CHAPTER - 6 LEARNING Definition of Learning Learning may be defined as “any relatively permanent change in behaviour or behavioural potential produced by experience”. Changes due to practice and experience, which are relatively permanent, are illustrative of learning. Features of Learning ‘© The first feature is that learning always involves some kinds of experience. Behavioural changes that occur due to leaming are relatively permanent. Changes that take place due to fatigue or habituation to particular stimuli are not part of leaming. ‘* Learning is an inferred process and is different from performance. Performance is a person's observed behaviour or response or action. PARADIGMS OF LEARNING There are some methods that are used in acquisition of simple responses while other ‘methods are used in the acquisition of complex responses. Our Sen Coes air CONDITIONING Conditioning is the simplest kind of learning. There are two kinds of conditioning: - a) Classical conditioning b) Operant Conditioning PSYCHOLOGY x! 78A. CLASSICAL CONDITIONING * Ivan P. Pavlov conducted his experiments on dogs and found that dogs started secreting saliva as soon as they saw the empty plate in which food was served. © Saliva secretion is a reflexive response to food or something in the mouth. * All dogs salivate when they are presented with food. Food is an Unconditioned Stimulus (US) and salivation which follows it, an Unconditioned Response (UR). * After conditioning between food and bell, salivation started to occur in the presence of the sound of the bell. The bell becomes a Conc ned Stimulus (CS) and saliva secretion a Conditioned Response (CR). This kind of conditioning is called classical conditioning, © The leaming situation in classical conditioning is one of S-S learning in which fone stimulus (e.g., sound of bell) becomes a signal of another stimulus (c.g., food). Here one stimulus signifies the possible occurrence of another stimulus, Determinants of Classical Conditioning * Time Relations between Stimuli: The classical conditioning procedures are basically of four types based on the time relations between the onsct of conditioned stimulus (CS) and unconditioned stimulus (US).The first three are called forward conditioning procedures, and the fourth one is called backward conditioning procedure. The basic experimental arrangements of these procedures are as follows: > When the CS and US are presented together, it is called simultaneous conditioning. > In delayed conditioning, the onset of CS precedes the onset of US. ‘The CS ends before the end of the US. Delayed conditioning procedure is the most effective way of acquiring a CR. > In trace conditioning, the onset and end of the CS precedes the onset of US with some time gap between the two. Simultaneous and trace conditioning procedures do lead to acquisition of a CR, but they require greater number of acquisition trials. v In backward conditioning, the US precedes the onset of CS. The acquisition of response under backward conditioning procedure is very rare, * Type of Unconditioned Stimuli: The unconditioned stimuli used in studies of classical conditioning are basically of two types, ie. appetitive and aversive. > Appetitive unconditioned stimuli automatically elicit approach responses, such as eating, drinking, caressing, etc. These responses give satisfaction and pleasure. Appetitive classical conditioning is slower and requires greater number of acquisition trials. > Aversive US, such as noise, bitter taste, electric shock, painful injections etc. are painful, harmful, and elicit avoidance and escape responses. Aversive classical conditioning is established in one, two or three trials depending on the intensity of the aversive US. PSYCHOLOGY ~ XI 79* Intensity of Conditioned Stimuli: This influences the course of both appetitive and aversive classical conditioning. More intense conditioned stimuli are more effective in accelerating the acquisition of conditioned responses. It means that the more intense the conditioned stimulus, the fewer are the number of acquisition trials needed for conditioning Difference between Classical Conditioning and Operant Conditioning [Link]. | Classical Conditioning ‘Operant Conditioning T. | Goal is to increase the rate of an | Goal is to create a new response to a already occurring response. stimulus that doesn't normally produce that response. 2, | Responses are voluntary. Responses are involuntary and reflexive. 3. | Consequences are important in | Antecedent stimuli are important in forming an association. forming an association, Reinforcement must be | CS must occur immediately before immediate the UCS. 3. | An expectancy develops for | An expectancy develops for UCS to reinforcement to follow a correct | follow CS. response, B. OPERANT CONDITIONING * Conditioning of operant behaviour is called operant conditioning. Operants are those behaviours or responses, which are emitted by animals and human beings voluntarily and are under their control. Experiment done by Skinner Operant or instrumental conditioning is a form of leaming in which behaviour is learned, maintained or changed through its consequences. Such consequences are called reinforcers. A reinforcer is defined as any stimulus or event, which increases the probability of the occurrence of a (desired) response. Determinants of Operant Conditioning ‘A reinforcer has numerous features, which affect the course and strength of a response. They include its types * Types of Reinforcement- Reinforcement may be positive or negative. > Positive