MODULE - 1

OSCILLTIONS AND WAVES

Nature manifests itself in the form of matter and radiation, therefore concepts of matter
(particle) and radiation (wave) are very basic and fundamental in Physics.

It is very essential to transport energy from one place to another and there are two ways
transporting energy.

1] Energy can be transported in the form of kinetic energy of matter in motion. Ex: A bullet
fired from a gun carries kinetic energy and transfers it to the target
2] Energy can be transported from one point to another by a wave without the actual
movement of particles in the medium, i.e called as wave motion. Ex: Radiation received
from Sun is wave motion.

Depending on the medium of propagation, waves can be classified as

1] Mechanical waves
2] Non mechanical waves ( electromagnetic waves)

A wave can be defined as “ The transmission of energy from one place to another through a
medium without the actual translation of the medium in the direction of the energy flow”

A wave is produced by the periodic disturbance/periodic oscillations at a point in the given

medium.

Ex: Sound waves are produced because of the vibration of particles of the medium or the
body. Sound propagates in the form of waves . These waves carry mechanical energy with
them which is known as sound energy. (Ex: When you strike a bell, the metal vibrates, creating
a sound wave)
Ex: Electromagnetic wave, is a form of energy emitted by moving charged particles.
Electromagnetic waves consist of both electric and magnetic field waves. These waves
oscillate in perpendicular planes with respect to each other, and are in phase. (Ex: oscillations
of charge flowing back and forth in an electrical circuit, vibrations of electrons in an atom
generating light waves etc.)

Prepared by Dr. N.Sandhya Rani, Assoc. Prof. VVCE, Mysuru. Page 1

 SIMPLE HARMONIC MOTION (SHM)
[QUESTION : Define simple harmonic motion and explain the characteristics]

Definition of SHM: A simple harmonic motion is defined as “The motion in which the restoring
force acting on the body is directly proportional to its displacement from the mean position”

Characteristics:
1. The motion is periodic
2. When the body displaced from its mean position, the restoring force acts on the body
which tends to bring back the body to its mean position
3. The restoring force is directly proportional to the displacement of the body from its mean
position.
Displacement: the distance of the particle measured along the path of the motion from its
mean position at a given instant is called as displacement given as 𝒙 = 𝑨 𝑺𝒊𝒏 (𝝎𝒕 + ∅)
Where ‘x’ is displacement, ‘A’ is amplitude, ‘𝜔’ is angular frequency, ‘t’ is time constant and ‘∅’
is initial phase

Velocity: velocity is defined as distance travelled by unit time, given as

𝑑𝑥
𝒗=
𝑑𝑡
𝑑
𝑣= [𝐴 𝑆𝑖𝑛 (𝜔𝑡 + ∅)]
𝑑𝑡
𝑣 = 𝜔𝐴 𝐶𝑜𝑠 (𝜔𝑡 + ∅)

Acceleration: acceleration is given by

𝑑𝑣
𝑎=
𝑑𝑡
𝑑
𝑎= 𝜔𝐴 𝐶𝑜𝑠 (𝜔𝑡 + ∅)
𝑑𝑡
𝑎 = − 𝜔2 𝐴 𝑆𝑖𝑛(𝜔𝑡 + ∅)

Time period: time taken for one complete oscillation is called as period, which is given
2𝜋
by 𝜔 = 2𝜋𝑓 =
𝑇

𝟐𝝅
Therefore 𝑻=
𝝎

Frequency: the number of oscillations made by the body in one second, given by
𝟏
𝒇=
𝑻

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 DIFFRENTIAL EQUATION OF SHM
[QUESTION: Derive expression for differential equation for SHM and mention its
solution]

Consider a block of mass ‘m’ attached to the one end of the spring. When the mass is pulled
and left to it, it oscillates along its equilibrium position. Mass is said to be performing simple
harmonic motion when the restoring force (F) is proportional to the displacement (x).
i.e restoring force ∝ − 𝑥
{Negative sign indicates the restoring force is directed opposite to the displacement}
F ∝ −x
F = − kx ------------------------------------------ (1)

Here K is the proportionality constant known as spring constant. It represents the amount of
restoring force produced per unit elongation and is a relative measure of stiffness of the
material.
According Newton’s II law of motion, the restoring force produces acceleration given by
F = ma --------------------- (2)
d2 x
where ‘a’ is acceleration given by a= dt2
from equation 1 & 2
ma = − kx
d2 x
m = − kx
dt2
𝒅𝟐 𝒙 𝒌
+ 𝒙 = 𝟎
𝒅𝒕𝟐 𝒎
k
Putting = ω2 , the above equation becomes
m
𝒅𝟐 𝒙
+ 𝛚𝟐 𝒙 = 𝟎 ----------------(3) This is the general differential equation for SHM
𝒅𝒕𝟐

𝒌
Here ‘ω’ is the angular frequency given by 𝛚 = √ radian/sec
𝒎

Prepared by Dr. N.Sandhya Rani, Assoc. Prof. VVCE, Mysuru. Page 3

 𝟐𝝅
Therefor time period ‘T’ is given by 𝑻=
𝝎
𝟐𝝅
T =
√𝒌
𝒎

𝒎
Therefore T = 𝟐𝝅√ seconds
𝒌
The general solution for equation (3) is given by
𝐱 = 𝐀𝐞𝐢𝛚𝐭 + 𝐁𝐞−𝐢𝛚𝐭
Where ‘A’ and ‘B’ are constants to be determined by initial conditions

MECHANICAL SIMPLE HARMONIC OSCILLATOR:

MASS SUSPENDED TO A SPRING (VERTICAL OSCILLATIONS)
[QUESTION: Derive the expression for period of oscillation for a mass spring oscillator]

For a light spiral spring within elastic limit, the tension of the spring is proportional to
the extension of the spring beyond its length, i.e it obeys Hook’s law

Figure shows a spring of length ‘L’ suspended freely from a support at the position ‘A’ if
a mass ‘m’ is attached to its free end ‘B’ then the spring stretches downward and it length
will increase say by 𝑙 = 𝐵𝐶.
According to Hook’s law, the force exerted by the spring on the mass is directly
proportional to its displacement
if ‘𝑙’ is the displacement then 𝐹𝛼𝑙
𝐹 = 𝑘𝑙
Where ‘k’ is called as proportionality constant which depends on the material, size of the
spring balance, the tension ‘T’ on the spring. ‘k’ is also called as spring constant or
stiffness factor or force constant.

Prepared by Dr. N.Sandhya Rani, Assoc. Prof. VVCE, Mysuru. Page 4

But W.K.T 𝐹 = 𝑚𝑔

Therefore the tension on the spring is equal to

𝑇 = 𝑚𝑔 = 𝑘𝑙 ------------------------- (1)
Now if the mass is further displaced to the position ‘D’ through a small distance ‘x’ then
the tension in the spring is 𝑇 ′ given by
𝑇 ′ = 𝑘 (𝑙 + 𝑥) ----------------------- (2)
Therefore the total force acting on the mass is given by
𝐹 = (𝑇 − 𝑇 ′ )
𝐹 = 𝑘𝑙 − 𝑘 (𝑙 + 𝑥)
𝐹 = −𝑘𝑥
The time period ‘T’ is given by
2𝜋
𝑇=
𝜔

𝑘
We know that ω= √
𝑚
2𝜋
Therefore 𝑇 =
𝑘
√
𝑚

𝑚
Or 𝑇 = 2𝜋 √
𝑘

From equation (1) we have 𝑚𝑔 = 𝑘𝑙

𝑚𝑔
Or 𝑘 =
𝑙
𝑚
Therefore 𝑇 = 2𝜋 √𝑚𝑔
𝑙

𝒍
𝑻 = 𝟐𝝅 √
𝒈
The time period of spring with large ‘k’ (i.e strong spring) will be less and is directly proportional
to mass suspended.

Prepared by Dr. N.Sandhya Rani, Assoc. Prof. VVCE, Mysuru. Page 5

 EXPRESSION FOR SPRING CONSTANT FOR SERIES COMBINATION
[QUESTION: Derive the expression for equivalent force constant for springs in a series
combination. What is the expression for period of its oscillation]

Consider a load ‘m’ suspended through two springs 𝑆1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑆2 with spring constants k1 and k2
in series combination. Both the springs experience same pull (i.e same force) by the mass ‘m’.
𝑆1 extends by 𝑥1 and 𝑆2 extends by 𝑥2 . Thus the mass m comes down showing a total
extension 𝑥 = 𝑥1 + 𝑥2

Therefore total extension is given by

𝐹
𝑥 = 𝑥1 + 𝑥2 {but W.T.T 𝐹 = − 𝑘𝑥 𝑜𝑟 𝑥 = − }
𝐾

𝐹 𝐹 𝐹
− = − −
𝑘 𝑘1 𝑘2

Mass ‘m’
If 𝐾𝑠 is the equivalent spring constant for the series
combination of the springs, then we have
↓
𝐹 𝐹 𝐹
F = mg − = −( + )
𝑘𝑠 𝑘1 𝑘2

𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
= +
𝒌𝒔 𝒌𝟏 𝒌𝟐
If there are multi spring connected in series then

𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
= + + + − − − −
𝒌𝒔 𝒌𝟏 𝒌𝟐 𝒌𝟐

If a mass ‘m’ is attached to the bottom of such a series combination of springs and set for
oscillations, then its period of oscillation is given by
𝒎
𝑻 = 𝟐𝝅 √𝒌
𝒔

Prepared by Dr. N.Sandhya Rani, Assoc. Prof. VVCE, Mysuru. Page 6

EXPRESSION OF SPRING CONSTANT FOR PARALLEL COMBINATION
[QUESTION: Derive the expression for equivalent force constant for springs in parallel
combination. What is the expression for period of its oscillation]

Consider a load suspended through two springs with spring

constants k1 and k2 in parallel combination.
If 𝐹𝑃 is restoring force shared by each spring then

Mass ‘m’ 𝐹𝑃 = 𝐹1 + 𝐹2 {but W.T.T 𝐹 = − 𝑘𝑥 }

−𝐾𝑃 𝑥 = − 𝑘1 𝑥 − 𝑘2 𝑥

If 𝐾𝑃 is the equivalent stiffness factor of the parallel combination of the springs, then we
have
−𝐾𝑃 𝑥 = − 𝑥 (𝑘1 − 𝑘2 )

𝑲𝑷 = 𝒌𝟏 + 𝒌𝟐
If there are multi spring connected in parallel then

𝑲𝑷 = 𝒌𝟏 + 𝒌𝟐 + 𝒌𝟑 + − − −

If a mass ‘m’ is attached to the bottom of such a parallel combination of springs and set
for oscillations, then its period of oscillation is given by
𝒎
𝑻 = 𝟐𝝅 √𝒌
𝑷

Prepared by Dr. N.Sandhya Rani, Assoc. Prof. VVCE, Mysuru. Page 7

 COMPLEX NOTATION
Complex numbers are a convenient tool to mathematically analyze sinusoidal
functions. It can be used to represent amplitude and phase of a periodically varying
function.

Imaginary
y
z

x Real

A complex number z has the form 𝒁 = 𝒙 + 𝒊𝒚

where i = √−1 which is termed as imaginary. Here x is said to be the real part and y is
imaginary.

POLAR COORDINATES:

Imaginary
𝒓
𝒓 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝜃
𝜃
Real
𝒓𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝜃

Polar coordinates are represented by ‘r’ and ‘𝜃’ where ‘r’ is the magnitude of ‘z’
Here 𝑍 = 𝑟 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 + 𝑖𝑟 sin 𝜃
𝑍 = 𝑟 (𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 + 𝑖 sin 𝜃)
From Eulers formula, we can write 𝑒 𝑖𝜃 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 + 𝑖 sin 𝜃)

Therefore 𝒁 = 𝒓𝒆𝒊𝜽

Phasors are Time Independent complex quantities used to represent periodically varying
parameters.
Ex: Alternating current is represented as 𝐼(𝑡) = 𝐼𝑒 𝑖𝜔𝑡
Alternating voltage is represented as 𝑉(𝑡) = 𝑉𝑒 𝑖𝜔𝑡
Here ‘I’ and ‘V’ are phasors
A periodic force is expressed in phasor form as
𝐹 = 𝐹0 𝐶𝑜𝑠 𝜔𝑡 here ‘F’ is phasor

Prepared by Dr. N.Sandhya Rani, Assoc. Prof. VVCE, Mysuru. Page 8

 FREE OSCILLATIONS

The oscillations are said to be free oscillations when there are no external forces. The
object oscillates with natural frequency. If there is no resistance offered to the motion of
the oscillations by any sources such as air, friction or internal forces, then the body keeps
on oscillating indefinitely and such oscillations are called free oscillations.

DAMPED OSCILLATIONS
In a damped harmonic oscillator, the amplitude decreases gradually, this is called as
damping. Damping may be due to friction or viscous force. Ex. A pendulum immersed in
liquid (water) exhibits damped oscillations.
EXPRESSION FOR THE PERIOD AND AMPLITUDE OF DAMPED
HARMONIC MOTION
[QUESTION : What are damped vibrations/oscillations? Give the theory of damped
vibrations/oscillations, and find the condition of heavy, critical and light damping]

Oscillating mass in a liquid.

The above figure shows a spring with attached mass at one end is immersed in water
medium. When a body oscillations in a medium, there are two forces acting on it
[1] The restoring force in opposite direction proportional to the displacement ‘x’
which tends to bring back the body to its initial positions and is given by
𝐹 ∝ −𝑥
𝐹 = − 𝑘𝑥 ----------------------------- (1)
Where ‘𝑘’ is proportionality constant or force constant/spring constant/stiffness factor.

