of some commonly used components are shown in the table below:

Component Symbol
An electric cell

A battery or combination of cells

Plug key or switch (open)

Plug key or switch (closed)

A wire joint

Wires crossing without joining

Electric bulb

A resistor or resistance of a conductor

Variable resistance or rheostat

4
Ammeter

Voltmeter

5
IV. OHM’S LAW
If we change the voltage across a conductor, then the current through it also changes.
If we plot the voltage values, V, and the corresponding current values, I, then we will
get a straight line as shown in the image below.

The potential difference, V, across the ends of a given metallic wire in an electric
circuit is directly proportional to the current flowing through it, provided its
temperature remains the same.

V𝛼I
V/I = constant
V/I = R
V= IR
I = V/R

R is a constant for the given metallic wire at a given temperature and is called its
resistance.

Resistance is the property of a conductor to resist the flow of charges through it.
Its SI unit is ohm, represented by the Greek letter Ω.

If the potential difference across the two ends of a conductor is 1 V and the current
through it is 1 A, then the resistance R, of the conductor is 1 Ω.

Resistor is an electrical component which has a fixed resistance. It is used to regulate

the current in the circuit. We can change its resistance after it is connected in the
circuit.

Variable resistance (like rheostat) is a component used to regulate current without

changing the voltage source. We can change its resistance after it is connected in the
circuit

Conductors have low resistance whereas insulators have high resistance.

6
V. FACTORS ON WHICH THE RESISTANCE OF A
CONDUCTOR DEPENDS
Resistance of the conductor depends on:

(i) its length

(ii) its area of cross-section
(iii) the nature of material

If R is the resistance of a uniform metallic conductor, then:

• R is directly proportional to the length of the conductor (l)

• R is inversely proportional to the area of cross-section (A)

R𝛼l
and R 𝛼 1/A

Combining the above, we get

R 𝛼 l/A
or R = ρl / A

Where ρ (rho) is a constant of proportionality and is called the electrical resistivity of

the material of the conductor.

The SI unit of resistivity is Ωm. It is a characteristic property of the material.

The metals and alloys have very low resistivity in the range of 10-8 Ωm to 10-6 Ωm. They
are good conductors of electricity.

Insulators like rubber and glass have resistivity of the order of 1012 Ωm to 1017 Ωm.

Resistivity of an alloy is generally higher than that of its constituent metals. Alloys do
not oxidise (burn) readily at high temperatures. For this reason, they are commonly
used in electrical heating devices, like electric iron, toasters etc.

7
VI. RESISTANCE OF SYSTEM OF RESISTORS
There are two ways of joining resistors together - parallel and series connection

Series connection: When resistors are connected end to end as shown in the below
diagram

Parallel connection: When resistors are connected between the same two points as
shown in the below diagram

Resistors in series

When resistors are connected in series:

• same current passes through all of them
• voltage gets distributed across each resistor

8
Here we will observe that, the total potential difference across a combination of
resistors in series is equal to the sum of potential difference across the individual
resistors

V=V1+V2+V3

Let I = current through the circuit = current through each resistor

We can replace the three resistors with a resistor of resistance RS, such that current I
in the circuit remains the same.

Applying Ohm’s law to the whole circuit

V=IRS

On applying Ohm’s law to the three resistors separately, we get

V1=IR1
V2=IR2
V3=IR3

Hence, we can rewrite V=V1+V2+V3 as

IRS=IR1+IR2+IR3
RS=R1+R2+R3

Resistors in Parallel

When resistors are connected in parallel:

• current is distributed to each resistor
• voltage is the same across all resistors

9
The total current I, is equal to the sum of the separate currents through each branch
of the combination.
I=I1+I2+I3
Let Rp be the equivalent resistance of the parallel combination of resistors.

