Missiles

Missile System

A missile is an intelligent unmanned rocket designed to carry the payload to

a designated point with an aim of destroying the object/target. The missile is
designed keeping in mind its target, trajectory, warhead, range, velocity and
launch platform.

The major technologies/mechanisms used in a missile are:

• Propulsion system
• Guidance system
• Aerodynamic features to include air frame, wings and fins
• Terminal guidance in case of precision guided weapons
• Warhead

Ballistic Missile and Cruise Missile

Ballistic Missile

• A ballistic missile follows a ballistic trajectory to deliver one or

more warheads on a predetermined target.
• A ballistic trajectory is the path of an object that is launched but
has no active propulsion during its actual flight (these weapons are
guided only during relatively brief periods of flight).
• Consequently, the trajectory is fully determined by a given initial
velocity, effects of gravity, air resistance, and motion of the earth
(Coriolis Force).
• Shorter range ballistic missiles stay within the Earth’s atmosphere.
• Longer-ranged intercontinental ballistic missiles (ICBMs), are
launched on a sub-orbital flight trajectory and spend most of their
flight out of the atmosphere.

Types of ballistic missiles based on the range

 • Short-range (tactical) ballistic missile (SRBM): Range between 300
km and 1,000 km.
• Medium-range (theatre) ballistic missile (MRBM): 1,000 km to
3,500 km.
• Intermediate-range (Long-Range) ballistic missile (IRBM or LRBM):
3,500 km and 5,500 km.
• Intercontinental ballistic missile (ICBM): 5,500 km +

Cruise missile

• A cruise missile is a guided missile (target has to be pre-set) used

against terrestrial targets.
• It remains in the atmosphere throughout its flight.
• It flies the major portion of its flight path at an approximately
constant speed.
• Cruise missiles are designed to deliver a large warhead over long
distances with high precision.
• Modern cruise missiles are capable of traveling at supersonic or high
subsonic speeds, are self-navigating, and are able to fly on a non-
ballistic, extremely low-altitude trajectory.

Types of cruise missiles based on speed

• Hypersonic (Mach 5): these missiles would travel at least five times
the speed of sound (Mach 5). E.g. BrahMos-II.
• Supersonic (Mach 2-3): these missiles travel faster than the speed of
sound. E.g. BrahMos.
• Subsonic (Mach 0.8): these missiles travel slower than the speed of
sound. E.g. Nirbhay.
Mach Number
• Mach number expresses the speed of an object in air relative to the
speed of sound.
• For example, Mach number 6 here implies that the vehicle was
moving at six times the speed of sound.

Velocity Zone Mach number

Subsonic Mach < 1.0
Transonic Mach ~ 1.0
Supersonic Mach > 1.0
Hypersonic Mach > 5.0

Differences between Ballistic Missile and Cruise Missile

Ballistic Missile Cruise Missile

It is propelled only for a brief duration Self-propelled till the end of its
after the launch. flight.
Similar to a rocket engine. Similar to a jet engine.
Long-range missiles leave the earth’s The flight path is within the
atmosphere and reenter it. earth’s atmosphere.
Low precision as it is unguided for most
Hits targets with high precision
of its path and its trajectory depends on
as it is constantly propelled.
gravity, air resistance, and Coriolis Force.
Can have a very long-range (300 km to The range is small as it needs to
12,000 km) as there is no fuel be constantly propelled to hit the
requirement after its initial trajectory. target with high precision.
Heavy payload carrying capacity. Payload capacity is limited.
Can carry multiple payloads (Multiple
Independently targetable Re-entry Usually carries a single payload.
Vehicle)
Developed primarily to carry nuclear Developed primarily to carry
warheads. conventional warheads.
E.g. Prithvi I, Prithvi II, Agni I, Agni II,
E.g. BrahMos missiles
and Dhanush missiles.

Classification of Missile
Missiles are generally classified on the basis of their Type, Launch Mode, Range, Propulsion,
Warhead and Guidance Systems.