[2] The resistive force proportional to the velocity but oppositely directed given by
𝐹 ∝ −𝑣
Prepared by Dr. N.Sandhya Rani, Assoc. Prof. VVCE, Mysuru. Page 9
 𝐹 = − 𝑟𝑣
𝑑𝑥
Or 𝐹 = −𝑟 ----------------------------- (2)
𝑑𝑡
Where ‘𝑟’ is resistive force per unit velocity and is called as damping
constant. Negative sign indicates that, the forces are acting opposite to the
direction of the particle motion.
Therefore the net force acting on the oscillating body is given by
𝐹 = 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 + 𝑟𝑒𝑡𝑎𝑟𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒
Therefore from equation (1) and (2)
𝑑𝑥
𝐹 = − 𝑘𝑥 − 𝑟
𝑑𝑡
But we have force = mass x acceleration
𝑑2 𝑥
𝐹= 𝑚
𝑑𝑡 2
‘m’ is the mass of the oscillating body
Therefore the equation of motion of the particle is given by
𝑑2 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑚 = −𝑘𝑥 − 𝑟
𝑑𝑡 2 𝑑𝑡
𝑑2 𝑥 𝑘 𝑟 𝑑𝑥
= − 𝑥−
𝑑𝑡 2 𝑚 𝑚 𝑑𝑡
𝑑2 𝑥 𝑟 𝑑𝑥 𝑘
Or + + 𝑥 =0
𝑑𝑡 2 𝑚 𝑑𝑡 𝑚
𝑑2 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
Or + 2𝑏 + 𝜔2 𝑥 = 0 ----------------------------- (3)
𝑑𝑡 2 𝑑𝑡
𝑟 𝑘
Where 2b = and 𝜔2 = . The quantity ‘2b’ gives the resistive force per unit
𝑚 𝑚
mass per unit velocity and ‘b’ is called as damping coefficient.
Equation (3) is known as the differential equation of damped vibration or damped simple
harmonic motions (SHM)

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Finding solutions for the above equation (3)
Let 𝑥 = 𝑒 𝛼𝑡 be a trial solution of the equation
Differentiating the above equation with respect to ‘t’
𝑑𝑥
= 𝑒 𝛼𝑡 𝛼 --------------------- (*)
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑥
Or = 𝛼𝑥 -------------- (4) {becaz 𝑥 = 𝑒 𝛼𝑡 }
𝑑𝑡
Differentiating equ (*) again w.r.t ‘t’
𝑑2𝑥
= 𝛼 (𝑒 𝛼𝑡 𝛼)
𝑑𝑡 2
𝑑2𝑥
2
= 𝛼 2 𝑒 𝛼𝑡
𝑑𝑡
𝑑2 𝑥
= 𝛼2 𝑥 -------- (5) {becaz 𝑥 = 𝑒 𝛼𝑡 }
𝑑𝑡 2
substituting equation (4) and (5) in equ (3)
We have 𝛼2 𝑥 + 2𝑏𝛼𝑥 + 𝜔2 𝑥 =0
Or (𝛼 2 + 2𝑏𝛼 + 𝜔2 ) = 0 ( because 𝑥 ≠ 0)
The standard solution for the above quadratic equation is given by
2
𝛼 = −𝑏 ± √𝑏 − 𝜔2
Thus the general solution of the equation (3) is given by
2 2
(−𝑏 +√𝑏 − 𝜔2 ) 𝑡 (−𝑏 −√𝑏 − 𝜔2 ) 𝑡
𝑥 = 𝐴1 𝑒 + 𝐴2 𝑒

−𝒃𝒕 (√𝒃𝟐 − 𝝎𝟐 ) 𝒕 (− √𝒃𝟐 − 𝝎𝟐 ) 𝒕

𝒙= 𝒆 [𝑨𝟏 𝒆 + 𝑨𝟐 𝒆 ] ------------------ (6)
Where 𝐴1 and 𝐴2 are two arbitrary constants to be determined.
Depending upon the relative values ‘𝑏 2 ’ and ‘𝜔2 ’ three different cases of damping
arises. They are as follows.
CASE 1: HEAVY DAMPING (OR) OVER DAMPING
Here 𝑏 2 > 𝜔2
This indicates the exponential decay of displacement with respect to time, i.e here the

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body after passing through its maximum displacement, simple comes back to equilibrium
position and rest there. It ceases to vibrate anymore. This type of motion is called as
heavy damped or over damped motion.
Ex: pendulum moving in a thick oil

CASE 2: CRITICAL DAMPING

Here 𝑏 2 = 𝜔2 , here the damping term effect is balanced by that of the stiffness term.
Here, the oscillations decreases slowly in the beginning and then rapidly to approach the
value of zero to attain the equilibrium position. such motion is called as critical damped
motion
Ex: Voltmeter, ammeter exhibits this type of motion in which pointer moves to correct
position and comes to rest without any oscillation.

1  heavy damped curve , 2  critical damped curve

CASE 3: LIGHT DAMPING (OR) UNDER DAMPING
Here 𝑏 2 < 𝜔2 , here the restoring force and resistive forces acting on the body are such
that, the body oscillates with diminishing amplitude as the time propagates and finally
comes to ta halt at the equilibrium position as shown in figure

Ex: Motion of pendulum in air, motion of the coil of ballistic galvanometer, electrical
oscillations of LCR circuit.

Prepared by Dr. N.Sandhya Rani, Assoc. Prof. VVCE, Mysuru. Page 12

QUALITY FACTOR (Q)
The amplitude of damped oscillatory motion decays with time because of the dissipation
of energy. Quality factor is defined as the ′2𝜋’ times the ratio of the energy of the
oscillator to the energy lost per cycle. Hence quality factor is given by
𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑦𝑔 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑜𝑠𝑐𝑖𝑙𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑟
𝑄 = 2𝜋
𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑡 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑜𝑑
𝐸
𝑄 = 2𝜋 ------------------------- (1)
𝑃𝑇
Where ‘P’ is power dissipated and ‘T’ is time period
𝐸
Here power dissipated is given by 𝑃= Where ‘𝜏’ is called as relaxation time
𝜏
𝐸
So equation (1) can be written as 𝑄 = 2𝜋 𝐸
𝑇
𝜏
2𝜋𝜏
𝑄=
𝑇
2𝜋
𝑸 = 𝝎𝝉 (because 𝜔 =
𝑇
)
It is clear that higher the value of ‘Q’ higher will be the relaxation time ‘ 𝜏’, i.e lower
damping.

FORCED OSCILLATIONS AND RESONANCE

When a body vibrates with a frequency other than its natural frequency under the action
of an external periodic force are called as forced oscillations.
Ex: Vibrations of a tuning fork when exposed to an external periodic force, vibrations of
a bridge under the influence of marching soldiers.
EXPRESSION FOR AMPLITUDE AND PHASE OF FORCED VIBRATIONS
[QUESTION : What are forced oscillations ? Obtain and expression for amplitude
and phase of the body undergoing forced vibrations]
When a body is forced to vibrate/oscillate by applying an external periodic force, the
forces acted upon it are given by
[1] The restoring force proportional to the displacement ‘x’ which tends to bring back

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 the body to its initial positions and is given by
𝐹 = − 𝑘𝑥 ----------------------------- (1)
Where ‘𝑘’ is proportionality constant or force constant/spring constant/stiffness factor.
[2] The retarding force or resistive force proportional to the velocity but oppositely
directed given by
𝐹 = − 𝑟𝑣
𝑑𝑥
Or 𝐹 = −𝑟 ----------------------------- (2)
𝑑𝑡
Where ‘𝑟’ is resistive force per unit velocity and is called as damping
constant. Negative sign indicates that, the forces are acting opposite to the
direction of the particle motion.
[3] External periodic force acting on the body is given by
𝐹 𝑠𝑖𝑛 (𝑝𝑡) ----------------------------- (3)
Where ‘p’ is the angular frequency of the external periodic force.
Therefore the net force acting on the vibrating body is given by
𝑭 = 𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒕𝒐𝒓𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒄𝒆 + 𝒓𝒆𝒕𝒂𝒓𝒅𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒄𝒆 + 𝒆𝒙𝒕𝒆𝒓𝒏𝒂𝒍 𝒑𝒆𝒓𝒊𝒐𝒅𝒊𝒄 𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒄𝒆

Therefore from equation (1) and (2) and (3) we have

𝑑𝑥
𝐹 = − 𝑘𝑥 − 𝑟 + 𝐹 𝑠𝑖𝑛 (𝑝𝑡) ---------------- (*)
𝑑𝑡
But we have force = mass x acceleration
𝑑2 𝑥
𝐹= 𝑚
𝑑𝑡 2
‘m’ is the mass of the oscillating body
Therefore the equation (*) of motion of the body is given by
𝑑2 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑚 = − 𝑘𝑥 − 𝑟 + 𝐹 𝑠𝑖𝑛 (𝑝𝑡)
𝑑𝑡 2 𝑑𝑡
𝑑2 𝑥 𝑟 𝑑𝑥 𝑘 𝐹
Or + + 𝑥 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛 (𝑝𝑡)
𝑑𝑡 2 𝑚 𝑑𝑡 𝑚 𝑚
𝑑2 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝐹
+ 2𝑏 + 𝜔2 𝑥 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛 (𝑝𝑡) ------------------ (4)
𝑑𝑡 2 𝑑𝑡 𝑚

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 𝑟 𝑘
Where = 2b and = 𝜔2
𝑚 𝑚
The solution for the above differential equation (4) can be written as
𝑥 = 𝑎 sin (𝑝𝑡 − 𝛼) ------------------ (5)
Here ‘a’ and ‘𝛼’ are unknowns to be found
Differentiating the above equation (5) with respect to ‘t’ we have
𝑑𝑥
= 𝑎𝑝 cos (𝑝𝑡 − 𝛼) ------------------ (6)
𝑑𝑡
Differentiating again we get
𝑑2 𝑥
𝑑𝑡 2
= 𝑎𝑝 [− sin (𝑝𝑡 − 𝛼) . 𝑝]
𝑑2 𝑥
= −𝑎 𝑝2 sin (𝑝𝑡 − 𝛼) ------------------ (7)
𝑑𝑡 2
Substituting equation (5), (6) and (7) in equation (4), we get
𝐹
−𝑎 𝑝2 sin(𝑝𝑡 − 𝛼) + 2𝑏𝑎𝑝 cos(𝑝𝑡 − 𝛼) + 𝜔2 𝑎 sin(𝑝𝑡 − 𝛼) = 𝑠𝑖𝑛 (𝑝𝑡)
𝑚
𝐹
−𝑎 𝑝2 sin(𝑝𝑡 − 𝛼) + 2𝑏𝑎𝑝 cos(𝑝𝑡 − 𝛼) + 𝜔2 𝑎 sin(𝑝𝑡 − 𝛼) = 𝑠𝑖𝑛 [(𝑝𝑡 − 𝛼) + 𝛼]
𝑚
{Here 𝒔𝒊𝒏 [(𝒑𝒕 − 𝜶) + 𝜶] cab be considered as sin (A+B) = sinA cosB + cosA sinB}
𝐹
−𝑎 𝑝2 sin(𝑝𝑡 − 𝛼) + 𝜔2 𝑎 sin(𝑝𝑡 − 𝛼) + 2𝑏𝑎𝑝 cos(𝑝𝑡 − 𝛼) = [𝑠𝑖𝑛 (𝑝𝑡 −
𝑚
𝛼) cos 𝛼 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠 (𝑝𝑡 − 𝛼) sin 𝛼]
𝐹
−𝑎 𝑝2 sin(𝑝𝑡 − 𝛼) + 𝜔2 𝑎 sin(𝑝𝑡 − 𝛼) + 2𝑏𝑎𝑝 cos(𝑝𝑡 − 𝛼) =( ) 𝑠𝑖𝑛 (𝑝𝑡 −
𝑚
𝐹
𝛼) cos 𝛼 + ( ) 𝑐𝑜𝑠 (𝑝𝑡 − 𝛼) sin 𝛼
𝑚
By equating coefficients of 𝑠𝑖𝑛 (𝑝𝑡 − 𝛼) on both sides of the equation, we get,
𝐹
−𝑎 𝑝2 + 𝜔2 𝑎 = cos 𝛼
𝑚
𝐹
Or 𝜔 2 𝑎 − 𝑎 𝑝2 = cos 𝛼
𝑚
𝐹
𝑎 (𝜔2 − 𝑝2 ) = cos 𝛼 ------------------ (8)
𝑚
Similarly by equating coefficients of 𝑐𝑜𝑠 (𝑝𝑡 − 𝛼) on both sides of the equation, we get,
𝐹
2𝑏𝑎𝑝 = sin 𝛼 ------------------ (9)
𝑚

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TO DETERMINE AMPLITUDE OF FORCED VIBRATIONS
Squaring and adding equation (8) and (9)
We get
2 2 2
𝐹 2
[𝑎 (𝜔 − 𝑝 )] + (2𝑏𝑎𝑝)2 = ( ) + [𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝛼 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝛼]
𝑚
𝐹 2
𝑎2 [(𝜔2 − 𝑝2 )2 + 4𝑏 2 𝑝2 ] = (𝑚 ) {𝒃𝒆𝒄𝒂𝒛 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝟐 𝜶 + 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝟐 𝜶 = 1}

𝑭
( )
𝒎
𝒂 = ------------------ (10)
√[(𝝎𝟐 − 𝒑𝟐 )𝟐 +𝟒𝒃𝟐 𝒑𝟐 ]
The above equation represents the amplitude of forced vibrations
Substituting equation (10) in eq. (5), we have
𝐹
(𝑚 )
𝑥= sin (𝑝𝑡 − 𝛼)
√[(𝜔 2 − 𝑝2 )2 + 4𝑏 2 𝑝2 ]
TO DETERMINE PHASE OF FORCED VIBRATIONS
Dividing equation (9) by (8), we get
𝐹
sin 𝛼 2𝑏𝑎𝑝
𝑚
𝐹 = 𝑎 (𝜔2 − 𝑝2 )
cos 𝛼
𝑚
𝟐𝒃𝒑
𝐭𝐚𝐧 𝜶 = ------------------ (11)
(𝝎𝟐 − 𝒑𝟐 )
The above equation represents the phase of forced vibrations

DEPENDENCE OF AMPLITUDE AND PHASE ON THE FREQUENCY OF THE

APPLIED FORCE
[QUESTION: Discuss the dependence of amplitude and phase of a forced vibrations on the
frequency of the applied external force]
Here 𝑝 is the frequency of the oscillating body due to applied external force. As 𝑝 can be
varied, we can have three different cases
Case 1: 𝒑 ≪ 𝝎
Therefore 𝜔2 − 𝑝2 ≈ 𝜔2 and as 𝑝2 is very small √4𝑏 2 𝑝2 ≈ 2𝑏𝑝 ≈ 0

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Therefore amplitude from equation (10) becomes
𝑭⁄
𝒎
𝒂=
𝝎𝟐
For 𝑷 ≪ 𝝎 , 𝜶 = 𝟎
Since 𝛼 = 0 displacement and force will be in same phase
Case 2: 𝒑 = 𝝎
Therefore 𝜔2 = 𝑝2
Therefore amplitude from equation (10) becomes
𝐹
(𝑚 )
𝑎 =
√4𝑏 2 𝑝2
𝑭
(𝒎)
Or 𝒂 =
𝟐𝒃𝒑
𝝅 𝜋
For 𝒑 = 𝝎 , Phase 𝜶 = This indicates that, the displacement ha a phase lag of
𝟐 2

with respect to the phase of the applied force.