reinforcement involves stimuli such as praise, money, status, information etc. that have pleasant consequences. They strengthen and maintain the responses that have caused them to occur. > Negative reinforcers involve unpleasant and painful stimuli. Responses that lead organisms to get rid of painful stimuli or avoid and escape from them provide negative reinforcement. Thus, negative reinforcement leads to learning of avoidance and escape responses. © Number of reinforcement and other features PSYCHOLOGY — XI> Itrefers to the number of trials on which an organism has been reinforced or rewarded. > Amount of reinforcement means how much of reinforcing stimulus (food or water or intensity of pain causing agent) one receives on each trial. > Quality of reinforcement refers to the kind of reinforcer. * Schedule of reinforcement -A reinforcement schedule is the arrangement of the delivery of reinforcement during conditioning trials. The reinforcement may be continuous or intermittent. > When a desired response is reinforced every time it occurs we call it continuous reinforcement. > In intermittent schedules responses are sometimes reinforced, sometimes not. It is known as partial reinforcement and has been found to produce greater resistance to extinction — than is found with continuous reinforcement. * Time Interval between Reinforcement and Occurrence of response. The effectiveness of reinforcement is dramatically altered by delay in the occurrence of reinforcement. It is found that delay in the delivery of reinforcement leads to poorer level of performance. Smaller rewards immediately after doing the chore are preferred generally rather than a big one after a long gap. Difference between negative reinforcement and punishment * Negative reinforcement is the reinforcement of a response by the removal, escape from or avoidance of an unpleasant stimulus whereas punishment is the application of a noxious stimulus for the purpose of suppressing behaviour. ‘* Negative reinforcement increases the likelihood a response whereas punishment decreases the likelihood of a behaviour occurring again. * Example of negative reinforcement is stopping at a red light to avoid getting in an fent (increase of a behaviour) whereas an example of punishment would be losing your driving license or being fined for crossing the red light. KEY LEARNING PROCESSES ASSOCIATED WITH CLASSICAL CONDITIONING AND OPERANT CONDITIONING When learning takes place, be it classical or operant conditioning, it involves the occurrence of certain processes. These include reinforcement, extinction or non- occurrence of learned response, generalization of learning to other stimuli under some specifiable conditions, discrimination between reinforcing and non-reinforcing stimuli, and spontaneous recovery. PSYCHOLOGY - x! 81Reinforcement Reinforcement is the operation of administering a reinforcer by the experimenter. Reinforcers are stimuli that increase the rate or probability of the responses that precede. © A positive reinforcer increases the rate of response that precedes its presentation. © Negative reinforcers increase the rate of the response that precedes their removal or termination. The reinforcers may be primary or secondary. * A primary reinforcer is biologically important since it determines the organism's survival (¢.g., food for a hungry organism), * A secondary reinforcer is one which has acquired characteristics of the reinforcer because of the organism's experience with the environment. Extinction * Extinction means disappearance of a leamed response due to removal of reinforcement from the situation in which the response used to occur. © Learning shows resistance to extinction. It means that even though the leamed response is now not reinforced, it would continue to occur for some time. With increasing number of trials without reinforcement, the response strength gradually diminishes and ultimately it stops occurring. * A leamed response shows resistance to extinction depends on a number of factors. * Resistance to extinction increases increasing number of reinforcements during acquisition trials, beyond that any increase in number of reinforcement reduces the resistance to extinction. © If reinforcement is delayed during acquisition trials, the resistance to extinction increases. * Reinforcement in every acquisition trial makes the learned response to be less resistant to extinction, In contrast, intermittent or partial reinforcement during acquisition trials makes a leamed response more resistant to extinction. PSYCHOLOGY - XI 82Generalization and Discrimination * The phenomenon of responding similarly to similar stimuli is known as generalization. Another process, which is complimentary to generalization, is called discrimination. * Generalization is due to similarity while discrimination is a response due to difference. Spontaneous Recovery * Spontaneous recovery occurs after a learned response is extinguished. Suppose an organism has learned to make a response for getting reinforcement, and then the response is extinguished and sometime lapses. After lapse of considerable time, the learned or CR recovers and occurs to the CS. ‘* The amount of spontaneous recovery depends on the duration of the time lapsed after the extinction session. The longer the duration of time lapsed, the greater is the recovery of learned response. Learned Helplessness * Learned helplessness is a result of an interaction between the two forms of conditioning. Learned helplessness is often measured in terms of the subject’s ability and persistence