Chapter 3 interior of the earth

Earth's Radius is 6378 km

Direct Sources about Interior of Earth

1. Deep Earth Exploration:

● Scientists conduct projects to explore the Earth's crust beyond mining.
● Two major global projects are:
○ Deep Ocean Drilling Project (DODP)
○ Integrated Ocean Drilling Project (IODP)
● Deepest Drill:
○ The deepest drilling, at Kola in the Arctic Ocean, has reached 12 km.
● Observations from mining show that temperature, pressure, and density increase as
we go deeper into the Earth.

2. Volcanic Eruptions as Information Sources:

● Magma (molten rock) from volcanic eruptions reaches the surface and can be
studied in laboratories.

Indirect Sources about Interior of Earth

1. Meteors as a Source of Information:

● Though meteors don't come from inside the Earth, their material and structure are
similar to Earth’s because they formed from the same type of matter.

2. Other Indirect Sources:

● Gravitation:
○ Gravity is stronger at the poles and weaker at the equator due to differences
in distance from the Earth's center.
○ Variations in gravity across the Earth (called gravity anomalies) help
understand the distribution of mass inside the Earth.
● Magnetic Field:
○ Magnetic surveys reveal how magnetic materials are spread within the
Earth's crust.
● Seismic Activity:
○ Studying earthquakes (seismic waves) provides critical information about the
Earth's interior and will be discussed further.

Earthquake

1. Why does the Earth shake?

● Earth shakes due to the release of energy (due to rocks sliding past each other).
● Release of Energy occurs in a Fault.
 ○ What is a Fault?
■ A fault is a crack or break in the Earth’s crust.
■ Rocks on either side of the fault try to move in opposite directions.

2. Focus (Hypocentre):
● The focus is the point inside the Earth where the energy is released.
● It is the origin of the earthquake.

3. Epicentre:
● The epicentre is the point on the Earth’s surface directly above the focus.
● It is the first place to feel the earthquake waves.

4. Where Do Earthquakes Occur?

● All natural earthquakes happen in the lithosphere, the outermost layer of the Earth.
● The lithosphere extends up to 200 km below the Earth’s surface.

5. Seismograph:
● A seismograph is a device that records earthquake waves as they reach the surface.
● The recorded waves show three distinct patterns, representing different types of
waves.

6. Earthquake Waves
● Types of Earthquake Waves:
○ Body Waves:
■ These are generated at the focus of the earthquake and travel through
the interior (body) of the Earth.
○ Surface Waves:
■ Body waves interact with surface rocks and produce surface waves
that move along the Earth’s surface.

● Wave Velocity and Material Density:

○ The speed of waves changes depending on the material they pass through.
○ Denser materials = Faster waves.
○ Waves also change direction when they encounter materials of different
densities due to reflection and refraction.

● Types of Body Waves:

○ P-Waves (Primary Waves):
■ These are the fastest waves and reach the surface first.
■ They move through solids, liquids, and gases, similar to sound waves.
○ S-Waves (Secondary Waves):
■ These arrive after P-waves, with a time delay.
■ S-waves can only travel through solid materials, which helps scientists
study Earth’s interior structure.
● Wave Behavior:
○ Reflection: Waves bounce back when they hit a surface.
○ Refraction: Waves change direction when moving through materials of
different densities.
 ○ These changes are recorded on a seismograph.

● Surface Waves:
○ These waves are the slowest and reach the seismograph last.
○ They are the most destructive, causing rock displacement and structure
collapses.

● How Earthquake Waves Travel:

○ P-Waves (Primary Waves):
■ Vibrate parallel to the direction of the wave.
■ This creates pressure differences, causing the material to stretch and
squeeze.
○ S-Waves (Secondary Waves):
■ Vibrate perpendicular to the wave direction, in a vertical plane.
■ This creates troughs and crests in the material.

7. Emergence of Shadow Zone

● What is a Shadow Zone?

○ A shadow zone is an area where earthquake waves are not recorded by
seismographs.
○ Each earthquake has its own unique shadow zone.

● Observation of Shadow Zones:

○ Seismographs within 105° from the epicentre detect both P-waves and S-
waves.
○ Seismographs beyond 145° from the epicentre detect only P-waves, not S-
waves.
○ The area between 105° and 145° from the epicentre is the shadow zone for
both P-waves and S-waves.

● P-Wave Shadow Zone:

○ It forms a band around the Earth between 105° and 145° away from the
epicentre.