Case 3: 𝒑 ≫ 𝝎
Therefore (𝜔2 − 𝑝2 )2 ≈ (𝑝2 )2
Therefore amplitude from equation (10) becomes
𝐹
(𝑚 )
𝑎 =
√4𝑏 2 𝑝2 + [( 𝑝2 )2 ]
Here as 𝑝 keeps increasing, the damping factor b becomes very small
Therefore 4𝑏 2 𝑝2 ≪ 𝑝4
Therefore amplitude becomes
𝐹
(𝑚 )
𝑎 =
√𝑝4
𝐹
(𝑚 )
𝑎 =
𝑝2

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Here the phase 𝛼 = −𝜋, Here as 𝑝 becomes larger, the displacement develops a
phase lag that approaches the value of 𝜋 with respect to the phase of the applied force.

RESONANCE
[QUESTION: Define resonance with few examples ? discuss the condition for
resonance and hence write a short note on significance /sharpness of resonance ]
The phenomenon of making a body oscillate with its natural frequency under the
influence of the external frequency of the periodic force is called as resonance.
Examples of resonance :
 Tuning of musical instruments
 Helmholtz resonator
 The vibrations caused by an exited tuning fork in an another identical tuning fork.
 Tuning of a radio transistor
The frequency at which the amplitude of the forced oscillations becomes maximum is
the condition for resonance.
For forced vibrations, we know that the amplitude is given by
𝐹
(𝑚)
𝑎 =
√[(𝜔 2 − 𝑝2 )2 + 4𝑏 2 𝑝2 ]

At resonance 𝒑 = 𝝎
Therefore 𝜔2 − 𝑝2 = 0
Therefore amplitude from equation (10) becomes
𝐹
(𝑚 )
𝑎𝑚𝑎𝑥 =
√4𝑏2 𝑝2
𝑭
( )
𝒎
Or 𝑎𝑚𝑎𝑥 =
𝟐𝒃𝒑
Therefore the sharpness of resonance depends inversely on ‘ 𝒃’ where ‘𝒃’ is the damping
factor.

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 Significance and effect of damping on the amplitude of forced oscillations
Figure shows the response of the amplitude to the changes in damping. Here we can note
that the curves are flat for larger values of b ( i.e b=3, b=2) and hence resonance is also
flat. The curves for smaller values of b (i.e at b = 1) exhibits the pronounced and a sharp
peak hence it is referred as sharp resonance. But the curve which is in dotted line shows
that the value of amplitude is infinity at b =0, which is a special case which never exits in
reality.

Sharpness of resonance
𝑷=𝝎

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 HELMHOLTZ RESONATOR (EXAMPLE OF MECHANICAL RESONANCE)
[QUESTION: Write a short note on Helmholtz resonator]

Helmholtz resonator is a cavity in which, a stream of air is set to vibrate by flowing in

and out of it through an entry point at ‘A’. It is used to analyse the quality of musical
notes. It is a hollow cavity with two narrow opened ends at the point ‘A’ and ‘’B. The
end ‘B’ is held near the ear with end ‘A’ open for the entry of the air carrying musical
note. The air streams in and out of ‘A’ vibrates through ‘A’. The air enclosed in such a
hollow cavity will have definite value for its natural frequency ‘𝜔’. When the frequency
of the incoming air is same as the frequency of the air inside the cavity, amplitude
becomes maximum and the sound is heard, thus the resonating cavity resonates for the
note of that particular frequency.
It can be shown that, the square of the natural frequency of oscillation is inversely
proportional to the volume of the resonating cavity ‘V’
1
i.e 𝜔2 ∝
𝑉
𝐾
𝜔2 =
𝑉
Where ‘K’ is proportionality constant

𝝎𝟐 𝑽 = 𝑲

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 SHOCK WAVES
[QUESTION: Define mach number and distinguish between acoustic, ultrasonic,
subsonic and supersonic waves]

Mach Number : it is defined as the ratio of the speed of the object to the speed of sound
in the given medium
𝑺𝒑𝒆𝒆𝒅 𝒐𝒇 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒐𝒃𝒋𝒆𝒄𝒕
Mach Number =
𝑺𝒑𝒆𝒆𝒅 𝒐𝒇 𝒔𝒐𝒖𝒏𝒅 𝒊𝒏 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒎𝒆𝒅𝒊𝒖𝒎
𝒗
Mach Number =
𝒂

DISTINCTION BETWEEN
Acoustic, ultrasonic, subsonic, transonic, supersonic and hypersonic waves
Acoustic waves: They are simply sound waves move with a speed of 333 m/s,
frequency within 20 KHz and have small amplitude

Ultrasonic Waves : They are pressure waves moves with the velocity of sound, but their
frequency is > 20 KHz.
Subsonic waves : (Mechanical waves) For a moving object, if its speed is less than the
speed of sound, then they have subsonic waves.
All subsonic waves have Mach Number < 1
Egs : Almost all vehicles like motor cars, trains, flights, flying birds moves with subsonic
speeds

As shown in figure, for a body moving with subsonic speed, the sound emitted by it
moves ahead of the body as it is faster than the body.

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 Supersonic Shock Waves : For a moving object, if its speed is greater than the speed of
the sound, then they are called as supersonic shock waves. Amplitude of supersonic
waves is high and it affects the medium in which it is travelling
The Mach Number for such objects is > 1
As shown in the figure, when the body moves with supersonic speed it moves ahead of
its own sound waves as travels faster than sound waves.
Egs : fighter planes fly with the speed of supersonic waves

Transonic waves : Here the speed range of the body overlaps on the subsonic and
supersonic ranges. Therefore the transonic range for speeds 0.8 < M <1.2, hence there
will be overlapping of some of the characteristics of both the subsonic and supersonic
speeds.
Hypersonic waves : a special class of waves called hypersonic waves, they travel with
the speeds for which mach number > 5. An hypersonic flow is accompanied by a shock
layer in its front. Here also there is overlapping area between supersonic and hypersonic
flow.

DESCRIPTION OF A SHOCK WAVE AND ITS PROPERTIES

[QUESTION: what are shock waves, mention few properties of a shock wave]
Any object that propagates at supersonic speeds, it gives rise to a shock wave.
 Shock waves can be produced by a sudden dissipation of mechanical energy in a
small space.
 Shock waves are characterized by sudden increase in pressure, temperature and
density of the gas through which it propagates.
 In nature shock waves are produced during earth quakes and when lighting strikes
Prepared by Dr. N.Sandhya Rani, Assoc. Prof. VVCE, Mysuru. Page 22
  Strong shock waves posses higher values of mach number Egs : Nuclear Explosion
 Weak shock waves possess low values of mach number Egs : Busting of an
automobile tyre.
 They always travel in the medium with mach number exceeding 1.
 Shock waves obey the laws of fluid dynamics.
 They increase the entropy of the medium they travel

CONTROL VOLUME
[QUESTION: Explain control volume]

Shock waves are analyzed with a model called control volume. It is the one dimensional
confinement in the medium with two surfaces. One on the pre-shock side and the other
one on the post- shock side. Their inter separation is very small. On the pre shock side
density, flow velocity , internal energy, temperature, specific enthalpy and pressure are
respectively 𝜌1 , 𝑈1 , 𝑇1 , ℎ1 and 𝑃1 and on the post – shock side they are 𝜌2 , 𝑈2 , 𝑇2 , ℎ2
and 𝑃2 respectively.
It is assumed that, within this volume, the heat energy is constant. The equations of mass,
momentum and energy are the governing equations for the control volume.

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 BASIC CONSERVATIONAL LAWS OF MASS, MOMENTUM AND ENERGY
[QUESTION : Explain the conservational laws of mass, momentum and energy of a
shock wave]
Law of conservation of mass : it states that “ the total mass of any isolated system
remains unchanged and is independent of any chemical or physical changes that could
occur within the system”
The law of conservation of mass is given by

𝝆𝟏 𝑼𝟏 = 𝝆𝟐 𝑼𝟐

Where 𝝆𝟏 and 𝝆𝟐 are the initial and final values of density 𝑈1 and 𝑈2 are the velocities
before and after the creation of shock wave

Law of conservation of momentum : “ It states that, when two objects collide in an

isolated system, the total momentum of the two object before collision = total momentum
of the two objects after collision”

The law of conservation of momentum is given by

𝑷𝟏 + 𝝆𝟏 𝑼𝟐𝟏 = 𝑷𝟐 + 𝝆𝟐 𝑼𝟐𝟐

Where 𝑷𝟏 and 𝑷𝟐 are the pressure before and after the creation of shock wave in shock
tube.

Law of conservation of energy : “It states that, the total energy of a closed system
remains constant and is independent of any changes occurring within the system”

The law of conservation of energy is given by

𝑼𝟐𝟏 𝑼𝟐𝟐
𝒉𝟏 + = 𝒉𝟐 +
𝟐 𝟐
Where 𝒉𝟏 and 𝒉𝟐 are the heat of enthalpy before and after the creation of shock wave in
shock tube

Prepared by Dr. N.Sandhya Rani, Assoc. Prof. VVCE, Mysuru. Page 24

 REDDY SHOCK TUBE EXPERIMENT
[QUESTION: Explain the construction and working of Reddy shock tube
experiment]

CRO

Reddy shock tube consists of a cylindrical stainless steel tube of about 30mm diameter
and of length 1m. The tube is divided into two sections each of length 50cm.one is called
as driver tube and the other one is called as driven tube. These two tubes are separated by
a 0.1mm thick diaphragm ( the diaphragm may be Aluminium or paper). The Reddy tube
has a piston fitted to the driver section whereas the driven section end is closed. A digital
pressure guage is mounted in the driver section. Two piezoelectric sensors 𝑆1 and 𝑆2 are
mounted 70mm apart towards the closed end of the shock tube. The driver section is
filled with a gas (helium gas) at relatively high pressure due to the compressing action of
the piston. Similarly driven section is filled with Argon gas.
WORKING : When the piston is pushed hard into the driver tube, the driver gas
compresses and the diaphragm ruptures and the driver gas (helium) rushes into the driven
section and pushes the driven gas (Argon) towards the downstream end. This action
generates a shock wave that travels through the length of the driven section. The shock
wave instantly raises the temperature and pressure of the driven gas. This propagating
shock wave gets reflected from the downstream end. After reflection, the driven gas
further undergoes compression boosting its temperature and pressure to still higher
values. The pressure raise caused by primary shock wave and also the reflected shock
wave are sensed as signals by the sensors 𝑆1 and 𝑆2 respectively. These signals are
recorded in a digital cathode ray oscilloscope (CRO). From these recording of the CRO,

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the shock arrival times are found out by the associated time base calculations. Using this
data, mach number, pressure and temperature can be calculated.

APPLICATIONS OF SHOCK WAVES

[QUESTION : Explain the applications of shock waves]
1] Cell information: DNA can be pushed inside the cell by passing a shock wave of
appropriate strength. Also the functionality of DNA will not be affected by the impact of
the shock wave.
2] Wood preservation: By using shock waves, chemical preservatives in the form of
solutions could be pushed into the interiors of the wood samples such as bamboo. This
process of introducing preservatives into the wood is much faster and more efficient, also
saves wood from microbiological decaying.
3] Use in pencil industry: while manufacturing pencils, the wood is softened by soaking
in the polymer at 700 C for about three hours and takes days for wood to dry. But in
modern process, using shock waves the wood is placed in the liquid and a shock wave is
sent through. The liquid gets into the wood almost instantaneously and don’t required
long time for drying. This shock wave treated wood is ready to use for further process
without any delay.
4] Kidney stone treatment: Shock waves are used to shatter the kidney stones into
smaller fragments after which, they are passed out of the body smoothly through urinary
tracts.
5] Shock waves assisted needleless drug delivery: by using shock waves, drugs can be
injected into the body without using needles. The drug is filled inside the cartridge which
is kept pressed on the skin and then a shock wave is sent into the using high pressure. The
drug enters the body through the pores of the skin. In this process, the patient doesn’t
experience any pain.
6] Treatment of dry borewells: A shock wave sent through the dry borewell clears the
blockages and rejuvenates the borewell into a water source.

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 MODULE – 1
Important Questions
WAVES AND OSCILLATIONS
1 Define simple harmonic oscillations . Derive the expression for differential
equation for SHM and mention its solution
2 What is the expression for period of oscillation for a mass spring oscillator?
Derive the expression for equivalent force constant for springs in series and
parallel combination. mention the expression for period of its oscillation
3 What are damped vibrations/oscillations? Give the theory of damped
vibrations/oscillations, and find the condition of heavy, critical and light damping
4 What are forced oscillations ? Obtain an expression for amplitude and phase of
the body undergoing forced vibrations.
5 Discuss the dependence of amplitude and phase of a forced vibrations on the
frequency of the applied external force
6 Define sharpness of resonance . Write a short note on Helmholtz resonator
Practice all worked out problems from the Basavraju text book

SHOCK WAVES

1 Define mach number and distinguish between acoustic, ultrasonic, subsonic and
supersonic waves
2 Explain the conservational laws of mass, momentum and energy
3 Explain the construction and working of Reddy shock tube experiment]
4 Explain the applications of shock waves
Practice all worked out problems from the Basavraju text book

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 22PHYM12/22

Module 2:
ELASTIC PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS

Elasticity: It is that property of materials by virtue of which it completely regains its original
shape & size after the removal of deforming force.

Stress and Strain:

Stress: The stress is given by the ratio of the applied force to the area of its application

Strain: The deformation produced by the external force, accompanies a change in

dimensions. ‘The ratio of the change in dimensions to original dimensions is called strain.’

TYPES OF STRESS AND STAIN.

a) Tensile stress or linear stress or longitudinal stress: It is the stretching force acting
per unit area of the body along its length.

𝒄𝒉𝒂𝒏𝒈𝒆 𝒊𝒏 𝒍𝒆𝒏𝒈𝒕𝒉 𝒙
𝒍𝒐𝒏𝒈𝒊𝒕𝒖𝒅𝒊𝒏𝒂𝒍 𝒔𝒕𝒓𝒂𝒊𝒏 = =
𝒐𝒓𝒊𝒈𝒊𝒏𝒂𝒍 𝒍𝒆𝒏𝒈𝒕𝒉 𝑳

Compressive stress or Volume stress (Pressure):

It is the uniform pressure (Force per unit area) acting normally all
over the body. When the Deforming force is applied normally and
uniformly to the entire surface of a body' it produces a volume strain
(without changing its shape in case of solid bodies). The applied
force per unit area gives normal stress or pressure. If F is the force
applied uniformly and normally on a surface area.