Applying Ohm’s Law to the parallel combination of resistors

I=VRp
Applying Ohm’s law for each resistor

I1=VR1
I2=VR2
I3=VR3

Substituting these in I=I1+I2+I3

V/Rp=V/R1+V/R2+V/R3
Or
1/Rp=1/R1+1/R2+1/R3

Advantages of parallel circuits:

• Parallel circuit divides the current through the electrical gadgets. This is useful
when each gadget has different resistance and requires different current to
operate properly.
• In parallel circuits, even if one component fails the circuit is not broken. Other
gadgets continue to function normally.

10
VII. HEATING EFFECT OF ELECTRIC CURRENT
When current passes though any conductor, it becomes slightly hot. This is called the
heating effect of electric current.

This effect is made use in electric iron, electric heater and so on.

Consider a conductor or resistor of resistance R. Let current I flow through it for time
t. Let V be the voltage across it. Let Q amount of charge be moving though the
conductor in that time t.

Then work done to move the charge = VQ

Power input by the source = Work done/time = VQ/t = VI

Energy supplied to the conductor = P x t = Vit

This energy is dissipated as heat (lost as heat)

Therefore,
Heat generated H = VIt
If we substitute for V using Ohm’s law (V=IR)

H=I2Rt

This is called the Joule’s law of heating

According to Joule’s law, the heat produced in a resistor is directly proportional to

I. The square of the current for a given resistor
II. The resistance for a given current
III. The time for which the current flows through the resistor.

Using Ohm’s law and substituting for V and I, we get different formulae for heat
generated

H = VIt
H = I2Rt
H = V2R/t

Practical Applications of Heating Effect of Electric Current

The electric iron, electric toaster, electric oven, electric kettle and electric heater work
on the principle of heating effect of electric current

The heating effect is also used to produce light in an electric bulb. When current flows
in the filament, it becomes hot and emits light. The filament is made out of a metal
with high melting point, like tungsten. The bulbs are filled with chemically inactive
nitrogen and argon gases to prolong the life of filament

Electric fuse also makes use of heating effect of current. It protects circuits and
appliances by stopping the flow

11
of very high electric current. The fuse is always placed in series with the device. It has
of a piece of wire made of a metal or an alloy of a suitable melting point. If a current
larger than the specified value flows through the circuit,
the temperature of the fuse wire increases. This melts the fuse wire and breaks the
circuit.

12
VIII. ELECTRIC POWER
Power is defined as rate of doing work.

Electric power is rate at which electric energy is dissipated or consumed in an electric

circuit.

P=VI=I2R=V2/R

The SI unit of electric power is watt (W).

1W of power is the power consumed by a device that carries 1A of current when

operated at a potential difference of 1V.

1 W = 1 volt × 1 ampere = 1 VA

Watt is a small unit. Hence, we use the unit kilowatt

1 kilowatt = 1 kW = 1000 W

Commercial unit of Energy:

We know,

Energy (in joules) = Power (in watts) time (in seconds)

In our house we pay for the energy that we consume every month. But joule is a small
unit. Hence, we use the unit kilowatt hour (kWh). This is the commercial unit of energy.
It is commonly called as ‘unit’.

1 kWh is the energy consumed when 1 watt of power is used for 1 hour.

1 kilowatt hour (kWh) = 1 unit = 1000 W x 3600 s

= 3.6 x 106 Ws
= 3.6 x 106 joule

We can calculate energy consumed in kWh using the below formula

Energy (in kWh) = Power (in kW) x time (in hours)

13
List of formulae:
𝐼 = current
𝑄 𝑊 𝑉= potential difference
𝐼= 𝑉=
𝑡 𝑄 𝑅= resistance
𝑄= charge
𝜌𝑙 𝑡= time
𝑉 = 𝐼𝑅 𝑅= 𝑊= work done
𝐴
𝜌 = resistivity
𝑙 = length of the conductor
𝑅" = 𝑅# + 𝑅! + 𝑅$ + ⋯
𝐴 = area of cross section
𝑅𝑠 = series effective resistance
1 1 1 1 𝑅𝑃 = parallel effective resistance
= + + +⋯
𝑅% 𝑅# 𝑅! 𝑅$ 𝑅1, 𝑅2, 𝑅3 = individual resistances
𝐻 = heat dissipated/generated
𝑃 = power
𝑉! 𝐸= energy
𝐻 = 𝑉𝐼𝑡 𝐻 = 𝐼 ! 𝑅𝑡 𝐻= 𝑡
𝑅

