Logarithmic Function
LOGARITHMS
Logarithm
▪ 𝑋 3 = 𝑋. 𝑋. 𝑋 ▪ 𝐸𝑥. 𝑙𝑜𝑔3 81 = 𝑋
▪ 𝑋=
▪ 53 = 5𝑥5𝑥5 = 125
▪ 53 = 125 → exponents
▪ 𝐸𝑥. 𝑙𝑜𝑔2 32 = 𝑌
▪ 𝑌=
▪ 𝑙𝑜𝑔5 125 = 3 ▪ 𝐸𝑥. 𝑙𝑜𝑔4 1 = 𝑍
▪ 𝑙𝑜𝑔10 1000 = 𝑋 ▪ 𝑍=
▪𝑋=3
Logarithm
▪ Is the inverse function to exponentiation
▪ Were introduced by John Napier in 1614 as a means of
simplifying calculations.
▪ A convenient way to express large numbers or reduce
the wide range of quantities – typically the largest
numbers in the data are hundred or even thousand of
times.
Logarithm
▪ Exponential form:
▪ 𝑏𝑥 = 𝑎
▪ Logarithmic form:
▪ 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑏 𝑎 = 𝑥
▪ Therefore:
▪ 𝑏𝑥 = 𝑎 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑏 𝑎 = 𝑥
Fundamental Properties
Conditions: Examples
1. 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑏 𝑎 = 𝑥 𝑏𝑥 = 1 ▪ 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑏 𝑎 a – is the argument
1. 𝑙𝑜𝑔12 1 = 0
𝑥=0
b – is the base
2. 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑏 𝑏 = 1 𝑏𝑥 = b
1. a>0
2. 𝑙𝑜𝑔4 4 = 1
𝑥=1
𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑏 0 𝑢𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑑 &
3. 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑏 𝑏 𝑛 = 𝑥 𝑏 𝑥 = 𝑏𝑛 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑏 −a is incorrect
Ex. 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑏 1 = 0 & 𝑙𝑜𝑔2
1
= −1
3. 𝑙𝑜𝑔11 113 = 3
𝑥=𝑛 2
2. b>0&b≠1
𝑙𝑜𝑔−𝑏 1 𝑖𝑠 𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡 &
𝑙𝑜𝑔1 a = x (undefined)
Change of Base
▪ 𝑙𝑜𝑔3 5 =? ▪ 𝑙𝑜𝑔3 5 =?
𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑥 𝑎
▪ 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑏 𝑎 = ; 𝑥 > 0, 𝑥≠1
𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑥 𝑏
𝑙𝑜𝑔10 5
▪ 𝑙𝑜𝑔3 5 =
𝑙𝑜𝑔10 3
▪ 𝑙𝑜𝑔10 𝑎 log 𝑎 𝑖𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑚𝑜𝑛 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑡ℎ𝑚
▪ 𝑙𝑜𝑔3 5 = 1.465
▪ 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑒 𝑎 ln 𝑎 𝑖𝑠 𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑎𝑙 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑡ℎ𝑚
Logarithm
Ex.
▪ 𝑙𝑜𝑔4 9 = 𝑙𝑜𝑔 9
log 4
= 1.585 or 𝑙𝑛 9
𝑙𝑛4 9 = ln 4
= 1.585
𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑥 𝑎/𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑥 𝑎
▪ 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑏 𝑎 = 𝑙𝑜𝑔 𝑥𝑎
𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑥 𝑏
=
𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑥 𝑏/𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑥 𝑎
1 1
= =
𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑥 𝑏 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑎 𝑏
𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑥 𝑎
So: 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑏 𝑎 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑎 𝑏 = 1
Most Basic Rules
1. 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑏 𝑥𝑦 = 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑏 𝑥 + 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑏 𝑦 𝐸𝑥. 𝑙𝑜𝑔2 4 𝑥 6 = 𝑙𝑜𝑔2 4 + 𝑙𝑜𝑔2 6
𝑥
2. 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑏 𝑦
= 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑏 𝑥 − 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑏 𝑦
𝑙𝑜𝑔2 24 = 2 + 2.585
3. 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑏 𝑎𝑛 = 𝑛𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑏 𝑎
𝑙𝑜𝑔2 24 = 4.585
Ex. Find the 𝑙𝑜𝑔2 24 =?