Compressive stress or pressure = F/ A

If a uniform force is applied all over the surface of a body (which is having a suitable shape
for such an application) the body (Fig. 2) undergoes a change in its volume (however, the
shape is retained in case of solid bodies). If v is the change in volume and V is the original
volume of the body then.
Change in volume
Volume strain = original volume

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 22PHYM12/22

Stress-Strain Diagram:

OA=Proportionality Range.
A=Proportionality Limit.
B=Yield Point.
C=Plastic Limit.
D = Ultimate Strength.
E= Fracture Point.

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 22PHYM12/22

From stress and strain fig.

 We can see that in the region between ‘O’ and ‘A’, the curve is linear. Hence,
Hooke’s Law obeys in this region. In the region from ‘A’ to ‘B’, the stress and strain
are not proportional. However, if we remove the load, the body returns to its original
dimension.
 The point ‘B’ in the curve is the Yield Point or the elastic limit, and the corresponding
stress is the Yield Strength (Sy) of the material.
 Further, stress is increased, exceeding the Yield Strength the strain increases rapidly
even for a small change in the stress. This is shown in the region from ‘B’ to ‘D’ in
the curve.
 If the load is removed at, say a point ‘C’ between ‘B’ and ‘D,’ the body does not
regain its original dimension. Hence, even when the stress is zero, the strain is not
zero, and the deformation is called plastic deformation. This is a permanent set.
 Further, the point ‘D’ is the ultimate tensile strength (Su) of the material. Hence, if
any additional strain is produced beyond this point, a fracture can occur (point ‘E’).
 If, he ultimate strength and fracture points are close to each other (points ‘D’ and
‘E’), then the material is brittle.
 The ultimate strength and fracture points are far apart (points ‘D’ and ‘E’), then the
material is ductile.
STRAIN HARDENING STRAIN SOFTENING
Strain Hardening: Strain or stress hardening is the strengthening of a metal by applying
the compressive pressure till its plastic deformation. Which results the material become
stronger by increase its yield point this effect are is strain or stress hardening. It is an
important industrial process that is used to harden metals or alloys which do not respond to
heat treatment. It is also 'work hardening or cold working.
Strain softening
Cretan material subjected to compressive stress whose yield strength is reduced upon stress
strain softening Soil, concrete usually shows this behaviour.

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 22PHYM12/22

Longitudinal strain coefficient (α): it is defined as a longitudinal strain produced per unit
stress
Longitudinal strain=𝑥/𝐿
Unit Stress (T) the order of stress required to produce unit stress (𝑥/𝐿)

Lateral deformation and lateral strain:

Whenever the elastic body subjected to the longitudinal stress, the deformation not only that
takes place in terms of its length (longitudinal strain) but also thickness will also experiences
change called lateral deformation. The deformation of the body perpendicular to the direction
of force called lateral strain.
𝐶ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑑
Lateral strain = =
original diameter 𝐷

The theoretical limit of Poisson’s ratio lies between −1 to 0.5 because. A. shear modulus and
bulk's modulus should be positive.

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Beams:
Beams are the structural element that primarily resists loads applied laterally to the beam's
axis.
Neutral plane:
The neutral plane is the surface within the beam between these zones, where the material of
the beam is not under stress, either compression or tension. Any line within the neutral plane
parallel to the axis of the beam is called the deflection curve of the beam. Above and below
the neutral axis the material experiences elongation and compression
Types of Beams
(a) Cantilever: A cantilever beam is fixed at one end and free at another end. It can be seen
in the image Fixed.

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(b) Simply supported: A supported beam is a type of beam that has pinned support at one
end and roller support at the other end.
Depending on the load applied, it
undergoes shearing and bending. It is
one of the simplest structural elements
in existence.
(c) Overhanging: it is the type of beam
some part of its length extended after
the pin support
(d) Continuous Simple beam: A
continuous beam has more than two
supports distributed throughout its
length. It can be seen in the image
(e) Fixed ended beams: As the name suggests, a fixed beam is a type of beam whose both
ends are fixed.
Applications
1. Construction of buildings, bridges.
2. Designing of Vehicle chassis frames of trucks. Etc.,
Bending moment of Beam
Consider a uniform beam made up of large number of parallel equidistant planes above and
below the neutral axis after the bending it forms the arcs of a circle with radius of curvature
'R' above the neutral planes an elongation strain and below compressive strain acted.

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Where: b =breadth, d=thickness, R =bending radius of curvature, Y =young’s modulus,

r=radius of circular beam

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CANTILEVER: A cantilever is a rigid structural element that extends horizontally and is

supported at only one end. Typically it extends from a flat vertical surface such as a wall, to
which it must be firmly attached.

A good example of a cantilever beam is a balcony. A balcony is supported on one end only,
the rest of the beam extends over open space; there is nothing supporting it on the other side.
The cantilever beam is used in;
1. In Buildings.
2. Cantilever bridges.
3. Overhanging projections and elements.
4. Balconies such as in Frank Lloyd Wright’s Falling Water.
5. Machinery and plants such as cranes.
6. Overhanging roofs like shelters and stadium roofs.
7. Shelving and Furniture.
I -Section girder and their Engineering Applications
I section beam it is suitable for resisting flexural stresses. As more area is away from neutral
axis compared to rectangular or circular section (flanges),
its moment of inertia (MOI) increases as we write
MOI=Ar2
As moment of inertia increases, moment resisting capacity
also increases which makes I section better as compared to
other cross section.
This is better option for designer to save material. So to
sum up I section is better than other section as it has more
flexural strength for same area of other section and it is an
economical section also.

Applications:
 A plate girder is a steel beam that is widely used in bridge construction. Girder is
required to carry heavy loads on relatively long spans
 It is a built up I-beam section, used to carry heavy loads which cannot be carried
economically by rolled I-sections. It is made by welding the steel plates in I-beam
shape.
 Primarily used in bridges, plate girder is used when we need deeper sections having
higher stiffness to carry heavy loads.
 I-section beams are especially important in civil constructions as they substitute for
numerous support structures which obviously help in saving both time and money.

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 The bridge in which girders are used for supporting its deck is called the girder
bridge.
Elastic Materials: Thus elasticity is defined as; it is that property of a body which it regains
its original shape and size when the deforming force is removed.
For example: nylon, latex, rubber, polyester. This behaviour is governed by Hooke's Law,
which understands the relationship between stress and strain under a Modulus of Elasticity.
Elastic materials can be natural, semi-synthetic or synthetic, depending on their degree of
elaboration through the hand of man.
There are no bodies in nature which are perfectly elastic. However, there is a material formed
by adding 0.5% of phosphor to bronze to increase its stiffness and wear resistance. This alloy
is called phosphor – bronze. It comes very close to the definition of a perfectly elastic body.
Also, it is possible to make filaments of quartz by exposing quartz in the form of rods to
oxyhydrogen flame. These quartz fibers can also be considered under a perfectly elastic body.
However in our common use, those which are well known as elastic materials are the
elastomers.
Elastomers are the polymers with high elastic nature. Natural rubber, synthetic rubber,
silicone rubber etc are all elastomers. They can be extended many more times their original
size. After releasing from the stretching force, they manage to return to a size almost the
same as the original size (though, over number cycles, they gradually lose this ability). Yet
against the common sense, technically, Rubber is considered less elastic than steel. It is
because, steel returns very quickly to its original form whereas, rubber takes considerably
longer time for reinstatement. On this account, steel scores over rubber as more elastic.
Fundamentals of fracture
Fracture:
Fatigue is the mechanical failure of the material due to the permanent cracks or breakage.
This may be due to the overstress applied to the body exceeding to its ultimate strength.
Ductile and brittle fracture:
1. Brittle fracture:
Brittle fracture is the sudden and rapid metal failure in which the material shows little or
no plastic strain. This is characterized by quick failure without any warning. The
generated cracks propagate rapidly and the material collapses all of a sudden. Brittle
Fracture is a condition that occurs when a material is subjected to temperatures that make
it less elastic, and therefore more brittle. The potential for material to become brittle
depends on the type of material that is subjected to these low temperatures. Some
materials, such as carbon and low alloy steels will become brittle at low temperatures and
therefore susceptible to damage ranging from cracking to shattering or disintegration of
equipment. When a material becomes brittle, the consequences can be very serious. If the
brittle material is subjected to an impact or an equivalent shock (ex. rapid pressurization)
the combination could potentially lead to a disastrous failure under certain conditions.
2. Ductile fracture:
Ductile fracture is the material failure that exhibits substantial plastic deformation prior to
fracture. The ductile fracture process is slow and gives enough warnings before final
separation. Normally, a large amount of the plastic flow is concentrated near the fracture

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faces. Ductile fracture occurs over a period of time and normally occurs after yield stress,
where as brittle fracture is fast and can occur at lower stress levels than a ductile fracture.
That is why Ductile fracture is considered better than brittle fracture.
Fatigue failure:
Fatigue failure is when the surface of a material begins to crack or fracture, causing the part
to weaken; it is due to cyclic load. Typically, the first stage of fatigue failure is crack
initiation. Crack initiation occurs once applied stress exceeds tensile strength. The next stage
that occurs is crack growth.
Factors affecting fatigue
 Effect of stress concentration.
Stress concentration (also called a stress raiser or a stress riser) is a location in an
object where the stress is significantly greater than the surrounding region. Stress
concentrations occur when there are irregularities in the geometry or material of a
structural component that cause an interruption to the flow of stress. This arises from
such details as holes, grooves, notches and fillets. Stress concentrations may also
occur from accidental damage such as nicks and scratches.
 The influence of size factor:
Due to the inhomogeneity of the material structure and the existence of internal
defects, the increase of the size will increase the failure probability of the material,
thus reducing the fatigue limit of the material.
 Influence of surface processing state: There are always uneven machining marks on
the machined surface, which are equivalent to tiny gaps, causing stress concentration
on the material surface, thus reducing the fatigue strength of the material.
 The impact of loading experience: The overload damage means that the fatigue limit
of the material will decrease after the material runs for a certain number of cycles
under the load higher than the fatigue limit.
 Influence of chemical composition: The internal factors include the composition,
microstructure, purity and residual stress of the material.
 Effect of heat treatment on Microstructure: Although the same static strength can
be obtained for materials of the same composition due to different heat treatments, the
fatigue strength can vary in a considerable range due to different microstructures.
 Influence of inclusions: The inclusion itself or the hole produced by it is equivalent
to a tiny notch, which will produce stress concentration and strain concentration under
the action of alternating load, and become the crack source of fatigue fracture, which
has adverse effect on the fatigue performance of materials. The influence of
inclusions on fatigue strength depends not only on the type, nature, shape, size,
quantity and distribution of inclusions, but also on the strength level of materials and
the level and state of applied stress.

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22PHYM12/22: MODULE 3-Thermoelectric materials and

devices
When two dissimilar metals are joined at their ends to form two junctions and if these
two junctions are maintained at two different temperatures a current is found to flow in the
closed circuit and hence emf is produced. The emf is called as thermo emf and current is
known as thermo current. Thermo emf is an electromotive force which is generated due to the
thermal gradient.
In figure we have 2 thermally and electrically
conducting Copper and Ironwires. The 2 wires
are attached terminal to terminal to become a
closed circuit. A galvanometer is attached to the
circuit to detect any current flow through the
circuit. A junction P is hot terminal where the
temperature is comparatively higher as compared
to the cold terminal which is Q. We know that
electronsflow from a denser electron metal to a lower electron denser metal, thus creating a
gradient. So, if temperature of the junction is maintained at 2 different values, electron
diffusion happens, which generates larger potential at the hotter junction when compare to the
colder junction. This variation in potential creates a flow of current, which is detected by the
galvanometer. The existence of current flow indicates that an emf exists in the circuit.

Seebeck effect:
Definition: The production of electromotive force (emf) and hence current by maintaining the
junctions of two dissimilar metals at different temperatures is called Seebeck effect.
In 1821 Thomas Johann Seebeck discovered this phenomenon. The emf is known as
thermoelectric emf. The thermoelectric emf causes a continuous current in the conductors, if
they form a complete loop and the current is known as thermo electric current. The voltage
(thermo electric emf) created is of the order of several micro volts per kelvin difference.

The thermo electric emf will exist and the current will flow in the circuit as long as the 2
junctions, known as the “hot” junction and “cold” junction, are at different temperatures.
Thus, the Seebeck effect is the conversion of temperature differences directly into electricity.
The magnitude and direction of thermoelectric current depends on the types of metals used
and the temperature between the hot and cold ends. It does not depend on the temperature
distribution along the conductors.

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The voltage developed in the circuit, is proportional to the temperature difference between the
2 junctions.
𝑉 = 𝛼(𝑇2 − 𝑇1 ) Where 𝛼 = 𝛼𝐵 − 𝛼𝐴
𝛼𝐴 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝛼𝐵 are known as the Seebeck coefficients of the metals A and B,
and T1 and T2 are the temperatures of the two junctions.
Seebeck effect is observed not only in metals but as well in semiconductors also. It is not
necessarily a junction phenomenon, but arises in a single conductor also. If temperature
gradient (difference) is caused in conductor, electrons diffuse from the hot side to the cold
side. Electrons migrating to the cold side leave behind their oppositely charge and immobile
nuclei on the hot side and thus give rise to a thermoelectric voltage.

Seeback coefficient:
Seebeck coefficient or thermo power of a material measures the magnitude of an induced
thermoelectric voltage in response to a temperature difference across that material. It is
defined as the open circuit voltage produced between two points on a conductor, where a
uniform temperature difference of 1K exists between those points.
If the temperature difference ∆T between the two ends of a material is small, then the thermo
∆𝑉
power or Seebeck coefficient of a material may be written as 𝛼= ∆𝑇

This can also be expressed in terms of the electric field E and the temperature gradient∇𝑇,
𝐸
as 𝛼 = ∇𝑇

The thermo power is an important material parameter the efficiency of a thermoelectric

material. A larger induced thermoelectric voltage for a given temperature gradient will lead to
a larger efficiency.