Launch Mode:
 1. Surface-to-Surface Missile
2. Surface-to-Air Missile
3. Surface (Coast)-to-Sea Missile
4. Air-to-Air Missile
5. Air-to-Surface Missile
6. Sea-to-Sea Missile
7. Sea-to-Surface (Coast) Missile
8. Anti-Tank Missile

Range:

1. Short Range Missile

2. Medium Range Missile
3. Intermediate Range Ballistic Missile
4. Intercontinental Ballistic Missile

Propulsion:

1. Solid Propulsion
2. Liquid Propulsion
3. Hybrid Propulsion
4. Ramjet
5. Scramjet
6. Cryogenic

Warhead:

1. Conventional
2. Strategic

Guidance Systems:

1. Wire Guidance
2. Command Guidance
3. Terrain Comparison Guidance
4. Terrestrial Guidance
5. Inertial Guidance
6. Beam Rider Guidance
7. Laser Guidance
8. RF and GPS Reference

On the basis of Type:

(i) Cruise Missile: A cruise missile is an unmanned self-propelled (till the time of impact)
guided vehicle that sustains flight through aerodynamic lift for most of its flight path and
whose primary mission is to place an ordnance or special payload on a target. They fly within
the earth’s atmosphere and use jet engine technology. These vehicles vary greatly in their
speed and ability to penetrate defences.Cruise missiles can be categorised by size, speed
(subsonic or supersonic), range and whether launched from land, air, surface ship or
submarine.

Depending upon the speed such missiles are classified as:

1) Subsonic cruise missile

2) Supersonic cruise missile

3) Hypersonic cruise missile

Subsonic cruise missile flies at a speed lesser than that of sound. It travels at a speed of
around 0.8 Mach. The well-known subsonic missile is the American Tomahawk cruise
missile. Some other examples are Harpoon of USA and Exocet of France.

Supersonic cruise missile travels at a speed of around 2-3 Mach i.e.; it travels a kilometre
approximately in a second. The modular design of the missile and its capability of being
launched at different orientations enable it to be integrated with a wide spectrum of platforms
like warships, submarines, different types of aircraft, mobile autonomous launchers and silos.
The combination of supersonic speed and warhead mass provides high kinetic energy
ensuring tremendous lethal effect. BRAHMOS is the only known versatile supersonic cruise
missile system which is in service.

Hypersonic cruise missile travels at a speed of more than 5 Mach. Many countries are
working to develop hypersonic cruise missiles. BrahMos Aerospace is also in the process of
developing a hypersonic cruise missile, BRAHMOS-II, which would fly at a speed greater
than 5 Mach.

(ii) Ballistic Missile: A ballistic missile is a missile that has a ballistic trajectory over most of
its flight path, regardless of whether or not it is a weapon-delivery vehicle. Ballistic missiles
are categorised according to their range, maximum distance measured along the surface of
earth's ellipsoid from the point of launch to the point of impact of the last element of their
payload. The missile carry a huge payload. The carriage of a deadly warhead is justified by
the distance the missile travels. Ballistic missiles can be launched from ships and land based
facilities. For example, Prithvi I, Prithvi II, Agni I, Agni II and Dhanush ballistic missiles are
currently operational in the Indian defence forces.

On the basis of Launch Mode:

(i) Surface-to-Surface Missile: A surface-to-surface missile is a guided projectile launched

from a hand-held, vehicle mounted, trailer mounted or fixed installation. It is often powered
by a rocket motor or sometimes fired by an explosive charge since the launch platform is
stationary.

(ii) Surface-to-Air Missile: A surface-to-air missile is designed for launch from the ground
to destroy aerial targets like aircrafts, helicopters and even ballistic missiles. These missiles
are generally called air defence systems as they defend any aerial attacks by the enemy.

(iii) Surface (Coast)-to-Sea Missile: A surface (coast)-to-sea missile is designed to be

launched from land to ship in the sea as targets.
(iv) Air-to-Air Missile: An air-to-air missile is launched from an aircraft to destroy the
enemy aircraft. The missile flies at a speed of 4 Mach.

(v) Air-to-Surface Missile: An air-to-surface missile is designed for launch from military
aircraft and strikes ground targets on land, at sea or both. The missiles are basically guided
via laser guidance, infrared guidance and optical guidance or via GPS signals. The type of
guidance depends on the type of target.

(vi) Sea-to-Sea Missile: A sea-to-sea missile is designed for launch from one ship to another
ship.

(vii) Sea-to-Surface (Coast) Missile: A sea-to-surface missile is designed for launch from
ship to land based targets.