before they give up the task. Continuous failure leads to little persistence and poor performance. This shows helplessness. There are numerous studies that demonstrate that persistent depression is often caused by learned helplessness. Cc. OBSERVATIONAL LEARNING * The next form of learning takes place by observing others. Earlier this form of learning was called imitation, © In this kind of learning, human beings learn social behaviours; therefore, it is sometimes called social learning. * In many situations individuals do not know how to behave. They observe others and emulate their behaviour. This form of learning is called modelling. * In observational learning, observers acquire knowledge by observing the model's behaviour, but performance is influenced by model’s behaviour being rewarded or punished, D. COGNITIVE LEARNING ‘In cognitive learning, there is a change in what the leamer knows rather than what s/he does. This form of learning shows up in insight learning and latent learning. * Cognitive leaning focuses on cognitive processes that occur during leaming rather than concentrating solely on S-R and S-S connections. PSYCHOLOGY- XI 83Tosa Seta Nene enti ta Ansight Learning * Insight learning is the process by which the solution to a problem suddenly becomes clear. © In insight learning, sudden solution is the rule. Once the solution has appeared, it can be repeated immediately the next time the problem is confronted. * Insight learning is about learning a cognitive relationship between a means and an end. This helps in insight learning being generalized to other similar problem situations. An experiment on Insight Learning (Given in NCERT book) Latent Learning In latent leaming, a new behaviour is leaned but not demonstrated until reinforcement is provided for displaying it. © Tolman made an early contribution to the concept of latent learning, Tolman put ‘two groups of rats in a maze and gave them an opportunity to explore. In one ‘group, rats found food at the end of the maze and soon learned to make their way rapidly through the maze. On the other hand, rats in the second group were not rewarded and showed no apparent signs of learning. But later, when these rats were reinforced, they ran through the maze as efficiently as the rewarded group. * Tolman contended that the unrewarded rats had learned the layout of the maze carly in their explorations. They just never displayed their latent learning until the reinforcement was provided. © The rats developed a cognitive map of the maze, i.e. a mental representation of the spatial locations and directions, which they needed to reach their goal E. VERBAL LEARNING Human beings acquire knowledge about objects, events, and their features largely in terms of words. Psychologists use a variety of materials including nonsense syllables, familiar words, unfamiliar words sentence, and paragraphs. Methods used in Verbal Learning * Paired-Associates Learning: A list of paired-associates is prepared. The first word of the pair is used as the stimulus, and the second word as the response. Members of each pair may be from the same language or two different languages. ‘The leamer is first shown both the stimulus-response pairs together and is instructed to remember and recall the response after the presentation of each stimulus term. The stimulus words are presented one by one and the participant tries to give the correct response term. In case of failure, s/he is shown the response word. Trials continue until the participant gives all the response words PSYCHOLOGY - XI 34without a single error. The total number of trials taken to reach the criterion becomes the measure of paired-associates learning, Serial Learning -This method of verbal leaming is used to find out how participants learn the lists of verbal items, and what processes are involved in it. First, lists of verbal items, ie. nonsense syllables, most familiar or least familiar words, interrelated words, etc. are prepared. The participant is presented the entire list and is required to produce the items in the same serial order as in the list. In the first trial, the first item of the list is shown, and the participant has to produce the second item. If s/he fails to do so within the prescribed time, the experimenter presents the second item, Now this item becomes the stimulus and the participant has to produce the third item that is the response word. If s/he fails, the experimenter gives the correct item, which becomes the stimulus item for the fourth word. This procedure is called serial anticipation method. Learning trials continue until the participant correctly anticipates all the items in the given order. Free Recall: In this method, participants are presented a list of words, which they read and speak out. Each word is shown at a fixed rate of exposure duration, Immediately after the presentation of the list, the participants are required to recall the words in any order they can. Words in the list may be interrelated or unrelated. More than ten words are included in the list. The presentation order of words varies from trial to trial. This method is used to study how participants organize words for storage in memory. Studies indicate that the items placed in the beginning or end of the lists are easier to recall than those placed in the middle, which are more difficult to recall. ‘Determinants of Verbal Learning Meaningfulness of the material- Meaningfulness of material is measured in several ways. The number of associations elicited in a fixed time, familiarity of