Peltier effect:
In 1834 Peltier discovered that when electric current passed
in a circuit consisting of two dissimilar metals,
heat is evolved at one junction and absorbed at the
other junction. This is known as peltier effect.
It is the inverse of the Seebeck effect. The peltier effect is
junction phenomenon.
There is heat absorption or generation at the junctions
depending on the direction of current flow.
Heat generated by current flowing in one direction was
absorbed if the current was reversed.
As an example, consider the circuit as shown in the figure. Under these conditions it is
observed, as indicated in the diagram, that the right-handjunction is heated, showing that
electrical energy is being transformed into heat energy. Meanwhile, heat energy is
transformed into electrical energy at the left junction, there by causing it to be cooled. When
the current is reversed, heat is absorbed at the right junction and produced at the left one.

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Peltier coefficient:
The peltier coefficient is defined as the amount of heat energy absorbed or evolved at the
junction of two dissimilar metals when one amper of current flows through it for one second.
It is denoted by π and expressed in volts. It is a property that depends on both materials of the
junction.
The heat absorbed per second at a junction carrying a current I amperes is given by

Heat absorbed per second = πab I ----------(1)

Heat absorbed in t seconds, H = πab I t = πab q ----------(2)

Where current is from metal ‘a’ to metal ‘b’.

The junction emf, πab , is known as Peltier coefficient.

𝐻
πab = ----------(3)
𝐼𝑡

πab is positive if metal a is positive with respect to metal b(thus πCu-Feis positive).
The magnitude of πabis a function of the temperature of the junction. For identical
temperatures πab= - πba. Thus, if the direction of the current in the equation (1) is reversed, the
heat absorbed per second is

Heat absorbed per second = πab I, which is opposite in equation (1)

If V is the potential difference applied, then Heat absorbed = V q = V It

Equating the above with equation (2), we getπ =V

Thus, the Peltier coefficient is numerically equal to the applied potential difference expressed
in volts.

Variation of Thermoelectric emf with temperature:

If the temperature of the cold junction of athermo couple is kept
at 0°C and the thermo electric e.m.f. 'e' is plotted against the
temperature T of the hot junction, we obtain a parabolic curve,
as shown in Fig. It is seen that the thermo e.m.f. increases with
the temperature of the hot junction and becomes a maximum at
a particular temperature, Tn. Tn is known as the neutral
temperature which is a constant for the given pair of metals
forming the thermocouple. The temperature of the hot junction
at which maximum thermo e.m.f. flows is a constant for a given
couple and is known as neutral temperature Tn for that couple.
If the temperatureof the hot junction is increased beyond the neutral temperature, the
e.m.f.decreases and becomes zero at a temperature Ti, known as the inversion temperature.
The temperature at which the thermo e.m.f. is zero, is known as inversion temperature.
Beyond the temperature of inversion, the e.m.f. again increases but in the reverse direction.

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The thermo e.m.f. varies with temperature according to the following relation.

e = at +1/2bt² -------(1)
where a and b are Seebeck constants for the thermo couple, Eqn.1 is known as
Seebeck equation, and t = Ti-Tn

𝑑𝑒
Differentiation of eqn.(1) gives = 𝑎 + 𝑏𝑡 -------(2)
𝑑𝑇
𝑑𝑒
At T = Tn, e is maximum and hence = 0 . Therefore 0 = a +bTn
𝑑𝑇

𝑇𝑛= −𝑎 ---------(3)
𝑏

At T = Ti , e = 0. Therefore, it follows from equation (1) that 0 = aTi +1/2 bTi²

1
OR 𝑇𝑖 (𝑎 + 𝑏𝑇𝑖 ) = 0 Therefore Ti = -2a/b ----------(4)
2

From equation (3) & (4) we get

Ti = 2Tn
Thermoelectric power:
The rate of change of emf with temperature is called thermoelectric power and is denoted by
𝑑𝑒
P. Thus 𝑃 = 𝑑𝑡

Relation between Peltier coefficient and thermoelectric power is given by π = T P where T

is the temperature of the junction and P is the thermoelectric power at that temperature.

Figure of -Merit, Z:
The efficiency of conversion of thermal energy into electrical energy is denoted by the
parameter called the figure-of-merit of a thermoelectric material. It is denoted as

𝛼2𝜎
𝑍=
𝐾
Where α is the Seebeck coefficient of the material (measured in microvolts/K), σ is the
electrical conductivity of the material and K is the total thermal conductivity of the material.

Laws of thermoelectricity:
Law of homogeneous circuit
Statement: A thermoelectric current cannot be sustained in a circuit of single
homogenous material by the application of heat alone.

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Practical significance: Two different materials are required for any thermocouple circuit to
produce thermo emf.

Law of intermediate metals

Statement: A third metal may be inserted into a thermocouple system without effecting
the emf generated, if and only if, the junctions with the third metal are kept at the same
temperature.

Practical significance:

1. It allows the use of extension wires of metal, different from the metal used to form
thermocouples
2. It allows the use of measuring instruments into the circuit without disturbing the emf
generated by the thermocouple.
3. It permits the use of joining materials (like soldering) to form thermocouple junctions
without effecting the performance of the junction.

Law of intermediate temperature

Statement: the sum of the emf developed by a thermocouple with its junctions at temperatures
T1 and T2, and with nits junctions at temperatures T 2 and T3, will be the same as the emf
developed if the thermocouple junctions are at temperatures T1 and T3.

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Practical significance: This law, illustrated in figure, is useful in practice because it helps in
giving a suitable correction in case of a reference junction temperature other than 0 oC is
employed. For example, if a thermocouple is calibrated with reference junction at 0oC and is
with a junction temperature of 20oC, then correction required for the observation would be the
emf produced by the thermocouple between 0oC and 20oC

Expression for thermo emf in terms of T1 and T2:

Consider a circuit consisting of two metals A and B as shown in Fig. The hot junction is at a
temperature T2ºK and the cold junction is at a temperature T1ºK. Due to the Seebeck effect,
i.e., due to temperature difference between the junctions, thermoelectric current flows through
the circuit. As the current flows through the hot and cold junctions, heat is absorbed at the hot
junction and evolved at the cold junction due to Peltier effect.

Let π1 and π2 be the Peltier coefficients at T1 and T2.

During the passage of current an amount of heat energy equal to π2q is
absorbed at hot junction and heat energy π1q is evolved at the cold junction.
Then, the energy (π2-π1)q is used in driving the current through the circuit.
As π2 and π1are equal to the potential differences at hot and cold junctions
respectively, the thermo e.m.f. developed is given by
e= (π2-π1)
The current in the circuit is small, and the joules heating effect is negligible. As Peltier effect
is reversible, a thermocouple may be regarded as a reversible heat engine taking heat from the
source at the hot junction at temperature T2, does work in driving the current through the
circuit, and rejecting heat to the sink, the cold junction at temperature T1.
By the Carnot’s engine we have
𝑄2 𝑄1
=
𝑇2 𝑇1
Now during the flow of current in the thermocouple, heat absorbed at the hot junction is
Q2=π2q joule while the energy given out to the sink is Q1=π1qjoule.
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𝜋2 𝑞 𝜋2 𝑞 𝜋2 𝑇2 𝜋2 𝑇2
= ∴ = ∴ −1 = −1
𝑇2 𝑇1 𝜋1 𝑇1 𝜋1 𝑇1
𝜋2 −𝜋1 𝑇2 −𝑇1
Or =
𝜋1 𝑇1
𝑇2 −𝑇1
Or 𝜋2 − 𝜋1 = 𝜋1 ( )
𝑇1
𝜋1
But 𝜋2 − 𝜋1 = 𝑒 ∴𝑒= (𝑇2 − 𝑇1 )
𝑇1
If the cold junction temperature is held constant, the Peltier coefficient 𝜋1 will also be
constant. Then

𝑒 ∝ (𝑇2 − 𝑇1 )

Thermo couple:
Description:A thermocouple is a transducer that converts thermal energy into electrical energy
and is constructed by joining wires made from dissimilar metals to form a junction. Voltage is
produced when the temperature at the junction changes.
Principle: The concept of the thermocouple is based on the Seebeck Effect, which states that if
dissimilar metals are joined at a point, they will generate a small measurable voltage when the
temperature of the point of connection changes. The amount of voltage depends on the
amount of temperature change and the characteristics of the metals.
Construction: Thermocouples are constructed by two different metals that exist in the
form of wires. The two ends are joined by twisting the two wires and welded them together.
The figure shows the thermocouple formed by two dissimilar metalsi.e, Iron andConstanton.A
protective sealing is provided around the junction and a portion of extension leads. Generally,
a diameter of wire ranging from 1.5 to 3mm is used for base metals and a diameter of 0.5mm
wire is used for noble metals.

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Working:

In a thermocouple transducer, out of two junctions, one junction is referred to as hot

junction or measuring junction, which is placed at the process media where the temperature is
to be measured. Another junction is referred to as a cold junction or reference junction is
maintained at a constant reference temperature.
When there exists a temperature difference between hot and cold junctions an emf will be
set up at the free ends due to temperature gradient and is measured by millivoltmeter. The
amount of induced emf depends upon the difference in temperature between two junctions and
the material used to build the thermocouple.

The temperature is determined by calibrating the millivoltmeter. Since the cold junction
is at 0°C, the induced emf measured by the voltmeter is the function of the temperature of the
hot junction. It is essential to keep the reference junction at 0°C to avoid errors due to change
in room temperature.

Advantages of Thermocouple:

 It is an active transducer i.e., it operates without any external power source.

 Measurement of wide ranges of temperature from -200°C to 2800°C.
 The response time is fast, which can measure fast-changing temperatures.
 The cost of thermocouples is low compared to thermistors.
 Able to measure temperatures at desired points.

Disadvantages of Thermocouple:

 The output voltage produced is low.

 The stray magnetic field can introduce errors in output voltage.
 Accuracy is low.

Thermopile:
Description: A thermopile is an electronic device that converts thermal energy into electrical
energy. It is composed of several thermocouples connected usually in series or, less
commonly, in parallel.
Principle: Principle is Thermoelectric effect, i.e., generating a voltage when its dissimilar
metals (thermocouples) are exposed to a temperature differencei.e Seeback effect
Construction:
The structure of the thermopile is shown in figure. The output voltage of a single
thermoelectric cell is extremely small. So a number of these cells is connected in
series/parallel to get a larger signal output. The arrangement of this thermocouple stack is
called “thermopile”.

To make a thermopile, we need to connect more thermocouple pairs in series, so that it

increases the output voltage. Thermopiles are designed with a set of thermocouples which
includes dual thermocouple junctions otherwise various thermocouple pairs. A thermopile

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includes a series of thermocouples where each includes two special materials with large
thermoelectric power & reverse polarities which are interconnected in series.

Working: These thermocouples are arranged throughout the cold & hot areas of the
arrangement where the hot junctions are isolated thermally from the cold junctions. In reply to
the temperature variation across the material, the output voltage of the thermopile is called
a Seebeck coefficient or thermoelectric coefficient. So it is measured per kelvin (V/K)
otherwise mV/K in volts.

Thermopile advantages

 It doesn’t need an external power supply.

 It gives a stable response to radiation which is gone from temperature-measuring
bodies.
 It has stable response characteristics.
 Thermopile is a non-contact temperature-detecting device that uses IR radiation to
transfer heat.
 These are available in small sizes.
 It is less costly.
 It generates larger o/p voltage because of the usage of several thermocouple devices.

Thermopile disadvantages

 These are static, so not used ones should be stored within conductive material to
defend them from static discharges & static fields.
 These can be damaged due to stress and reverse the polarity of the supply.
 These should not be directly exposed to moisture or sunlight because this may harm or
will have corrosion on the device’s performance.
 This device should not be operated with dirty or oily fingers because this dust will
affect the device’s performance. For superior performance, we need to clean with
cotton swabs or alcohol.
 For precise temperature measurement, an object should fill the field of view
completely of the thermopile device.

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Thermoelectric generators (TEG):

Thermoelectric is the name which is the combination of words electric and thermo. So, the
name signifies that thermal corresponds to heat energy and electricity corresponds to electrical
energy. And thermoelectric generators are the devices that are implemented in the conversion
of the temperature difference that is generated between the two sections into the electrical
form of energy. This is the basic thermoelectric generator definition.
These devices are dependent on the thermoelectric effects which involve interface that
happens between heat flow and the electricity through solid components.
Principle: The Seebeck effect forms the basis for power generation. Thermoelectric
generators convert heat energy to electricity. When a temperature gradient is created across
the thermoelectric device, a DC voltage develops across the terminals. When a load is
properly connected, electrical current flows. Typical applications for this technology include
providing power for remote telecommunication, navigations, and petroleum installations.
As early as 1929, A. F. Iofe (1880-1960) showed that a thermoelectric generator utilizing
semiconductors could achieve a conversion efficiency of 4%, with further possible
improvement in its performance.
Construction: The simplest thermoelectric generator consists of a thermocouple, comprising a
p-type and n-type thermo-element connected electrically in series and thermally in parallel
(Fig).The P-type and N-type semiconductors are interconnected through a metal. Load is
connected to free end of P and N type semiconductors.To design such thermoelectric
generators, semiconductors are used which have high electrical conductivity and low thermal
conductivity.

Working:
Heat is pumped into one side of the couple and rejected from the opposite side.The electrons
present at the hot end would be at a high energy level as compared to electrons present at the
cool end side. This means that the hot electrons will tend to move towards the cool end due to
the temperature gradient. When a temperature gradient is produced between two ends, the

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electrons start flowing from one end to another end and create a potential difference. An
electrical current is produced, proportional to the temperature gradient between the hot and
cold junctions.
Of the great number of materials studied, semiconductors based on bismuth telluride, lead
telluride and silicon-germanium alloys are found to be the best.
Thermoelectric Generator Applications:

 For enhancing the fuel performance of cars, the TEG device is mostly employed. These
generators make use of heat that is generated at the time of vehicle operation
 Seebeck Power Generation is utilized to provide power for the spacecraft.
 Thermoelectric generators to implemented provide power for the remote stations such as
weather systems, relay networks, and others

THERMOELECTRIC COOLERS
Thermoelectric coolers are solid state heat pump used in applications where temperature
stabilization, temperature cycling, or cooling below ambient are required.
Principle: The principle used in this is Peltier effect. i.e: ‘when electric current passed
in a circuit consisting of two dissimilar metals, heat is evolved at one junction and absorbed at
the other junction.’
Construction: A thermoelectric cooling arrangement is a shown in figure. It consists of a
thermoelectric module, a heat sink and the object to be cooled. A typical thermoelectric
module consists of an array of bismuth telluride semiconductor pellets that have been “doped”
so that one type of charge carrier-either positive or negative carriers the majority of current.
The pairs of P/N pellets are configured so that they are connected electrically in series, but
thermally in parallel.Metalized ceramic substrates provide the platform for the pellets and the
small conductive tabs that connect them.The ceramic material on both sides of
thethermoelectric adds rigidity and the necessary electrical insulation.The pellets, tabs and
substrates thus form a layered configuration.Module size varies from less than 0.25” by 0.25”
to approximately 2.0” by 2.0”.Thermoelectric modules can function singularly or in groups
with either series, parallel, or series/parallel electrical connections.Some applications use
stacked multi-stage modules.