(viii) Anti-Tank Missile: An anti-tank missile is a guided missile primarily designed to hit
and destroy heavily-armoured tanks and other armoured fighting vehicles. Anti-tank missiles
could be launched from aircraft, helicopters, tanks and also from shoulder mounted launcher.

On the basis of Range:

This type of classification is based on maximum range achieved by the missiles. The basic
classification is as follows:

(i) Short Range Missile

(ii) Medium Range Missile
(iii) Intermediate Range Ballistic Missile
(iv) Intercontinental Ballistic Missile

On the basis of Propulsion:

(i) Solid Propulsion: Solid fuel is used in solid propulsion. Generally, the fuel is aluminium
powder. Solid propulsion has the advantage of being easily stored and can be handled in
fuelled condition. It can reach very high speeds quickly. Its simplicity also makes it a good
choice whenever large amount of thrust is needed.

(ii) Liquid Propulsion: The liquid propulsion technology uses liquid as fuel. The fuels are
hydrocarbons. The storage of missile with liquid fuel is difficult and complex. In addition,
preparation of missile takes considerable time. In liquid propulsion, propulsion can be
controlled easily by restricting the fuel flow by using valves and it can also be controlled
even under emergency conditions. Basically, liquid fuel gives high specific impulse as
compared to solid fuel.

(ii) Hybrid Propulsion: There are two stages in hybrid propulsion - solid propulsion and
liquid propulsion. This kind of propulsion compensates the disadvantages of both propulsion
systems and has the combined advantages of the two propulsion systems.

(iii) Ramjet: A ramjet engine does not have any turbines unlike turbojet engines. It achieves
compression of intake air just by the forward speed of the air vehicle. The fuel is injected and
ignited. The expansion of hot gases after fuel injection and combustion accelerates the
exhaust air to a velocity higher than that at the inlet and creates positive push. However, the
air entering the engine should be at supersonic speeds. So, the aerial vehicle must be moving
in supersonic speeds. Ramjet engines cannot propel an aerial vehicle from zero to supersonic
speeds.

(iv) Scramjet: Scramjet is an acronym for Supersonic Combustion Ramjet. The difference
between scramjet and ramjet is that the combustion takes place at supersonic air velocities
through the engine. It is mechanically simple, but vastly more complex aerodynamically than
a jet engine. Hydrogen is normally the fuel used.

(v) Cryogenic: Cryogenic propellants are liquefied gases stored at very low temperatures,
most frequently liquid hydrogen as the fuel and liquid oxygen as the oxidizer. Cryogenic
propellants require special insulated containers and vents which allow gas to escape from the
evaporating liquids. The liquid fuel and oxidizer are pumped from the storage tanks to an
expansion chamber and injected into the combustion chamber where they are mixed and
ignited by a flame or spark. The fuel expands as it burns and the hot exhaust gases are
directed out of the nozzle to provide thrust.

On the basis of Warhead:

(i) Conventional Warhead: A conventional warhead contains high energy explosives. It is

filled with a chemi al explosive and relies on the detonation of the explosive and the resulting
metal casing fragmentation as kill mechanisms.

(ii) Strategic Warhead: In a strategic warhead, radio active materials are present and when
triggered they exhibit huge radio activity that can wipe out even cities. They are generally
designed for mass annihilation.

On the basis of Guidance Systems:

(i) Wire Guidance: This system is broadly similar to radio command, but is less susceptible
to electronic counter measures. The command signals are passed along a wire (or wires)
dispensed from the missile after launch.

(ii) Command Guidance: Command guidance involves tracking the projectile from the
launch site or platform and transmitting commands by radio, radar, or laser impulses or along
thin wires or optical fibres. Tracking might be accomplished by radar or optical instruments
from the launch site or by radar or television imagery relayed from the missile.

(iii) Terrain Comparison Guidance: Terrain Comparison (TERCOM) is used invariably by

cruise missiles. The system uses sensitive altimeters to measure the profile of the ground
directly below and checks the result against stored information.

(iv) Terrestrial Guidance: This system constantly measures star angles and compares them
with the pre-programmed angles expected on the missile’s intended trajectory. The guidance
system directs the control system whenever an alteration to trajectory is required.