𝑉!
𝑃=𝑉𝐼 𝑃 = 𝐼! 𝑅 𝑃=
𝑅

𝐸 =𝑃×𝑡

14
List of units:

Quantity SI unit

Charge coulomb (C)

Electric current ampere (A)

Electric potential difference volt (V)

Resistance ohm (Ω)

Resistivity ohm meter (Ωm)

Heat dissipated or Energy joule (J)

Electric power watt (W)

Commercial unit of energy kilowatt hour

(kWh)

15
 LIST OF DIAGRAMS

Fig 11.11 A schematic diagram of an electric circuit

Fig 11.2 Electric circuit for studying Ohm’s law

16
Fig 11.6 Resistors in series

Fig 11.7 Resistors in parallel

17
 SOLVED IN-TEXT QUESTIONS
Page 72

1. What does an electric circuit mean?

Ans: Electric circuit is a closed continuous path for the flow of electricity.
2. Define the unit of current.
Ans: SI unit of electric current is ampere (A).
3. Calculate the number of electrons constituting one coulomb of charge.
Ans: Charge of one electron = 1.6 x 10-19 C

Page 74
1. Name a device that helps to maintain a potential difference across a
conductor.
Ans: Electric Cell or battery
2. What is meant by saying that the potential difference between two points is
1V?
Ans: It means that 1J of work is done when moving 1C of charge across the two
points
3. How much energy is given to each coulomb of charge passing through a 6 V
battery?
Ans: Energy given to each coulomb is same as work done V = W/q
W = Vxq = 6x1 = 6J

Page 81
1. On what factors does the resistance of a conductor depend?
Ans: Resistance of a conductor depends on its length, area of cross section and
the nature of material.

2. Will current flow more easily through a thick wire or a thin wire of the
same material, when connected to the same source? Why?
Ans: Current will flow easily in the thick wire as its resistance is less compared to
the thin wire (Resistance is inversely proportional to the area of cross-section).

3. Let the resistance of an electrical component remain constant while the

potential difference across the two ends of the component decreases to
half of its former value. What change will occur in the current through it?
Ans: Current will also be halved as voltage and current are directly proportional

4. Why are coils of electric toasters and electric irons made of an alloy
rather than a pure metal?
Ans: Alloys have larger resistance and higher melting point.

5. Use the data in Table 12.2 to answer the following –

(a) Which among iron and mercury is a better conductor?
(b) Which material is the best conductor?

18
 Ans: (a) Iron is a better conductor as it has lesser resistivity value
(b) Silver

Page 85
1. Draw a schematic diagram of a circuit consisting of a battery of three
cells of 2 V each, a 5 Ω resistor, an 8 Ω resistor, and a 12 Ω resistor, and
a plug key, all connected in series.
Ans: 5Ω 8Ω 12Ω

6V

2. Redraw the circuit of Question 1, putting in an ammeter to measure the

current through the resistors and a voltmeter to measure the potential
difference across the 12 Ω resistor. What would be the readings in the
ammeter and the voltmeter?
Ans: V = 6V
Total resistance RS = 5+8+12 = 25Ω
Current in the circuit I = V/RS = 6/25 = 0.24A
Voltage across 12Ω resistor = IR = 0.24 x 12 = 2.88V

Ammeter reading = 0.24A

Voltmeter reading = 2.88V

Page 88
1. Judge the equivalent resistance when the following are connected in
parallel – (a) 1Ω and 106Ω, (b) 1Ω and 103Ω and 106Ω.
Ans: (a) Equivalent resistance of 1Ω and 106Ω when connected in parallel is less
than 1Ω. Reason: In parallel combination the equivalent resistance is less than
the least resistance.