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 12

Working: When DC voltage is applied to the module, the positive and negative charge carriers
in the pellet array absorb heat energy from one substrate surface and release it to the substrate
at the opposite side.The surface where heat energy is absorbed becomes cold the opposite
surface where heat energy is released, becomes hot.
These devices cannot only pump appreciable amount of heat, but with their series electrical
connection, are suitable to be used as DC power supplies. Thus, the most common
thermoelectric devices now in use connecting 254 alternating P and N-type pellets can run
from a 12 to 16 VDC supplyand draw only 4 to 5 amps. A means to mechanically hold
everything together is to mount the conductive tabs to thin ceramic substrates (Fig) the outer
faces of the ceramics are then used as the thermal interface between Peltier device and the
‘outside world’. Ceramic materials represent the best compromise between mechanical
strength, electrical resistivity, and thermal conductivity.

Thermoelectric materials:
Thermoelectric (TE) materials have the capability of converting heat into electricity, which
can improve fuel efficiency as well as provide a robust alternative energy supply in multiple
applications by collecting wasted heat, and therefore assist in finding new energy solutions.

Classification:
The thermoelectric materials can be divided into the following three categories according to
their operating temperature. They are low, mid and high temperature thermoelectric materials.
1.Low temperature thermoelectric materials:
Bismuth telluride and its alloys. This is a material widely used in thermoelectric coolers, and
its optimal operating temperature is<450°C.
Bismuth (Bi), Antimony (Sb), and the Bi–Sb alloys form a complete class of thermoelectric
semiconductors that are particularly suited to thermoelectric applications below room
temperature.

Thermoelectric materials allow direct conversion of waste heat energy into electrical energy,
thus contributing to solving energy related issues. Polymer-based materials have been
considered for use in heat conversion in the temperature range from 20 to 200 °C, within
which conventional materials are not efficient enough, whereas polymers due to their good

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 13

electronic transport properties, easy processability, non-toxicity, flexibility, abundance, and

simplicity of adjustment, are considered as promising materials.

2. Mid temperature thermoelectric materials:

Lead telluride and its alloys. This is a material widely used in thermoelectric generators, and
its optimal operating temperature is about 1000°C.
Mg2Sn is a potential mid-temperature thermoelectric material.

3.High temperature thermoelectric materials:

Silicon-germanium alloy. This type of material is also commonly used in thermoelectric
generators, and its optimal operating temperature is about 1300°C. Thermoelectric materials,
which can be applied in highly efficient cooling and refrigeration, energy scavenging, sensing,
and thermo power systems, can make significant contributions to solve the global energy
crisis by providing a sustainable energy solution. Metal oxides have become important
thermoelectric materials due to their high-temperature stability, tunable electronic and phonon
transport properties, and well-established synthesis techniques. In this chapter, NaxCoO2,
Ca3Co4O9, SrTiO3, CaMnO3, and ZnO are reviewed as promising metal oxide-based
thermoelectric materials.
Applications: Exhaust of Automobiles, Refrigerator, Space Program
(RTG):
Application in exhaust of Automobiles
Automotive thermoelectric generator (ATEG) technology involves converting the waste heat
available in the exhaust gas in internal combustion engine into electricity using Seebeck
effect. That electricity can be stored and utilized for various electrical inputs of a vehicle
so that the fuel efficiency can be improved.ATEG is gaining significant importance since a
direct conversion of exhaust waste heat into electricity allows for a reduction in fuel
consumption. The role of exhaust flow rate, temperature and heat exchanger will affect on the
performance of ATEG.
A typical ATEG consists of four main elements.A hot-side heat exchanger,a cold side heat
exchanger, thermoelectric materials and a compression assembly system. In ATEG,
thermoelectric materials are packed between the hot-side and cold-side heat exchangers. The
thermoelectric materials are made up of p-type and n-type semiconductors. The heat
exchangers are metal plates with high thermal conductivity. The temperature difference
between the two surfaces of the thermoelectric modules generates electricity using Seebeck
effect. When hot exhaust from the engine passes through an exhaust ATEG, the charge
carriers of the semiconductors within the generator diffuse from the hot-side heat exchanger to
cold-side exchanger. The build-up of charge carriers results in net charge, producing an
electrostatic potential while the heat transfer drives a current. With exhaust temperature of
7000c or more, the temperature difference between exhaust gas on the hot side and coolant on
the cold side is several hundred degrees. This temperature difference is capable of generating
500-750 W of electricity.

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 14

Fig: Layout of the main components of Exhaust gas Heat recovery system with TEG

Refrigerator
Thermoelectric cooling is a way to remove thermal energy from a medium,device or
component by applying a voltage of constant polarity to a function between two dissimilar
semiconductors or electrical conductors.Thermoelectric cooling uses the Peltier effect to
create a heat flux between the junction of two different types of materials. This effect is
commonly used in camping and portable coolers and for cooling electronic components and
small instruments. The device has two sides, and when a DC electric current flows through
the device, it brings heat from one side to the other, so that one side gets cooler while the
other gets hotter. The major components of the refrigerator are given below.
The thermoelectric devices used in thermoelectric refrigeration (or thermoelectric coolers) are
based on the Peltier effect to convert electrical energy into a temperature gradient [1]. A
conventional thermoelectric cooler is composed of a number of N-type and P-type
semiconductor junctions connected electrically in series by metallic interconnects (conducting
strips, in general made of copper) and thermally in parallel, forming a single-stage cooler. If a
low-voltage DC power source is applied to a thermoelectric cooler, heat is transferred from
one side of the thermoelectric cooler to the other side. Therefore, one face of the
thermoelectric cooler is cooled and the opposite face is heated.
Fig. 1 depicts a thermoelectric cooling module considered as a thermoelectric refrigerator, in
which the electrical current flows from the N-type element to the P-type element. The
temperature Tc of the cold junction decreases and the heat is transferred from the environment
to the cold junction at a lower temperature. This process happens when the transport electrons

Department of physics, SIT Mangalore

 15

pass from a low energy level inside the P-type element to a high energy level inside the N-
type element through the cold junction. At the same time, the transport electrons carry the
absorbed heat to the hot junction which is at temperature Th. This heat is dissipated in the heat
sink, whilst the electrons return at a lower energy level in the P-type semiconductor (the
Peltier effect). If there is a temperature difference between the cold junction and hot junction
of N-type and P-type thermoelements, a voltage (called Seebeck voltage) directly proportional
to the temperature difference is generated.

Fig. 1. Scheme of a thermoelectric refrigerator.

The quality of a thermoelectric cooler depends on parameters such as the electric current
applied at the couple of N-type and P-type thermoelements, the temperatures of the hot and
cold sides, the electrical contact resistance between the cold side and the surface of the device,
the thermal and electrical conductivities of the thermoelement, and the thermal resistance of
the heat sink on the hot side of the thermoelectric cooler. The number of thermoelements in a
thermoelectric module mainly depends on the required cooling capacity and the maximum
electric current .
The characteristics and performance of a thermoelectric refrigerator are described by
parameters like the figure of merit, the cooling capacity, and the coefficient of performance.
This review is specifically focused on these parameters, addressing the concepts in a different
way with respect to various review papers appearing on thermoelectric cooling in the past
years. Specific aspects such as thermoelectric cooling system design, experimental
assessment, numerical analysis and simulation are outside the scope of this review.

Space Program (Radioisotope Thermoelectric Generators)

A major practical application of thermoelectric generators has been in the space

program, where the need is for an electric generator with no moving parts and which will
supply power for the long duration of the space missions. A radioisotope thermoelectric
generator (RTG, RITEG), sometimes referred to as a radioisotope power system (RPS), is a
type of nuclear battery that uses an array of thermocouples to convert the heat released by the
decay of a suitable radioactive material into electricity by the Seebeck effect. RTGs provide
electrical power using heat from the natural radioactive decay of plutonium-238, in the form
of plutonium dioxide.In the isotopic decay process, alpha particles are released which
bombard the inner surface of the container. The energy released is converted to heat and is the

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 16

source of heat to the thermoelectric converter. The large difference in temperature between
this hot fuel and the cold environment of space is applied across special solid-state metallic
junctions called thermocouples, which generates an electrical current.This type
of generator has no moving parts.

RTGs have a long operating life, are reasonably lightweight, and require little or no
maintenance once assembled and tested. However, because RTGs contain significant
quantities of radioactive materials, normally plutonium238 and its decay products, they must be
transported in packages.RTG is made up of a radioisotope heat source, a thermoelectric converter,
a gas pressure venting system, temperature transducers, connectors, a heat rejecting cylindrical
container, and bracketry.

Prepared By
Dr.Suryanarayana.K, Professor and Head, Department of Physics, SIT Mangalore.
Mrs.Amitha.H, Asst.Professor, Department of Physics, SIT Mangalore
Mrs.Sahana.G.K, Asst.Professor, Department of Physics, SIT Mangalore
***&***

Department of physics, SIT Mangalore

 22PHYM12/22: MODULE 4- Cryogenics

LOW TEMPERATURES IN SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

Cryogenics is defined as that branch of physics which deals with the production of
very low temperatures and their effect on matter, a formulation which addresses both aspects
of attaining low temperatures which do not naturally occur on Earth, and of using them for
the study of nature or the human industry. In a more operational way, it is also defined as the
science and technology of temperatures below 120 K. The limit temperature of 120 K
comprehensively includes the normal boiling points of the main atmospheric gases, as well as
of methane which constitutes the principal component of natural gas. Today, liquid natural
gas (LNG) represents one of the largest – and fast-growing – industrial domains of
application of cryogenics, together with the liquefaction and separation of air gases.

Fig: Cryogenic temperature scale

Joule – Thomson’s effect

Statement: If a gas initially at constant high pressure is allowed to suffer throttle expansion
through the porous plug of silk, wool or cotton wool having a number of fine pores, to a
region of constant low pressure adiabatically, a change in temperature of gas (either cooling
or heating) is observed. This effect is called as Joule –Thomson or Joule-Kelvin effect.

Theory of Joule Thomson effect:

Suppose that one mole of gas is allowed to expand through a porous plug from a pressure
P1 and volume V1 to a pressure P2 and volume V2. Let the temperature change from T1to

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T2 due to Joule-Thomson effect.
Net external work done by the gas = P2V2 – P1V1, --------------------- (1)
Now, an internal work is also done by the gas in overcoming the forces of molecular
attraction. For a van der Waals gas, the attractive forces between the molecules are
equivalent to an internal
a
Pressure= V2 , a is a constant
a
Internal work done by the gas when the gas expands from a volume V1 to V2 is = V2
Internal work done by the gas when the gas expands from a volume V1 to V2 is
𝑉2 𝑉2
𝑎 𝑎 𝑉2 𝑎 𝑎
∫ 𝑃𝑑𝑉 = ∫ 2
𝑑𝑉 = [− ] = − … … … (2)
𝑉1 𝑉1 𝑉 𝑉 𝑉1 𝑉1 𝑉2

a a
P1 V1 = RT1 + bP1 − V and P2 V2 = RT2 + bP2 − V
1 2

2a 2a
w = R(T2 − T1 ) − b(P1 − P2 ) + − … … ( 4)
V1 V2

RT RT
As T1 and T2 are nearly equal, we may write T1=T2=T and hence V1 = and V2 =
P1 P2
2a
Substituting in eq(4) we have, w = R(T2 − T1 ) − b(P1 − P2 ) + RT [P1 − P2 ]

Since the gas is thermally insulated, the energy necessary for doing this work is drawn from
the K.E. of the molecules. Hence, the K.E. decreases resulting in a fall of temperature by ∂T.
Heat lost by the gas = Cv ∂T
2a
Cv ∂T = (P1 − P2 ) ( − b) − R ∂T
RT

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 2a
Or ∂T(Cv + R) = (P1 − P2 ) ( − b)
RT
2a
i.e, ∂TCp = (P1 − P2 ) ( − b)
RT
(P1 − P2 ) 2a
δT = ( − b) … … . (6)
Cp RT
δT 1 2a
Joule THomsan coeffecient, µJT = = ( − b)
δP Cp RT

Eqn (6) gives the fall in temperature or the cooling produced in a van der Waals gas
whensubjected to throttling process.
2a
i) If RT > 𝑏 then δT is positive. Hence there will be a cooling effect.
2a
ii) If RT < 𝑏 then δT is negative. Hence there will be a heating effect.
2a
iii) If = b then δT =0. Hence there will be neither a heating nor a cooling
RT
effect.

Note: For a gas temperature that is above the inversion temperature, the μJT would be
negative. The ∂P shall be always negative in this case, which means that the ∂P must be
positive. Consequently, the warming of the gas will take place.

Inversion Temperature:

The temperature at which the Joule –Thomson effect changes sign is called the
2a 2a
temperature of Inversion. (Ti). At this temperature RT = b or Ti = Rb. Thus, above the
i
temperature of inversion, Joule- Thomson effect will be a heating effect and below it a
cooling effect.

Porous Plug experiment

Construction:

Joule in collaboration with Thomson [Lord Kelvin] devised a very sensitive technique
known as Porous Plug experiment. The experiment set up of porous plug experiment to
study the Joule-Thomson effect is shown in Fig.2.1. It consists of the following main parts:

(a) A Porous plug having two perforated -brass discs D & D1.
(b) The space between D & D1 is placed with cotton wool or silk fibers.
(c) The porous plug is fitted in a cylindrical box-wood W which is surrounded by a vessel
containing cotton wool. This is to avoid loss or gain of heat from the surroundings.
(d) T1 &T2 are two sensitive platinum resistance thermometers and they measure the
temperatures of the incoming and outgoing gas.
(e) The gas is compressed to a high pressure with the help of piston P and it is placed
through a spiral tube immersed in water bath maintained at a constant temperature. If there
is any heating of the gas due to compression, this heat is absorbed by the circulating water in
the water bath.