(v) Inertial Guidance: This system is totally contained within the missile and is programmed
prior to launch. Three accelerometers, mounted on a platform space-stabilised by gyros,
measure accelerations along three mutually perpendicular axes; these accelerations are then
integrated twice, the first integration giving velocity and the second giving position. The
system then directs the control system to preserve the pre-programmed trajectory. This
systems are used in the surface-to-surface missiles and in cruise missiles.

(vi) Beam Rider Guidance: The beam rider concept relies on an external ground or ship-
based radar station that transmits a beam of radar energy towards the target. The surface radar
tracks the target and also transmits a guidance beam that adjusts its angle as the target moves
across the sky.

(vii) Laser Guidance: In laser guidance, a laser beam is focused on the target and the laser
beam reflects off the target and gets scattered. The missile has a laser seeker that can detect
even miniscule amount of radiation. The seeker provides the direction of the laser scatters to
the guidance system. The missile is launched towards the target, the seeker looks out for the
laser reflections and the guidance system steers the missile towards the source of laser
reflections that is ultimately the target.

(viii) RF and GPS Reference: RF (Radio Frequency) and GPS (Global Positioning System)
are examples of technologies that are used in missile guidance systems. A missile uses GPS
signal to determine the location of the target. Over the course of its flight, the weapon uses
this information to send commands to control surfaces and adjusts its trajectory. In a RF
reference, the missile uses RF waves to locate the target.

Air Breathing Engines

An air-breathing engine is an engine that takes in air from its
surroundings in order to burn fuel.

All practical air breathing engines are internal combustion engines that
directly heat the air by burning fuel, with the resultant hot gases used
for propulsion via a propulsive nozzle.

A continuous stream of air flows through the air-breathing engine. The air is
compressed, mixed with fuel, ignited and expelled as the exhaust gas.

Thrust produced by a typical air-breathing engine is about eight times

greater than its weight.

• The thrust results from the expulsion of the working gases from
the exhaust nozzle.

Jet Engines

A jet engine is an internal combustion engine that propels aircraft using the rearward
discharge of a jet of fluid, usually hot exhaust gases generated by burning fuel with air
drawn in from the atmosphere.
Types Features

- Oldest and basic types of jet engines

Turbojet - It compresses air through a turbine and then burns fuel in the combustion
chamber.

- The thrust generated by this process propels the aircraft forward.

- It is an air breathing propulsion engine operating on the principle of
supersonic combustion.
Ramjet
- It has the absence of any rotator and relies solely on the forward motion of the
engine to compress incoming air.
- It is an upgraded version of the Ramjet and generates thrust through supersonic
air flow and combustion.
Scramjet
- It moves at hypersonic speed and performs best at high speeds, greater than
Mach 5.

Processes involved in Jet Engines: The following are the three processes
involved in Jet Engines:

o Combustion: This is the process in which fuel is mixed with

compressed air and gets ignited which then produces a high-
velocity exhaust.
o Compression: In this process, the incoming air is compressed
to increase its pressure before entering the combustion
chamber.
o Exhaust: In this process, the high-velocity exhaust gases exit
the engine, creating the thrust required to propel the engine.
Ramjet Engine

A ramjet engine is a jet propulsion system that utilizes the exhaust velocity of a
combustion process to achieve thrust.

• Unlike turbojets, ramjet engines do not require an external

compressor and turbine, instead relying solely on the speed of
incoming air to ignite fuel in the combustion chamber and create
thrust.
o This makes them an efficient option for high-speed
applications, as they can be smaller and lighter than
traditional turbojets while delivering comparable performance.
• The Ramjet engine has no moving parts and relies on high-speed
motion for operation.
• It operates efficiently at supersonic speeds (around Mach 3 to 6).
Advantages of Ramjet

The Ramjet engines offer several advantages over traditional turbojets, such as,

• They have a compact size and lightweight construction.

• They do not require external compressors or turbines, as ramjets
use the speed of incoming air to ignite fuel.
• They are more efficient for high-speed applications than turbojets.

Disadvantages of Ramjet

The Ramjet engines have some drawbacks, such as,

• They are likely to be inefficient at low airspeeds and may require

large intakes to ensure efficient operation.
• They require a considerable amount of fuel compared to traditional
turbojets, which are often more expensive to operate and maintain.