𝐺𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛: 𝑙𝑜𝑔2 6 = 2.58496
Decibel
Decibel By: Formula
▪ A unit used to measure the ▪ 𝐺 = 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑏
𝑃1
; 𝑖𝑛 𝑏𝑒𝑙
intensity of a sound or the power 𝑃2
level of an electrical signal by 𝑃1
▪ 𝐺𝑑𝐵 = 10 𝑙𝑜𝑔10 ; 𝑖𝑛 𝑑𝐵
comparing it with a given level on 𝑃2
a logarithmic scale
▪ 𝑁𝑜𝑡𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 10 𝑑𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑏𝑒𝑙𝑠 = 1 𝑏𝑒𝑙
▪ 𝑃1 = 𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒𝑑 𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟
▪ 𝑃2 = 𝑟𝑒𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑙𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑙
Decibel
▪ For power:
𝑃2
▪ 𝐴𝑝 = 10𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑏 = 10𝑙𝑜𝑔10 𝐴𝑝
𝑃1
▪ 𝐹𝑜𝑟 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒
𝑉2
▪ 𝐴𝑉 = 20𝑙𝑜𝑔10 = 20𝑙𝑜𝑔10 𝐴𝑉
𝑉1
𝑉2
▪ 𝑃= − 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑎𝑚𝑒 𝑠𝑦𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑚 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑉2 𝑡𝑜𝑉1
𝑅
𝑉2 2
▪ 𝐴𝑉 = 10𝑙𝑜𝑔10 = 20𝑙𝑜𝑔10 𝐴𝑉
𝑉1
Decibel
▪ Ex. An amp with 10W output and 1 W input the Gain is?
𝑃2
▪ 𝐴𝑃 = = 10 ; 𝐴𝑝 = 10𝑙𝑜𝑔10 10 = 10𝑑𝐵
𝑃1
▪ 𝐸𝑥. 𝐼𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑎𝑚𝑝 ℎ𝑎𝑠 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑔𝑎𝑖𝑛 𝑜𝑓 1
▪ 𝐴𝑝 = 10𝑙𝑜𝑔10 1 = 0𝑑𝐵
Gain (Unitless) Gain (dB)
Different gain in dB
1 0
10 10
100 20
1000 30
10000 40
100000 50
▪ Ex. If two amp is cascaded with gain of ▪ Ex. If the gain is 0.1, the
𝐴1 = 104 , 𝐴2 = 105 . What is the total attenuation in is?
power gain in dB?
▪ 𝐴 𝑇 = 10𝑙𝑜𝑔(𝐴1 )
▪ 𝐴 𝑇 = 𝐴1 𝐴2 = 109
▪ 𝐴 𝑇 = 10 log( 0.1)
▪ 𝐺𝑇 = 10𝑙𝑜𝑔(𝐴1 𝐴2 )
▪ = −10𝑑𝐵
▪ = 10 log 𝐴1 + 10 log 𝐴2
▪ Ex. If the gain is 0.5
▪ = 10 log 104 + 10 log 105
▪ 𝐴 𝑇 = 10 log( 0.5)
▪ = 90𝑑𝐵
▪ = −3𝑑𝐵
Voltage gain
▪ 𝐴𝑉(𝑑𝑏) = 20𝑙𝑜𝑔10 𝐴𝑉 :
▪ 𝐼𝑓 𝐴𝑉 = 100
▪ 𝐴𝑉(𝑑𝐵) = 20𝑙𝑜𝑔10 100 = 40𝑑𝐵
▪ 𝐼𝑓 𝐴𝑉 = 2
▪ 𝐴𝑉 = 20𝑙𝑜𝑔10 2 = 6𝑑𝐵
▪ 𝐼𝑓 𝐴𝑉 = 0.5
▪ 𝐴𝑉 = 20𝑙𝑜𝑔10 0.5 = −6𝑑𝐵
Voltage Gain Gain (dB)
0.01 -40 Different gain in dB
0.1 -20
0.5 -6
1 0
2 6
10 20
100 40
What is dBm, dBW, & dBV?