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Experimental Procedure

The experimental gas is compressed by Pump P and is passed slowly and uniformly
through the porous plug keeping the high pressure constant read by pressure gauge. During
the passage through the porous plug, the gas is throttled. The separation between the
molecules increases. By passing through the porous plug, the volume of the gas increases
against the atmospheric pressure. As there is no loss or gain of heat during the whole
process, the expansion of the gas takes place adiabatically. The initial and final temperatures
are noted by platinum resistance thermometers T1 & T2.

Experimental Results

A simple arrangement of porous plug experiment is shown in Fig.2.2 .The behavior of large
number of gases was studied at various inlet temperatures of the gas and the results are as
follows:
(1)At sufficiently low temperatures, all gases show a cooling effect.
(2)At ordinary temperatures, all gases except hydrogen and helium show cooling effect.
Hydrogen and Helium show heating effect.
(3)The fall in temperature is directly proportional to the difference in pressure on the two
sides of porous plug.
(4)The fall in temperature for a given difference with rise in the initial temperature of the
gas. It was found that the cooling effect decreased with the increase of initial temperature
and becomes zero at a certain temperature and at a temperature higher than the temperature
instead of cooling heating was observed. This particular temperature at which the Joule –
Thomson effect changes sign is called temperature of inversion.

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 Thermo dynamical analysis of Joule Thomson effect:

The arrangement of the porous plug experiment is shown in Fig. The gas passes through the
porous plug from the high pressure side to the low pressure side. Consider one mole of the
gas. Let P1,V1 and P2, V 2 represent the pressure and volume of the two sides of the
porous plug. Let dx be the distance through which each piston moves to the right.

The work done on the gas by the piston 1 = P1A1dx = P1V1

The work done by the gas on the piston 2 = P2A2dx = P2V2
Net external work done by the gas = P2V2 – P1V1
Let w be the work done by the gas in separating the molecules against their inter-molecular
attraction.
Total amount of work done by the gas = (P2V2 – P1V1) + w

There are three cases depending upon the initial temperature of gas.

(i) Below the Boyle temperature: P2V2 < P1V1. Then P2V2 – P1V1 is +ve. Hence w must be
positive. Thus, a net +ve work is done by the gas. Hence, there must be a cooling effect.
(ii) At the Boyle temperature: P2V2 = P1V1 , Then P2V2 – P1V1 =0. The total work done
by the gas in this case is w. Therefore, cooling effect at this temperature is only due to the
work done by the gas in overcoming inter-molecular attraction.
(iii) Above the Boyle temperature: P2V2 > P1V1 . Then P2V2 – P1V1 is –ve. Hence w must be
negative. Thus, a net -ve work is done by the gas. Hence, there must be a heating effect.
Thus, the observed effect will depend upon whether (P2V2 – P1V1) is greater than or less
than w.
If w > (P2V2 – P1V1,), cooling will be observed.
If w < (P2V2 – P1V1,), heating will be observed.
Thus, the cooling or heating of a gas depends on

(i) The deviation from Boyle’s law

(ii) Work done in overcoming inter-molecular attraction.

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Note: Boyle temperature can be defined as the point in the temperature range in which
a real gas starts to behave like an ideal gas at a pressure range.

Liquefaction of gases

Definition: Liquefaction of gases means the process into which the gas substances are
converted from gases to a liquid state.

Principles of Liquefaction of gases

Principle1: In which when a gas is compressed by a sufficient amount of pressure below its
critical temperature, as a result liquefaction starts.

Principle2: When we reduce the pressure, and the gas or the liquid is allowed to evaporate,
then due to evaporations, it causes cooling.

Principle3: On the basis of the Joule Thomson effect (Porous plug experiment).

Liquefaction of Oxygen gas by cascade process (Pictet process):

This process was first used by Pictet in 1878. He successfully obtained a small quantity of
Liquid Oxygen with the help of pressure applied, and with other liquefied gases.

Cascade system or Process: A process is called the Cascade process, When a single stage is
not enough to produce the desired result, therefore the process takes place in a number of
stages in a sequence.

Fig: A Cascade Liquefier

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Construction:

1. In this apparatus, three compressors C1, C2, C3 are used to fulfill the requirement of
sufficient pressure. Also, the C1, C2, and C3 have a suction side which is used during the
process.
2. Three condensers R1, R2, R3 are used, into which three refrigerants cold water, Methyl
chloride, and ethylene are used to get the desired result.
3. The Liquid oxygen is collected in the last, into a Dewar flask.

Principle: This apparatus work on two principles.

1. The first, Principle, compression of gases below its critical temperature resulting in a
change to liquid.
2. The second is, producing cooling by the principle of evaporation of liquids.

Working:

 The gaseous methyl chloride (CH3Cl) is pumped by the compressor C1 into the spiral tube.
The refrigerant in condenser R1 surrounding this tube starts liquefying the methyl chloride.

 This is because the critical temperature of methyl chloride is 143°C, which is more than
room temperature as well.

 Now the liquid methyl chloride comes in Condenser R2 through the tube. Here one portion
of condenser R2 is connected with the suction side of compressor C1.

 Here due to the evaporation of liquid methyl chloride in reduced pressure, more cooling as
a result produced, and the temperature of condenser R2 decreases more.

 The evaporated methyl chloride return back to the compressor C1 through the suction side
of the compressor.

 Now the gaseous ethylene (C2H4) is pumped by the compressor C2 into the next spiral
tube.

 Here the refrigerant, liquid methyl chloride which is achieved in the previous stage,
surrounding the tube which contains gaseous ethylene, starts to convert this gas into liquid
ethylene.

 This is because the critical temperature of ethylene is around 9.2°C.

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 Now, this liquid ethylene comes in Condensor R3, and one portion of R3 condenser is
connected with the suction side of compressor C2.

 Here evaporation of liquid ethylene takes place in reduced pressure like in the previous
stage, and the evaporated ethylene return back to the compressor C2 through the suction side
of the compressor.

 Therefore, due to the evaporation process more cooling is produced into the condenser R3,
which is more than the cooling that we achieved in Condenser R2.

 This cooling has a temperature of around −160°C.

 Now, the oxygen (which is in gaseous form) is pumped by the compressor C 3 into the next
spiral tube.

 Here, due to the very low temperature inside the Condenser R3 the oxygen gas into the
spiral tube starts converting into liquid and later collected into a Dewar flask.

 This is because the critical temperature of oxygen gas is around −118°C.

 Here, likewise the previous stages, the evaporated oxygen return back to the compressor
C3 through the suction side of the compressor.

 If we continue this cascade system, we can liquefy air and other gases like Nitrogen, etc.

Limitation: By this system, we cannot liquefy the gases that have very low critical
temperatures, such as Hydrogen (Tc around −240 °C) and Helium (Tc around −267.8 °C).

Linde’s Method of liquefaction of gases.

The Hampson-Linde cycle or the Linde’s liquefaction process is used by coupled with
regenerative cooling and the Joule Thomson effect.

By this method, we can easily liquefy air, and many other gases too.

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 Linde’s Method of Liquefaction of Gases
By this figure, you can understand that liquefaction of air or those gases that have a low value
of critical temperatures is hard, as compared to those that have high critical temperature
values.

Construction:

1. In this method, two compressors C1 at (25 atm pressure) and C2 (200 atm pressure) are
used.
2. Heat exchangers R1 and R2 are used into which cold water and a freezing mixture is used
as a refrigerant.
3. A Liquid solution of KOH (Potassium Hydroxide) that is required to get pure air.
4. Two chambers E1 and E2, and P1 and P2 are the two small nozzles.
5. At last, the liquid air is collected into a Dewar flask.

Principle: Linde’s process of liquefaction is work on the principle of the Joule Thomson
effect coupled with regenerative cooling.

Working:

1. The air is pumped at a pressure of 25 atm into the spiral tube. The air gets cooled after
passing through the R1 heat exchangers. Here the gas becomes cool because of cool water
inside the R1 heat exchangers. This cooled air then passes through a liquid solution of
Potassium hydroxide (KOH).

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2. The reason for the use of the KOH solution is that air contains many gases and water
vapours too. To separate air from water vapours this solution is used, and also this solution
absorbs CO2 gas from the air. After this, the air further moves in the second compressor C 2.

3. In the C2 compressor, the air is pumped at a pressure of 200 atm into the next spiral tube.
Now the gas becomes cool again, after passing through the second heat exchanger R 2. Here
the gas-cooled because of the Freezing mixture inside the R2 heat exchangers.

4. Now the temperature of this air decreases to around −20°C (253K). Then this pre-cooled
air is allowed to expand through nozzle P1 in a chamber E1 and suffers the Joule Thomson
effect. Due to this effect, more cooling is produced into the chamber E 1, and pressure reduces
to about 50 atm.

5. This cooled air then returns back to the compressor C2 and where it is again pumped at a
pressure of 200 atm into the spiral tube. This air again suffers the Joule Thomson effect, and
more cooling is produced in chamber E1.

6. Repeating some cycles of this process, more and more cooling is produced in chamber E1.
After getting sufficient temperature, the cooled air is allowed to expand through nozzle P 2 in
chamber E2 and again suffers the Joule Thomson effect, and pressure reduces to about 1 atm.

7. Now the temperature decreases to around −188°C(85K) in chamber E2 and the air gets
liquefied. This liquefied air is collected into the Dewar flask.

8. Also, in chamber E2 the un-liquefied air is returned back to the compressor C1, this further
cooled the air, and where it is again pumped at a pressure of 25 atm into the spiral tube.

The Liquefaction of Helium (Claude’s method)

Helium is the only substance which means fluid at temperatures below -259oC (4K) and its
inversion point is much lower than that of Hydrogen namely around -233oC(40K). The
boiling point of Helium is just around -267oC which is quite close to absolute zero on the
Kelvin scale

Principle: Claude’s method works on two principles. i.e: Joule Thomson effect
and mechanical expansion (By, the use of an expansion turbine).

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Working:

 Initially Helium is compressed to a pressure of 20 atmospheres which raises its

temperature to the region of 300 degrees Kelvin.
 This compressed high temperature Helium is then split into two paths.

 The first part is cooled in the heat exchanger labelled HE1 with the help of Helium
vapours
 The other part passes through the heat exchanger HE2 to be cooled with Hydrogen
vapours.
 Both these streams combine to be passed through the liquid Hydrogen heat exchanger HE3
 Then again getting cooled in HE4 by Helium vapours.
 Finally the throttle valve is used to initiate the Joule Thomson effect and Helium is
collected in the liquid state in the Helium separator.

Properties and Uses

Though the process described in the above section is generic in nature, in actual practice there
are two main isotopes of Helium used for liquefaction namely H4 and H3 and there is a slight
difference between the properties of the two in terms of their boiling point, critical
temperature and so forth. The properties talked about earlier are those of H4 while the boiling
point of H3 is even one degree lower.

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Liquid Helium is used extensively for use in superconducting magnets which need to be
cooled to extremely low temperatures during their use, that in turn are used in several fields
such as say for Magnetic Resonance Imaging and Nuclear Magnetic Resonance.

Platinum Resistance Thermometer (PRT)

The Platinum Resistance Thermometer uses platinum for determining the temperature. It
works on the principle of positive temperature coefficient of resistance that is the resistance
of platinum increases with increase in temperature. The platinum is a chemically inert metal
and can easily be drawn into fine wires. Because of these properties of platinum, it is used as
a sensing element in thermometer.

Construction of platinum resistance Thermometer:

The PRT consists of pure platinum wire wound on hollow pipe made up of insulating mica or
ceramic, which is placed in porcelain sheath. Free ends of platinum wire are attached to long
leads of low resistance copper wires (Fig.1). To measure change in resistance, Wheatstone
bridge is used. Two long extension leads form one arm of Wheatstone bridge (fig.2).

Fig.1: Platinum Resistance Thermometer Fig2: PRT Wheatstone bridge

Working of platinum resistance Thermometer:

When platinum resistance Thermometer subjected to temperature variation, the wheatstone

bridge gets unbalanced due to change in resistance Rt of platinum resistance. This makes the
pointer move over circular scale of galvanometer, which is directly calibrated to give
measured value of temperature.

Advantages of Platinum Resistance Thermometer

 Linear relationship of resistance with temperature

 The meter gives the precise reading of temperature.
 The thermometer has a wide range from 200°C to 1200°C.

SIT Mangalore
 The thermometer is quite sensitive.
 high accuracy (0.01 °C),
 The platinum gives stable value of resistance at the given temperature.
 Chemically inert
Disadvantages of Platinum Resistance Thermometer

 The thermometer gives the slow response.

 The melting point of the thermometer is 1800°C. But when platinum measures the
temperature higher than 1200°C they start evaporating.

1. In Joule Thomson experiment Temperature changes from 100 oC to 150oC for pressure
change of 20 MPa to 170 MPa. Calculate Joule Thomson Coefficient.
Given:
T1=100+273=373 K T2=150+273=423 K , P1=20Pa P2=170 pa
change in temperature from T2- T1 (K) = 50 K

change in pressure from P1 to P2 (Pa) = 150MPa

JTC = dT / dP = 50/150M =1/3 µK/Pa

SIT Mangalore
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MODULE – 05
Material Characterization Techniques and Instrumentation

Nano materials
Matter arranged by exercising control over lengths of one to hundred nano meter
and the formulating structures exhibit characteristics that are specific to their
size and dimensions, the resulting materials are called nano materials.

Nanocomposites
 A nanocomposite is as a multiphase solid material where one of the phases
has one, two or three dimensions of less than 100 nm. These materials show
differing in properties due to dissimilarities in structure and chemistry.
 The mechanical, electrical, thermal, optical, electrochemical, catalytic
properties of the nanocomposite will differ noticeably from that of the
component materials.
 Size limits for these effects is <5 nm for catalytic activity, <20 nm for making
a hard and soft magnetic material, <50 nm for refractive index changes, and
<100 nm for achieving mechanical strengthening.

The properties of materials can be different at the Nanoscale for two main
reasons:

 Nanomaterials have a relatively larger surface to volume ratio when compared

to bulk materials.
 Quantum effects can begin to dominate the behavior of matter at the
nanoscale.
Types of nano materials based on dimensions
Based on dimensions the nano materials are classified into four types vary in
size from 1 nm to 100 nm.

 3D Bulk materials: -The charge carriers can move in all the three directions
and it has all parameter of length, breadth and height. (for example, Nano
Particles).