the material and frequency of usage relations among the words in the list, and sequential dependence of each word of the list on the preceding words, are used for assessing meaningfulness. vvvY Length of the list to be learned > Learning time increases with increase in length of the list, occurrence of words with low association values or lack of relations among the items in the list. > The more time it takes to learn the list, stronger will be the learning. In this respect psychologists have found that the total time principle operates. This principle states that a fixed amount of time is necessary to lear a fixed amount of material, regardless of the number of trials into which that time is divided. The more time it takes to learn, the stronger becomes the learning, Category clustering in Free Recall In free recall, verbal learning becomes organizational. Participants recall the words not in their order of presentation, but in a new order or sequence. It has also been demonstrated that free recall is always organized subjectively. Subjective organization shows that the participants organize words or items in their individual ways and recall accordingly. PSYCHOLOGY ~ XI 85F, CONCEPT LEARNING A concept is a category that is used to refer to a number of objects and events. Animal, fruit, building, and crowd are examples of concepts or categories. There are two types of concepts: artificial concepts and natural concepts. * Artificial concepts are those that are well defined and rules connecting the features are precise and rigid. The concept of a square is a well-defined concept. It must have four attributes, i.e. closed figure, four sides, each side of equal length, and equal angles. © Natural concepts or categories are usually ill-defined. Natural category concepts include biological objects, real world products, and human artifacts such as tools, clothes, houses, etc. These concepts are formed not as a result of the application of a strict set of rules but as a result of their experiences with these concepts in the real world Conjunctive Concept In order to create a conjunctive concept, one may use only relevant features and leave behind irrelevant features. The set of features that are connected by some rule are called relevant features. The features that are not included in the rule are considered to be irrelevant features. Relevant features get connected through the rule that all of these features are necessary to create the concept. G. SKILL LEARNING * A skill is defined as the ability to perform some complex task smoothly and efficiently. Car driving, airplane piloting, ship navigating shorthand writing, and writing and reading are examples of skills. * A skill consists of a chain of perceptual motor responses or as a sequence of S-R associations. Phases of Skill Acquisition According to Fitts, skill learning passes through three phases, viz. cognitive, associative and autonomous. Each phase or stage of skill learning involves different types of mental processes. © In the cognitive phase of skill leaming, the leamer has to understand and memorize the instructions, and also understand how the task has to be performed. * The second phase is associative. In this phase, different sensory inputs or stimuli are linked with appropriate responses. As the practice increases, errors decrease, performance improves, and time taken is also reduced. © Then the third phase, i.e. autonomous phase, begins. In this phase, two important changes take place in performance: the attentional demands of the associative phase decrease, and interference created by external factors reduces. Finally, skilled performance attains automaticity with minimal demands on conscious effort TRANSFER OF LEARNING The term transfer of learnin, of prior learning on new lea often called transfer of training. It refers to the effects 8. PSYCHOLOGY — XI 86* Transfer is considered to be positive if the earlier learning facilitates current learning. © Itis considered to be negative transfer if new learning is retarded. © Absence of facilitative or retarding effect means zero transfer. General transfer and specific transfer * General (Generic) Transfer- Prior learning predisposes one to learn another task in a better manner. The leaning of one task warms-up the learner to learn the next task more conveniently. As one starts with a task, the person is initially slow but gets warmed up and adjusts to the task. * Specific Transfer-In specific transfer that transfer effects are positive or negative or zero. Specific transfer means the effect of learning of task A on learning of task B. The learning of task A may make the learning of task B easier or more difficult or have no such effect. Such transfers depend on si between the initial learning task and the second task. Similarity or dissimilarity between the initial task and the second task ‘The following conclusions have been drawn about specific transfer: - © In the first instance, the initial and transfer tasks are very different both in stimuli as well as in responses. Hence no specific transfer is expected. However, due to the mechanism of general transfer some degree of positive transfer may occur. * Inthe second case, the stimuli of the two tasks are the same and responses are highly similar. Therefore, maximum transfer may occur. It has been regularly shown that in this condition positive transfer takes place. In the third case, the stimuli are same, but responses are different. In such conditions also, some positive transfer occurs. © In the fourth case, the stimuli