2. An electric lamp of 100Ω, a toaster of resistance 50Ω, and a water filter

of resistance 500Ω are connected in parallel to a 220V source. What is

19
 the resistance of an electric iron connected to the same source that takes
as much current as all three appliances, and what is the current through
it?
Ans: To draw the same current, the resistance of the electric iron needs to be same
as the equivalent resistance of the parallel combination of lamp, toaster and
water filter.
Parallel resistance = RP
1 1 1 1
= + +
𝑅% 50 500 100
1 16
=
𝑅% 500
500
𝑅% = = 31.25Ω
16
𝑉 220
𝐼= = = 7.04𝐴
𝑅 31.25

3. What are the advantages of connecting electrical devices in parallel with

the battery instead of connecting them in series?
Ans: i. Overall resistance of the circuit decreases
ii. Each appliance gets the same voltage
iii. Current gets divided among various appliances

4. How can three resistors of resistances 2Ω, 3Ω, and 6Ω be connected to

give a total resistance of (a) 4Ω, (b) 1Ω?
Ans: (a) To get 4Ω resistance, we need to connect 3Ω and 6Ω in parallel and then
connect the 2Ω is series to this parallel combination
3Ω
2Ω 1 1 1
= +
𝑅% 3 6
1 1
=
𝑅% 2
6Ω 𝑅% = 2Ω
𝑅 = 2 + 2 = 4Ω
(b) To get 1Ωresistance we need to connect all three resistors in parallel

1 1 1 1
= + +
𝑅% 2 3 6
6
𝑅% = = 1Ω
6

5. What is (a) the highest, (b) the lowest total resistance that can be
secured by combinations of four coils of resistance 4 Ω, 8 Ω, 12 Ω, 24 Ω?

20
 Ans: (a)Highest resistance is obtained when the resistors are connected in series.
RS= 4+8+12+24 = 48Ω
(b) Lowest resistance is obtained when the resistors are connected in parallel
1 1 1 1 1
= + + +
𝑅% 4 8 12 24
1 12 1
= =
𝑅% 24 2
𝑅% = 2Ω

Page 90

1. Why does the cord of an electric heater not glow while the heating
element does?
Ans: Cord of an electric heater has lesser resistance. It does not become as hot as
the heating element and hence it does not glow

2. Compute the heat generated while transferring 96000 coulomb of

charge in one hour through a potential difference of 50 V.
Ans: Heat produced = Work done
We know that W=Vq = 50 x 96000 = 4.8 x 106J

3. An electric iron of resistance 20Ω takes a current of 5A. Calculate the

heat developed in 30s.
Ans: Heat developed = I2Rt = 52 x 20 x 30 = 15000J

Page 92

1. What determines the rate at which energy is delivered by a current?

Ans: Electric power

2. An electric motor takes 5 A from a 220 V line. Determine the power of

the motor and the energy consumed in 2 h.
Ans: I=5A, V=220V, t=2h
Power P = VI = 220x5 = 1100W = 1.1kW
Energy E = Pt = 1.1 x 2 = 2.2 kWh

21
 Textbook Exercises
1. A piece of wire of resistance R is cut into five equal parts. These parts
are then connected in parallel. If the equivalent resistance of this
combination is R′, then the ratio R/R′ is
(a) 1/25 (b) 1/5 (c) 5 (d) 25
Ans: (d)25
Explanation: When R is cut into 5 equal parts, each part has a resistance of
R/5
When these are connected in parallel then the resistance is
1 1 1 1 1 1
= + + + +
𝑅& 𝑅 𝑅 𝑅 𝑅 𝑅
5 5 5 5 5
1 5 5 5 5 5
= + + + +
𝑅& 𝑅 𝑅 𝑅 𝑅 𝑅
1 25
&
=
𝑅 𝑅
𝑅
𝑅& =
25
Hence the ratio R/R’ = R/(R/25) = 25