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 2D films- The movement of the charge carriers are confined to two directions
and it has only length and breadth (for example, nano films and
nanotubes)

 1D quantum wire –The movement of the charge carriers are restricted to one
directions and it has only one parameter either length (or) breadth (or) height.
(example: nano wires)

 0D quantum dot – The movement of the charge carriers are confined in all
the three directions then the resulting structure is called quantum dot or
nano particle and its length, breadth and heights are confined at single point.
(for example, Quantum dots)

Charge carriers are able to move in all directions in a 3-D material, confined to
a plane in a film in only one direction in a quantum wire but in a 0-D structure
they will remain confined to a very small space. The film, wire and dots have
certain thickness for the material along the direction where we say the
corresponding dimension is absent. The thickness is less than the mean free
path for the electron in the material; this thickness will be in nanometer range.
The material along these directions exhibits mesoscopic properties.

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Properties of nanomaterials

Due to the particle size in nano regime it affects many properties when compared
to their bulk counterparts such as
 Melting point
 Boiling point
 Band gap
 Optical properties
 Electrical properties
 Magnetic properties

Applications of nanomaterials

 Nanotechnology Applications in Medicine

 Detect disease and the deliver treatment.
 Nano shells as Cancer Therapy
 Nanowires – used as medical sensor
 Nano Computing Technology
 Sunscreens and Cosmetics
 Sunscreens and Cosmetics
 Displays
 Batteries
 Catalysts
 Magnetic Nano Materials applications
 Medical Implantation
 Water purification

Principle, construction and working of X-ray Diffractometer

PRINCIPLE:
The Bragg’s X-ray Diffractometer works on the principle of Bragg’s law of
diffraction 2dsinθ = nλ.
where
d - interplanar distance
θ -glancing angle
λ -wavelength of X-ray

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X-ray diffraction is based on constructive interference of monochromatic X-rays

and a crystalline sample. The interaction of the incident rays with the sample
produces constructive interference (and a diffracted ray) when conditions
satisfy Bragg's Law (nλ=2d sin θ). These diffracted X-rays are then detected,
processed and counted. By scanning the sample through a range of 2θ angles,
all possible diffraction directions of the lattice should be attained due to the
random orientation of the powdered material.

Bragg’s X-Ray Diffractometer

The schematic diagram of Bragg’s x-ray spectrometer is shown in fig. It has

1) x-ray source 2) A Crystal fixed on a circular table provided with scale and
Vernier. 3) Ionization chamber.

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 X-rays from the X-ray tube are allowed to pass through the slits S1 and S2,
then it is made to fall on a crystal C mounted at the center of rotating turn
table provided with a graduated scaleV1 to measure the angular
displacement of crystal.
 X-ray after reflection enters into ionization chamber fixed to the turn table
and the position can be noted on the scale V2.
 The X- ray enters into ionization chamber ionizes the gas and produces
ionization current which is measured by electrometer connected to it.
 For every rotation of turn table by an angle ‘θ’ on the crystal, the ionization
chamber must rotate by an angle 2θ to satisfy Brags law.
 While the experiment is carrying out by rotating the turn table at different
reflected rays the sudden rise in current is observed.
 A plot of ionization current for different incident angles to study the x-ray
diffraction spectrum is shown in fig.
 Let Peaks are observed at angles θ1, θ2, θ3 etc. for n=1,2,3, etc. for a set of
parallel planes in the crystal, when the x-ray beams satisfy Braggs law of
diffraction
 By knowing, wavelength of X-ray, interplanar spacing (d) and order of
diffraction (n), the diffraction angle θ can be calculated using Braggs Law
2dsinθ = n λ.

Crystallite size determination using Debye Scherrer equation

Scherrer equation is the oldest form of X-ray diffraction method used to
determine the size of the crystals in the form of powder. The Scherrer equation
relates the crystallite size in a solid with the broadening of the peak in a
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diffraction pattern. By knowing the values of θ, λ, β and K the mean crystallite
size D can be determined by using equation.

𝐾λ
𝐷= m
β cos θ

Where
D - the mean crystallite size
β - Full width at half maxima (FWHM)
θ - Bragg’s angle
K- Scherer’s Constant  0.9 for Cu –Kα target

Prerequisites to understand the electron microscopes

Scattering of electrons

Scattering usually implies that the electron changed the path after ‘hitting’
some other small particle like the nucleus of an atom, or another electron. As
the electrons come very close to other particles, their masses and all of their
related fields, interact on a quantum level. Due to this the deviation occurs in
the path of the electron.

For example, when high speed electrons penetrate into the atom, they are
attracted by a positively charged nucleus. Due to this, they deviate from their
original path. This is equivalent to collision with nucleus. Electrons slow down
and lose their energy in this process.

Tunneling Effect

Consider a thin layer of insulator sandwiched between two metal layers as

shown below-

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Metal Insulator Metal

10-20 A0

Insulator layer sandwiched between two metals

The insulator works as a barrier to the flow of conduction electrons travelling

from one metal to the other. However, when the size of the barrier is extremely
small of the order of 10-20 A0.
Magnetostatic Focusing (Magnetic lenses)
Magnetic fields, which are axially symmetric, can be used for focusing an
electron beam passing through them. The axially symmetric magnetic fields are
produced by short solenoids. The electron traveling in such field describes a
helical path and can be focused to a particular point. Such solenoids are called
as thin magnetic lenses. These magnetic lenses are used in electron
microscopes.

Spiralling and focusing of electrons

in a magnetic field

Magnetic lens

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SCANNING ELECTRON MICROSCOPE (SEM)

PRINCIPLE:

The basic principle involved in the working of all kinds of electron microscope
is the wave nature of electrons. An electron accelerated under a potential
difference of V volts behave like a wave of wavelength.

λ= = nm

CONSTRUCTION:

The apparatus consists of a highly evacuated chamber inside which there is an

electron gun. There are 2 magnetic lenses one is the condensing lens C and the
other one is the objective lens O. A scan coil accompanies the lens O. there is a
spray aperture using which, spherical aberration during focusing will be
minimized. A flat surface called stage is provided at the bottom portion of the
apparatus to place the sample under study.

There are 3 types of detectors – back scattered electron detector, secondary

electron detector, and an X-ray detector

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WORKING:

 The sample to be investigated is placed on the specimen stage after which,

inside of the chamber is evacuated by connecting it to a high vacuum pump.
 Electrons are emitted by the filament by thermionic emission. A suitable
positive potential is applied to the anode with respect to the filament.
 The accelerated electrons from the electron gun pass through the spray
aperture from where the electron beam emerges.
 The condensing lens C converges the beam & eliminates some high angle
electrons.
 The beam then passes through the objective aperture where the size of the
beam can be controlled. A thinner beam then enters into the field of objective
lens O. the objective lens focuses the beam onto the desired part of the
specimen.
 A set of coils called scan coils placed along with the objective lens enable the
beam to scan the specimen in the particular way called raster. The scan coils
are connected to the raster scan generator which directs the beam onto the
spot on the specimen & dwells on it momentarily.
 The electrons incident on the sample are called primary electrons. Upon
incidence some of the electrons are knocked out from the atoms in the
specimen due to the impact of the beam which are called secondary electrons.
Some of them will be scattered by the specimen called back scattered
electrons. X- Rays are emitted when electrons from a higher shell in the atom
transit to a vacant position created in its lower shell from where an electron
has been knocked off.
 Back scattered electrons, secondary electrons & the X-rays emitted are
detected by the respective detectors & a corresponding signal is produced.
This signal is converted into a micro spot of corresponding brightness on a
screen. The beam focus is then shifted to the next adjacent spot in order,
where it again dwells momentarily. This way the image is built on the screen
point by point.
 Image produced on the screen will be in grey scale. For aesthetic purposes,
these are colorized by using feature-detection software.

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APPLICATIONS:

SEM is used to study

1. External morphology of biological organisms.

2. Chemical composition.
3. Crystalline structure.
4. Forensic investigations.

TRANSMISSION ELECTRON MICROSCOPE (TEM)

Principle: Transmission Electron Microscope (TEM) works on the principle of

wave nature and tunneling effect of electrons.

Construction:

Transmission Electron Microscope (TEM) is an electron microscope that has

four main systems -

(1) An electron gun: It produces the electron beam

(2) The condenser system: It focuses the electron beam on the sample.
(3) The image-producing system: It consists of the objective lens, movable
specimen stage and intermediate and projector lenses to form a real and
highly magnified image
(4) The image-recording system: This converts the electron image into the
format that can be seen by the human eye.

Working:

 The electron beams from electron gun are produced from the heated
tungsten filament. Anode with an aperture is kept at positive potential.
Electrons accelerate toward the anode and pass through the central
aperture.
 These electron beam focused on the specimen by the condenser system.
The intensity and angular aperture of the electron beam are also controlled
by these lens system, between the electron gun and the specimen.

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 The electron beams then pass through the specimen mounted on the
specimen stage which can be adjustable. Then the beam passes through
the objective lens, it is usually of short focal length (1–5 mm) and produces
a real intermediate image that is further magnified by the projector lenses.
 Modern instruments employ two projector lenses (one of which is called
the intermediate lens) to permit a greater range of magnification without
increase in the physical length of the microscope.
 The intermediate electron image that is formed at the projector lenses are
converted into the format that can be seen by the human eye by the image-
recording system: This consists of a fluorescent screen for viewing and
focusing the image, the higher magnification may be obtained by
photographic or digital enlargement. Computerized images are stored in a

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format such as TIFF or JPEG and can be analysed and processed to get
the final image.

Advantages:
a) Three dimensional image obtained gives more information about the
specimen.
b) Very small amount of specimen is required for analysis.

Disadvantage:
a) High vacuum is required to maintain.

ATOMIC FORCE MICROSCOPE (AFM)

Atomic Force Microscope is a high resolution scanning probe type microscope. It

is a tool for imaging, measuring and manipulating matter at the Nano scale. It
can image all type of surfaces including polymers, ceramics, composites, glass
and biological samples.

The atomic force microscope was invented by Gerd Binning et al. in 1986 at IBM
Zurich based on the STM (Scanning Tunneling Microscope) already presented in
1981. In 1987, the inventors were awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics for the
achievements.

PRINCIPLE:

AFM produces image by physically pushing a cantilever probe against the

sample. The probe movement is analyzed and converted into a three
dimensional image of the sample surface.

CONSTRUCTION:

 A typical AFM consists of a cantilever around 100-500 microns in length with

a small tip/probe of radius of 3-15 microns at the free end.
 A laser source, 4-quadrant photodetectors and deflection sensor.
 Sample stage attached to piezo electric sensor.
 Analyzer: The light collected by photo detectors is analyzed with computer
controlled devices and a 3D image of the sample surface is constructed.
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WORKING

 When a cantilever probe is brought into proximity of the sample surface, the
forces such as Vander Waal’s forces, electrostatic forces, magnetic forces and
the other forces which arise due to the physical interaction between the
surface atoms, cause the cantilever tip to deflect.
 The cantilever can be thought of as a spring. The quantity of the generated
force between the probe and the surface depends on the spring constant
(stiffness) of the cantilever and the distance between the probe and the
surface.
 This force can be characterized with Hooke’s Law. F = -k.x
 The deflection of the cantilever is detected by the help of a laser beam and
deflection sensor.
 The displacement of the probe is measured and a topographical image is
obtained.
 In AFM both conducting and non-conductive samples can be analyzed.

Operation Modes of AFM

Contact mode- In contact mode, the tip is in a soft physical contact with the
surface. The tip is able to move above the surface with a specific height or
under a constant force. the force between the probe and the sample remains
constant and an image of the surface is obtained.
The movement is strongly influenced by frictional and adhesive forces that
can cause damage to the sample.

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.

The relationship between force and distance is shown in Figure

Dynamic (Tapping) Mode-This mode eliminates the frictional force by

intermittently contacting the surface and oscillating with sufficient amplitude to
prevent it from being trapped in by adhesive forces. This mode of operation is
less destructive than contact mode. The cantilever oscillates nearby its
resonance frequency.

Non-contact mode- In this mode tip does not touch the sample, however it
oscillates above the surface during scan. It uses feedback loop to monitor
changes in the amplitude due to attractive Vander Waals forces so the surface
topography can be monitored. It is better for soft samples and biological samples.

Advantages

1. Easy to prepare samples for observation

2. It can be used in vacuums, air, and liquids.
3. Measurement of sample sizes is accurate
4. It has a 3D imaging
5. It can be used to study living and non-living elements
6. It can be used to quantify the roughness of surfaces
7. It is used in dynamic environments.

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Disadvantages

1. It can only scan a single nano sized image at a time of about 150x150nm.
2. They have a low scanning time which might cause thermal drift on the
sample.
3. The tip and the sample can be damaged during detection.
4. It has a limited magnification and vertical range.

X-ray Photoelectron Spectroscopy (XPS)

PRINCIPLE:

X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS) involves irradiating the sample with low
energy (1.5 Kev) X-rays such that photoelectric effect is induced. The kinetic
energy of emitted electrons is given by

K.E.= hν – BE – Ф

where

K.E- Kinetic energy

BE - Binding energy of the electrons
 - work function of the sample.

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CONSTRUCTION:

.
 X-ray source; Al Kα of Mgα X-rays are typically used to excite the
sample; Sample holder is present between the X-ray source and the
entrance slit
 XPS mainly has lens system to collect the photo electrons.
 An electron energy analyzer is used to analyzer to filter the electron
energy of the photoelectrons that are produced. This is typically a
Concentric Hemispherical Analyzer (CHA).
 The detector is provided to detector to count the electrons. It has
electron channel multiplier tube where in single electron pass through
this channel plates and emerge as pulse of electrons.
 Analyzer control and computer system contains computer and data
reduction software. XPS data are compared to inventories or archives of
experimentally determined XPS data of standard reference material.
 Ultrahigh vacuum system; typically operating conditions are at
<10-9 Torr. This is required because the emitted photoelectrons have a

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relatively low energy and are readily absorbed by ambient atmosphere
or the gas molecules in the chamber.
Working:

 The sample is kept in ultra-high vacuum is illuminated by the photons

with energy hν; low energy X-rays,
 A bound electron absorbs a photon, resulting in the emission of Photo
electrons and converts part of the energy to kinetic energy
 XPS spectra is the plot of number of photo electrons emitted versus the
KE/ BE. Each element has unique XPS spectra
 The identification of the elements in sample is made directly from the K.E
of these ejected photo electrons. Each peak represents the number of
electrons at a certain energy that is characteristic of some element.
(Binding energy increases from left to right and kinetic energy increase
from right to left)
 The relative concentration is made on the photo electron intensities
 XPS is used to determine the elemental composition, stoichiometry and
examine surface contamination.

*********ALL THE BEST **********

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