● S-Wave Shadow Zone:

○ S-waves do not travel through the Earth's liquid outer core, so their shadow
zone is much larger than that of P-waves.
○ The S-wave shadow zone covers a little over 40% of the Earth’s surface.

8. Types of Earthquakes

1. Tectonic Earthquakes:
○ The most common type, caused by the sliding of rocks along a fault.
2. Volcanic Earthquakes:
○ A special type of tectonic earthquake that happens in areas with active
volcanoes.
3. Collapse Earthquakes:
 ○ Caused by the collapse of underground mine roofs, common in areas with
intense mining activities.
4. Explosion Earthquakes:
○ Triggered by the explosion of chemical or nuclear devices.
5. Reservoir-Induced Earthquakes:
○ Happen in areas with large reservoirs, due to the pressure from water
storage.

9. Measuring Earthquakes

1. Magnitude Scale (Richter Scale):

a. Measures the energy released during an earthquake.
b. The scale ranges from 0 to 10, with higher numbers indicating stronger
quakes.

2. Intensity Scale (Mercalli Scale):

a. Measures the visible damage caused by the earthquake.
b. The scale ranges from 1 to 12, with higher numbers indicating more severe
damage.

10. Effects of Earthquake

● Differential Ground Settlement (uneven settling of the ground)
● Trigger Land and Mud Slides, especially in hilly areas.
● Soil Liquefaction:
○ When shaking causes wet soil to act like a liquid, leading to sinking or tilting
of structures.
● Ground Lurching:
○ Sudden, jerky movements of the ground that cause damage.
● Trigger Avalanches in mountainous areas.
● Ground Displacement:
○ Movement of the ground along fault lines, causing displacement of roads and
buildings.
● Damage Dam and Levee, leading to flooding.
● Earthquakes can damage gas lines or electrical systems, starting fires.
● Tsunami:
○ If the earthquake occurs under the ocean with sufficient magnitude, it can
generate tsunamis, which are large ocean waves that cause flooding.
○ The tsunami effect happens only if the epicentre is underwater and the
quake's magnitude is above 5 on the Richter scale.

Structure of Earth

CRUST
● The crust is the outermost solid layer of the Earth.
● It is brittle in nature.
● Thickness of the Crust:
 ○ The crust is thinner under oceans and thicker on continents.
○ Oceanic crust: Around 5 km thick.
○ Continental crust: Around 30 km thick on average.
○ In mountain regions (e.g., Himalayas), it can be up to 70 km thick.
● Composition and Density:
○ Oceanic crust: Made of heavier rocks like basalt, with a density of 3 g/cm³.
○ Continental crust: Less dense than oceanic crust, with an average density of
2.7 g/cm³.

MANTLE
● The mantle lies below the crust and extends to a depth of 2,900 km.
● It starts at the Moho’s discontinuity, the boundary between the crust and mantle.
● Asthenosphere (Upper Mantle):
○ The asthenosphere is the upper part of the mantle, extending up to 400 km
deep.
○ The word "astheno" means weak.
○ It is the source of magma for volcanic eruptions.
○ Its density is 3.4 g/cm³, higher than the crust.
● Lower Mantle:
○ Below the asthenosphere is the lower mantle, which is in a solid state.

● Lithosphere:
○ The lithosphere includes the crust and the uppermost mantle.
○ It is 10-200 km thick.

CORE
● The core is the innermost layer of the Earth.
● It starts at a depth of 2,900 km and extends to the Earth’s center at 6,300 km.
● Core Layers:
○ Outer Core:
■ It is in a liquid state.
○ Inner Core:
■ It is in a solid state.
● Density of the Core:
○ At the mantle-core boundary, the density is about 5 g/cm³.
○ At the center of the Earth, the density is around 13 g/cm³.
● Composition:
○ The core is made of heavy materials, mainly nickel and iron.
○ It is often called the nife layer (from Ni for nickel and Fe for iron).

Volcanoes

1. What is a Volcano?
● A volcano is a place where gases, ashes, and molten rock (lava) escape to the
ground.
● Source of Lava:
 ○ Below the Earth’s crust is the mantle, which is denser than the crust.
○ The mantle has a weaker zone called the asthenosphere, where molten rock
originates.
○ The molten material in the upper mantle is called magma.
○ When magma moves to the surface, it is called lava.
● Materials Released During an Eruption:
○ Lava flows: Molten rock that flows on the surface.
○ Pyroclastic debris: Fragments of rocks and particles ejected during an
eruption.
○ Ash and dust: Fine particles ejected into the air.
○ Gases: Include nitrogen compounds, sulphur compounds, chlorine, hydrogen,
and argon.