2. Which of the following terms does not represent electrical power in a

circuit?
(a) I2R
(b) IR2
(c) VI
(d) V2/R
Ans: (b)IR2

3. An electric bulb is rated 220 V and 100 W. When it is operated on 110 V,

the power consumed will be
(a) 100 W
(b) 75 W
(c) 50 W
(d) 25 W
Ans: (d) 25W
Explanation: Let’s find the resistance of the electric bulb.
We know P=V2/R
R=V2/P = 2202/100 = 484Ω
When it is connected to 110V,
P=V2/R = 1102/484 = 25W

22
4. Two conducting wires of the same material and of equal lengths and
equal diameters are first connected in series and then parallel in a
circuit across the same potential difference. The ratio of heat produced
in series and parallel combinations would be –
(a) 1:2
(b) 2:1
(c) 1:4
(d) 4:1
Ans: (c) 1:4
Let the resistance of the conducting wires be R
When they are connected in series the equivalent resistance is 2R
When they are connected in parallel the equivalent resistance is R/2

We know H = V2t/R

When in series HS= V2 t/2R

When in parallel HP= V2t/(R/2)

#$ %
$&
HS/HP= #$ %
= 1/4
&
$

5. How is a voltmeter connected in the circuit to measure the potential

difference between two points?
Ans: Voltmeter is always connected in parallel

6. A copper wire has diameter 0.5 mm and resistivity of 1.6 × 10–8Ω m. What
will be the length of this wire to make its resistance 10Ω? How much does
the resistance change if the diameter is doubled?
Ans: Diameter d=0.5 mm = 5 x 10-4m
Resistivity ρ = 1.6 x 10–8Ωm
Resistance R = 10Ω
R = ρl/A
l = RA/ρ
We know A= π d2/4
l = R πd2/4ρ
l = 10x3.14x (5 x 10-4)2/(4 x 1.6 x 10–8)
l = 122.7 m

We need a wire of length 122.7 m

R = ρl/A = ρl4/𝜋d2
R 𝛼 1/d2
If diameter is doubled then the resistance becomes 1/4th of the initial value.

23
 #
R= '
x 10 = 2.5 Ω

7. The values of current I flowing in a given resistor for the corresponding

values of potential difference V across the resistor are given below
I (amperes) 0.5 1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0
V (volts) 1.6 3.4 6.7 10.2 13.2

Plot a graph between V and I and calculate the resistance of that

resistor.
Ans:

Resistance R = V/I = 3.4/1 = 3.4Ω

8. When a 12 V battery is connected across an unknown resistor, there is a

current of 2.5 mA in the circuit. Find the value of the resistance of the
resistor.
Ans: V = 12V, I = 2.5mA=2.5x10-3A
R = V/I = 12/2.5x10-3 = 4800Ω

9. A battery of 9 V is connected in series with resistors of 0.2Ω, 0.3Ω, 0.4Ω,

0.5 Ω and 12 Ω, respectively. How much current would flow through the
12Ω resistor?
Ans: All resistors are in series, hence the current through 12Ω is same the
current in the whole circuit.

Total resistance R = 0.2 + 0.3 + 0.4 + 0.5 + 12 = 13.4Ω

I = V/R = 9/13.4 = 0.67A

10. How many 176 Ω resistors (in parallel) are required to carry 5A on a
220V line?
Ans: The equivalent resistance RP = V/I = 220/5 = 44Ω
If n resistors of resistance R are connected in parallel, then the equivalent
resistance is given by
RP=R/n
n = R/RP = 176/44 = 4
We need 4 resistors to be connected in parallel.

24
11. Show how you would connect three resistors, each of resistance 6Ω, so
that the combination has a resistance of (i) 9Ω, (ii) 4Ω.
Ans: (i) To get 9Ω resistance, we need to connect two 6Ω resistors in parallel and
another 6Ω resistor in series with the parallel combination.
6Ω 1 1 1
6Ω = +
𝑅% 6 6
1 2 1
= =
𝑅% 6 3
𝑅% = 3Ω
6Ω 𝑅 = 3 + 6 = 9Ω