Scramjet Engine

A scramjet engine is an upgraded variant of a ramjet where combustion occurs due to

supersonic airflow.

• This supersonic flow allows the jets to achieve even faster speeds
than the standard ramjets.
 o This engine does not need to slow the incoming air for
combustion like a typical turbojet or even ramjet.
• It carries liquid Hydrogen as fuel and liquid Oxygen for combustion
(oxidiser) to generate thrust.
• The fuel efficiency of the scramjets tends to be significantly better
than that of traditional turbojets and ramjets.
o It makes them ideal for various high-speed applications.
• Due to the complexities of maintaining the supersonic airflow,
scramjets are often more expensive and difficult to manage than
other engines.
• They operate more efficiently at very high speeds (Mach 12 to 24).
• Just like the Ramjet engines, they also have no moving parts.

Advantages of Scramjet

The Scramjet engines offer some distinct advantages over other types of jet engines, such as,

• The primary benefit is the potential for increased speed, as

combustion takes place in supersonic airflow and does not need to be
slowed down for combustion.
• They are also more fuel-efficient.
• They could potentially improve the performance during acceleration.

Disadvantages of Scramjet
The scramjets come with their drawbacks, such as,

• It does not have a compressor to compress the air; hence, it uses its
high-speed forward motion to compress the air. Therefore, efficient
thrust is difficult to produce unless boosted to high speed.
• The tolerances required to maintain supersonic airflow often make
them harder to manage.
• They are more expensive than other types of jet engines.
• These engines can also sacrifice some thrust compared to traditional
turbojet and ramjet designs.

Application of Scramjet in Defence

• The Scramjet engine is the central piece of many high-end

applications in Defence such as Hypersonic Cruise Missiles and
Hypersonic Glide Vehicles (a warhead for Ballistic Missiles).
• Many countries have successfully developed hypersonic cruise
missiles.
o For example, Russia’s Zircon missile and China’s DF-27.

Integrated Guided Missile Development Programme (IGMDP)

• IGMDP was the brainchild of renowned scientist Dr. APJ Abdul
Kalam.
• It was intended to attain self-sufficiency in the field of missile
technology.
• After keeping in mind the requirements of various types of missiles by
the defense forces, the program recognized the need to develop five
missile systems.
• The IGMDP formally got the approval of the Indian government on
July 26, 1983.
• It brought together the country’s scientific community, academic
institutions, R&D laboratories, industries, and the three defense
services in giving shape to the strategic, indigenous missile systems.

The missiles developed under IGMDP are:

1. Short-range surface-to-surface ballistic missile – Prithvi

2. Intermediate-range surface-to-surface ballistic missile – Agni
3. Short-range low-level surface-to-air missile – Trishul
4. Medium-range surface-to-air missile – Akash
5. Third-generation anti-tank missile – Nag
Missile Type of Missile Operational Range Speed
Astra Missile Air-to-Air Missiles 80-110 km Mach 4.5 +
Novator K-100 Medium Range air-to-air missile 300–400 km Mach 3.3
Trishul Short-Range surface to air missile 9 km
Akash -1S (18 – 30
Km)
Akash Missile
• Akash-1S Medium-range surface-to-air Akash Mk-II (35 – Mach 2.5 to
• Akash Mark-II missile 40 Km) 3.5
• Akash-NG
Akash-NG (More
than 50 Km)
Barak 8 Long-Range surface to air Missile 100 km Mach 2
Prithvi Air Defence (PAD) exo-atmospheric interceptor missile 2000 km Mach 8
Agni-I Medium-range ballistic missile 700-1250 km Mach 7.5
Agni-II Intermediate-range ballistic missile 2,000–3,000 km Mach 7
Agni-III Intermediate-range ballistic missile Around 3,000 km Mach 7.5
Agni-IV Intermediate-range ballistic missile Around 4,000 km Mach 7
Around
Agni-V Intercontinental ballistic missile Mach 24
5,000 km
Prithvi I Short-Range Ballistic Missile 150 km –
Prithvi II Short-Range Ballistic Missile 350 km –
Dhanush Short-Range Ballistic Missile 350 – 600 km –
Shaurya Medium-Range Ballistic Missile 750 to 1,900 km –
Prahaar Short-Range Ballistic Missile 150 km –
Mach 2.8 to 3
BrahMos Supersonic cruise missile 290 km
Mach
BrahMos II Hypersonic cruise missile 450 – 600 km Mach 7
Nirbhay Subsonic cruise missile 1,000 – 1500 km Mach 0.8
Exo-atmospheric Anti-ballistic
Prithvi Air Defence (PAD) Altitude – 80 km Mach 5+
missile
Exo-atmospheric Anti-ballistic
Prithvi Defence Vehicle (PDV) Altitude – 150 km Mach 4.5
missile
Advanced Air Defence (AAD)
Endoatmospheric Anti-ballistic
/Ashwin Ballistic Missile Altitude – 30 km
missile
Interceptor