▪ In terms of dBW – the power is represented w/ respect to 1W
in decibel scale then represented as dBW.
▪ Ex. If 𝑃1 = 10𝑊, what is the decibel scale in terms of dBW?
𝑃1
▪ 𝐴𝑝 = 10𝑙𝑜𝑔10 ; 𝑃𝑟 = 𝑟𝑒𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟.
𝑃𝑟
10
▪ 𝐴𝑝 = 10𝑙𝑜𝑔10 = 10𝑑𝐵𝑊
1
In terms of dBV
▪ The voltage is represented w/ respect to 1V in decibel scale
then represented as dBV.
▪ Ex. If the measured voltage is 100𝑉, what is the decibel scale
in terms of dBV?
𝑉1
▪ 𝐴𝑉 = 20𝑙𝑜𝑔10 ; 𝑉𝑟 = 𝑟𝑒𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒.
𝑉𝑟
100
▪ 𝐴𝑝 = 20𝑙𝑜𝑔10 = 40𝑑𝐵𝑉
1
In terms of dBm
▪ When the power is represented w/ respect to 1mW in decibel
scale then represented as dBm.
▪ Ex. If the measured power is 100𝑚𝑊, what is the decibel scale
in terms of dBm?
𝑃1 100𝑚𝑊
▪ 𝐴𝑝 = 10𝑙𝑜𝑔10 ; 𝐺𝑝 = 10𝑙𝑜𝑔10 = 20𝑑𝐵𝑚.
𝑃𝑟 1𝑚𝑊
▪ Ex. If the measured power is 1000𝑚𝑊.
1000𝑚𝑊
▪ 𝐴𝑝 = 10𝑙𝑜𝑔10 = 30𝑑𝐵𝑚.
1𝑚𝑊
Amplifier Frequency Response
▪ In amplifier , the coupling and bypass capacitor appear to be
shorted to ac at the midband frequencies. At low frequencies
the capacitive reactance of these capacitors affects the gain and
phase shift of signals, so they must be taken into consideration.
▪ The frequency response of an amplifier is the change in gain or
phase shift over a specified range of input signal frequencies.
Effects of Coupling Capacitors
1
▪ 𝑋𝑐 = − 𝐶𝑎𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑣𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑒𝑠 𝑖𝑛𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑠𝑒𝑙𝑦 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑝𝑜𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ 𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑞.
2⫪𝑓𝐶
Effects of Bypass Capacitors
−𝑅𝑐
𝐴𝑉 =
𝑟′𝑒
−𝑅𝑐
𝐴𝑉 =
𝑅𝐸 + 𝑟′𝑒
Low Frequency Range
1
▪ 𝑋𝑐 = 𝐶 = 1𝑢𝐹
2⫪𝑓𝐶
F (Hz) 𝑋𝐶
10 15.91kΩ
100 1.59kΩ
Range of possible
1k 159Ω effect
10k 15.9Ω
100k 1.59Ω
1M 0.159Ω Short circuit
10M 15.9mΩ equivalent
100M 1.59mΩ
High Frequency Range
1
▪ 𝑋𝑐 = 𝐶 = 5𝑝𝐹
2⫪𝑓𝐶
F (Hz) 𝑋𝐶
10 3183MΩ
100 318.3MΩ
Open circuit
1k 31.83MΩ equivalent
10k 3.183MΩ
100k 318.3kΩ
1M 31.83kΩ Range of possible
10M 3.183kΩ effect
100M 318.3Ω