are different, but responses are the same. Therefore, new associations with responses are to be learned. In this case positive transfer is obtained, * In the fifth case, stimuli and responses are the same, but associations are altered. Because of this, alteration negative transfer occurs in the learning of the second task. It is so because the associations leaned in the initial task interfere in the learning of new associations. FACTORS FACILITATING LEARNING * Continuous vs. Partial Reinforcement -In continuous reinforcement the participant is given reinforcement after each target response which produces a high rate of responding but the effectiveness of that reinforcer gradually reduces. In such schedules where reinforcement is not continuous, some responses are not reinforced. Hence, they are called partial or intermittent reinforcement which often produce very high rates of responding PSYCHOLOGY XI 87* Motivation- Motivation is a mental as well as a physiological state, which arouses an organism to act for fulfilling the current need. Motivation energizes an organism to act vigorously for attaining some goal learning- Some species have biological constraints on their ies. An organism can acquire certain behaviours depending upon the mechanisms it is endowed with. DIFFERENT KINDS OF LEARNING STYLES. Learning styles demonstrates the differences in the way people learn within the same class, culture, community or socioeconomic group and those belonging to different groups. Learning style may be defined as ‘a learner's consistent way of responding to and using stimuli in the context of learning” It is ‘the way in which each learner begins to concentrate, processes, and retains new and complex information’. Factors affecting Learning styles * Perceptual Modality is based on biologically-based reactions to the physical environment. It refers to the preferences of persons through which they take in information such as auditory, visual, smell, kinesthetic, and tactile. + Information Processing distinguishes between the way we are structured to think, solve problems, and remember information. This may be thought of as, the way we process information. For example, active/reflective, sensingyintuitive, sequential/global, serial/simultaneous, etc. * Personality Patterns are the way we interact with our surroundings. Each one of us has a preferred, consistent, and distinet way of perceiving, organising, and retaining information. This approach focuses on understanding how personality affects the way people interact with the environment, and how this affects the way individuals respond to each other within the learning environment. Differentiation between Relational style and Analytical style Relational Style Analytical Style 1. Perceive information as part of 1. Able to disembed information from total picture total picture 2. Exhibit intuitive thinking 2. Exhibit sequential and structured thinking 3. Learn materials that have a human, 3. Learn materials that are inanimate social content and are and impersonal more easily characterized by experiential/cultural relevance PSYCHOLOGY - XI 88more easily Have a good memory for verbally presented ideas and information, especially if relevant . Are more task-oriented concerning non- academic areas . Are influenced by authority figures’ expression of confidence or doubt in students” ability . Prefer to withdraw from . Have a good memory for abstract -as and irrelevant information . Are more task-oriented concerning academics . Are not greatly affected by the opinions of others . Show ability to persist unstimulating unstimulating task performance task . Style conflicts with the traditional . Style matches most school school environment environments LEARNING DISABILITIES Learning disability refers to a heterogeneous group of disorders manifested in terms of difficulty in the acquisition of leaning, reading, writing, speaking, reasoning, and mathematical activities. Symptoms of Learning Disability ‘There are many symptoms of learning disabilities. They become manifest in different combinations in children who suffer from this disorder irrespective of their intelligence, motivation, and hard work for learning. * Difficulties in writing letters, words and phrases, reading out text, and speaking appear quite frequently. © Learning-disabled children have disorders of attention. They get easily distracted and cannot sustain attention on one point for long. Learning-disabled children have poor motor coordination and poor manual dexterity. ‘This is evident in their lack of balance, inability to sharpen pencil, handle doorknobs, difficulty in learning to ride a bicycle, ete. © These children fail to understand and follow oral directions for doing things. * They misjudge relationships as to which classmates are friendly and which ones are indifferent, They fail to learn and understand body language. * A large number of learning-disabled children have dyslexia. They quite often fail to copy letters and words; for example, they fail to distinguish between b and d, p and q, P and 9, was and saw, unclear and nuclear, etc. PSYCHOLOGY ~ x! 89APPLICATIONS OF LEARNING PRINCIPLES The applications of learning principles can be observed in four areas, i.e. organizations, in treatment of maladjustive behaviours, in rearing children, and school learning. ‘a. In organizations, a number of problems such as absenteeism, frequent medical leave, indiscipline are dealt by giving attractive rewards. In order to improve discipline, managers start functioning as models for employees