(ii) To get 4Ω resistance, we need to connect a series combination of two 6Ω

resistors and a single 6Ω resistor in parallel as shown below
RS= 6+6=12Ω
1 1 1 3 1
= + = =
𝑅% 12 6 12 4
𝑅% = 4Ω

12. Several electric bulbs designed to be used on a 220 V electric supply line,
are rated 10 W. How many lamps can be connected in parallel with each
other across the two wires of 220 V line if the maximum allowable
current is 5 A?
Ans: First, let’s find the resistance of the lamps
𝑉 = 220𝑉
𝑃 = 10𝑊
𝑉!
𝑃=
𝑅
𝑉 ! 220!
𝑅= = = 4840Ω
𝑃 10
If 5A needs to flow when 220V is connected across the circuit, then the total
resistance needs to be
𝑉
𝑅% =
𝐼
220
𝑅% = = 44Ω
5
Hence the number of resistors n can be calculated as below:
𝑅
𝑅% =
𝑛
𝑅
𝑛=
𝑅%
4840
𝑛= = 110
44

25
13. A hot plate of an electric oven connected to a 220V line has two
resistance coils A and B, each of 24Ω resistance, which may be used
separately, in series, or in parallel. What are the currents in the three
cases?
Ans: V= 220V, R=24Ω
When the coils are used separately:
Current I = V/R = 220/24 = 9.17A

When the coils are in series:

RS= 24+24 = 48Ω
I = V/RS=220/48 = 4.58A

When are coils are in parallel:

1 1 1 2 1
= + = =
𝑅% 24 24 24 12
𝑅% = 12Ω
𝑉 220
𝐼= = = 18.33𝐴
𝑅% 12

14. Compare the power used in the 2Ω resistor in each of the following
circuits: (i) a 6V battery in series with 1Ω and 2Ω resistors, and (ii) a 4V
battery in parallel with 12Ω and 2Ω resistors.
Ans: (i) RS= 1+2 = 3Ω
I=V/RS = 6/3 = 2A
P=I2R = 22 x 2 = 8W

(ii) P = V2/R = 42/2 = 8W

15. Two lamps, one rated 100 W at 220 V, and the other 60 W at 220 V, are
connected in parallel to electric mains supply. What current is drawn
from the line if the supply voltage is 220 V?
Ans: Total current drawn is equal to the sum of the currents in each branch

Let P1 = 100W, P2=60W, V=220V

I1 = P1/V = 100/220 = 0.45A
I2 = P2/V = 60/220 = 0.27A

Total current I = I1+I2 = 0.45+0.27 = 0.72A

16. Which uses more energy, a 250 W TV set in 1 hr, or a 1200 W toaster in
10 minutes?
Ans: Energy used by TV = Pxt = 250 x 1 x 3600 = 900000J
Energy used by toaster = 1200 x 10 x 60 = 720000J

TV uses more energy.

26
17. An electric heater of resistance 8Ω draws 15A from the service mains 2
hours. Calculate the rate at which heat is developed in the heater.
Ans: R=8Ω , I=15A, t=2 h = 2 x 3600 s= 7200s
Heat developed H= I2Rt
Rate of Heat developed = H/t = I2R = 152 x 8 = 1800 W

18. Explain the following.

(a) Why is the tungsten used almost exclusively for filament of electric
lamps?
(b) Why are the conductors of electric heating devices, such as bread-
toasters and electric irons, made of an alloy rather than a pure metal?
(c) Why is the series arrangement not used for domestic circuits?
(d) How does the resistance of a wire vary with its area of cross-section?
(e) Why are copper and aluminium wires usually employed for electricity
transmission?
Ans: (a) Tungsten has high melting point which helps it to reach high
temperatures without melting.
(b) Alloys have higher melting point and higher resistance, which is helpful to
become hot faster
(c) In series arrangement:
• Overall resistance of the circuit increases
• If one component fails, it affects other components too
• Current is same for all instruments and voltage gets divided among
components
(d) Resistance is inversely proportional to the area of cross-section of the wire
(e) Because they have lower resistivity and hence good conductor of
electricity.

27