2. Types of Volcanoes:

1. Shield Volcanoes
○ They are the largest volcanoes on Earth.
○ Example: The Hawaiian volcanoes.
○ Composition:
■ Made mostly of basalt, a fluid type of lava that spreads easily.
■ Because the lava flows smoothly, these volcanoes are not steep.
○ Explosivity:
■ Generally, shield volcanoes have low-explosivity.
■ However, they can become explosive if water enters the vent.
○ Lava Flow:
■ The lava often moves like a fountain.
■ This can create a cinder cone at the top of the vent.

2. Composite Volcanoes
○ Volcanoes with eruptions of cooler, thicker (more viscous) lava compared to
basalt.
○ Eruptions:
■ Known for explosive eruptions.
■ Ejects lava, pyroclastic material (rock fragments), and ash.
○ Formation:
■ The erupted material accumulates near the vent, forming layers.
■ These layers give the volcano its composite (layered) appearance.

3. Caldera
○ A caldera is a large, collapsed depression formed after a massive volcanic
eruption.
○ Explosiveness:
■ These are the most explosive volcanoes on Earth.
■ Instead of building tall structures, they collapse on themselves after
erupting.
○ Formation:
 ■ The collapse happens because the magma chamber (a large
underground reservoir of magma) is huge and located close to the
surface.

4. Flood Basalt Provinces

○ Areas where highly fluid lava erupts and spreads over long distances.
○ Lava Flows:
■ The lava can cover thousands of square kilometers.
■ Some flows can be over 50 meters thick.
○ Example:
■ The Deccan Traps in India, which now cover much of the Maharashtra
plateau, are a famous example.

5. Mid-Ocean Ridge Volcanoes

○ Oceanic Volcanoes:
■ These volcanoes are found in oceanic regions.
○ Mid-Ocean Ridges:
■ A network of mid-ocean ridges stretches over 70,000 km across all
ocean basins.
■ These ridges frequently experience volcanic eruptions.
■ The central portion of the ridges is where eruptions are most common.

3. Volcanic Landforms

1. Intrusive Forms?
a. Intrusive forms are shapes formed when lava cools and solidifies within the
Earth's crust.
2. How Igneous Rocks Form:
a. Lava cools and hardens to form igneous rocks.
b. This cooling can happen either:
■ On the surface → Forms volcanic rocks.
■ Within the crust → Forms plutonic rocks.
3. Intrusive Rocks:
a. When lava cools inside the crust, it creates intrusive forms, with unique
shapes based on where and how the cooling occurs.

b. Batholiths
■ Granitic Bodies:
● When magma cools deep within the Earth's crust, it forms
large, dome-shaped masses of rock called granitic bodies.
● These bodies are deep underground and are only exposed on
the surface after denudation (erosion) removes the overlying
layers.
■ Batholiths:
● Batholiths are massive bodies of cooled magma that formed
deep within the Earth, often from magma chambers.

c. Lacoliths
 ■ Lacoliths are large, dome-shaped intrusive bodies of rock with a flat
base and connected to the surface by a pipe-like conduit.
■ They resemble the volcanic domes of composite volcanoes, but
lacoliths are formed deep underground rather than on the surface.
■ Example : The Karnataka Plateau in India has many domal hills made
of granite rocks, which are examples of lacoliths or batholiths, some of
which have been exfoliated over time.

d. Lapolith, Phacolith and Sills

■ Lapolith:
● When lava moves upward and spreads horizontally in a saucer
shape (concave upward), it forms a lapolith.
■ Phacolith:
● A wavy mass of intrusive rocks can form at the base of
synclines (downward folds) or at the top of anticlines (upward
folds).
● These wavy shapes have a magmatic conduit beneath, leading
to magma chambers that may later develop into batholiths.
These are called phacoliths.
■ Sills and Sheets:
● Horizontal bodies of intrusive igneous rocks are called sills (if
they are thick) or sheets (if they are thin).
● Sills are thicker horizontal layers, while sheets are thinner
horizontal deposits.

e. Dykes
■ When lava moves through cracks and fissures in the land, it solidifies
almost perpendicular to the ground, forming wall-like structures called
dykes.
■ Dykes are commonly found in the western Maharashtra area, where
they are considered to be the feeders (sources) of lava for eruptions
that formed the Deccan Traps.