or employees are placed under such model managers. b. Based on the principles of learning, a number of therapeutic procedures have been developed to modify maladaptive and socially incapacitating habits and behaviours. > In the case of those children and adults who exhibit irrational and unfounded fear with accompanying avoidance behaviour, implosive therapy and flooding are used. Implosive therapy starts with the person imagining their most feared form of contact with the feared object, accompanied by vivid verbal descriptions by the therapist. The therapist functions as a coach. On the other hand, flooding is exposure that takes place in vivo (e.g., with an actual feared object) and is considered to be the most effective of all treatments for fear. > To help those suffering from excessive anxieties and fears, the technique of systematic desensitization is used which reduces phobic patients’ anxiety responses through counter conditioning, i.e. an attempt to reverse the process of classical conditioning by associating the crucial stimulus with a new conditioned response. > Aversion therapy generates painful experiences and to avoid those experiences clients learn to give up maladaptive habit. > Modelling and systematic use of reinforcement for shaping and developing competence are extensively used > Persons suffering from excessive shyness and having difficulties in interpersonal interactions are subjected to assertive learning. > Biofeedback treatment is based on the interaction between classical and instrumental conditioning. A bodily function (such as heart rate or blood pressure) is monitored and information about the function is fed back to the person to facilitate improved control of the physiological process. ¢. The principles of learning are widely used in teaching. Students are told what they have to learn, and appropriate practice conditions are provided. Students are made active participants in the acquisition of information, meaning, and correct responses. Teachers act as models and mentors for students to emulate them with a view to promote appropriate social behaviours and personal habits. d. The principles of learning are best applied in child rearing provided both the parents are aware of the principles of learning. Children are made to learn necessary signs of danger and safety. The behaviour of children can easily be modified and shaped through the use of operant conditioning procedure. Using rewards judiciously parents can make children enthusiastic learners. As models and mentors, parents make children socially skillful, duty oriented and resourceful. PSYCHOLOGY ~ XI 90QUESTION BANK Very Short Questions (1 markers) 1. Relational style learners exhibit intuitive thinking whereas analytic style learner exhibit. eee 2. Transfer is said to be positive when earlier learning facilitates current learning. (True/ false) 3. Learning disabled children get easily distracted and have poor motor coordination. (True/False) : in free recall shows that participants organize words in their individual ways and recall them accordingly. 5. The acquisition of response under backward conditioning shows lesser possibility. (True/False). 6. Asstimulus which when associated with another neutral stimulus results in a response. concepts are those which are ill-defined. . leads to learning of avoidance and escape responses. 9. Noise or bitter taste is an example of .. stimulus. 10. sssscvsssvu ig an inferred process and is different from performance which is observable .-»- unconditional Short Questions (2 markers) Differentiate between appetitive and aversive unconditioned stimuli. Differentiate between natural and artificial concepts. ‘What is learned helplessness? What is systematic desensitization? Explain biofeedback treatment. What is social learning? Differentiate between generalization and discrimination, Define reinforcer. ‘What is partial reinforcement effect? per ayvayye Short Questions (3 markers) 1. Explain the three methods of verbal leaming. 2. How is continuous reinforcement different from partial reinforcement? Which is more resistant to extinction? 3. Define cognitive learning, Explain its two types. 4, Define leaning. What are its two features? 5. What are the three phases of skill acquisition? 6. During free recall, participants create their own order of sequence. Why does this happen? (HOTS) 7. Differentiate between negative reinforcement and punishment. 8. What are the factors which determine verbal learning? PSYCHOLOGY - XI o19. Explain the term conjunctive concept. 10. How is implosive therapy different from flooding? 11. Explain the three types of forward conditioning. 12. Rajeev has excessive fear of heights that he is unable to function effectively. Which therapeutic technique will help him deal with his fears? Long Questions (4 markers) Mention some of the symptoms of Learning Disabilities. Differentiate between classical conditioning and operant conditioning. How do we learn concepts? Explain with the help of examples. (HOTS) Specify some of the determinants of classical conditioning. Which learning style do you use? What are the factors determining learning style? Are children with leaming disability mentally deficient? Explain. (HOTS) ae eene Very Long Questions (6 marker 1. Specify some of the applications of learning principles. 2. Differentiate between relational and analytical style. 3. Explain the applications of learning principles in clinical settings. 4, What are some of the key leaming processes in classical and operant conditioning? PSYCHOLOGY XI 92