Sagarika (K-15) Ballistic Missile Around 750 Km

K-4 Ballistic Missile Around 3,000 km

K-5 Ballistic Missile Around 5,000 km
Amogha Anti-Tank Guided Missile 2.8 km
Nag Anti-Tank Guided Missile 500 m – 4 km 230 m/s
Helina Anti-Tank Guided Missile 7 – 10 km

Agni series

Agni I

• Single stage, solid fuel, Medium Range Ballistic Missile (MRBM).

• Using solid propulsion booster and a liquid propulsion upper stage.
• Range of 700-800 km.

Agni II

• Intermediate-Range Ballistic Missile (IRBM).

• Range more than 2000 km.

Agni III

• Two stage IRBM

• Support a wide range of warhead configurations.
• Strike range of more than 2,500 Km

Agni IV

• Two stage missile powered by solid propellant.

• Can fire from a road mobile launcher.
• Range is more than 3,500 km.
• Equipped with indigenously developed ring laser gyro and composite
rocket motor.

Agni V

• Three-stage solid fueled, indigenous Inter-Continental Ballistic Missile

(ICBM).
• Capable of carrying 1.5 tonnes of nuclear warheads.
• Latest and most advanced variant in terms of navigation and
guidance, warhead and engine.

Missile Features
Astra Astra is a beyond-visual-range (BVR) air-to-air missile (AAM).
 In terms of size and weight, the Astra is the smallest missile
developed by the DRDO.
It was envisaged to intercept and destroy enemy aircraft at
supersonic speeds.
Active radar seeker to find targets.
Electronic counter-measure capabilities.
Used as anti-sea skimmer (to fly low to avoid radar) from ships
against low-flying attacks.
Short-range, quick reaction, all-weather surface-to-air
Trishul
missile designed to counter a low-level attack.
Has necessary electronic counter-measures against all known
aircraft jammers.
It has the capability to “neutralize aerial targets like fighter jets,
cruise missiles, and air-to-surface missiles” as well as ballistic
missiles.
Akash Medium-range, surface-to-air missile with multi-target
engagement capability.
Multiple warheads capable.
High-energy solid propellant and ram-rocket propulsion system.
Anti-ballistic missile developed to intercept incoming ballistic
PAD
missiles outside the atmosphere (exo-atmospheric).
3rd generation anti-tank ‘fire and forget’ guided missile (lock-
on before launch system) where the target is identified and
designated before the weapon is launched.
Nag Developed indigenously as an anti-armor weapon employing
sensor fusion technologies for flight guidance.
HELINA (Helicopter Launched NAG) is the air-to-surface
version of the NAG integrated into Dhruv Helicopters.
India’s latest surface-to-surface missile with a range of 150 km.
High maneuverability, acceleration, and accuracy.
Prahaar Primary objective is to bridge the gap between the unguided
Pinaka multi-barrel rocket launcher and the guided Prithvi
missile variants.
It is a supersonic cruise missile developed as a joint venture
between Indian and Russia.
BrahMos
It is the fastest supersonic cruise missile in the world.
It is the world’s fastest anti-ship cruise missile in operation.
Subsonic missile which is ancillary (providing necessary
support) to the BrahMos range.
Capable of being launched from multiple platforms on land,
Nirbhay sea and air.
A terrain hugging, stealth missile capable of delivering 24
different types of warheads depending on mission requirements.
Can reach up to 1,000 km.
K-15 It forms the crucial third leg of India’s nuclear deterrent vis-
Sagarika à-vis its submarine-launched ballistic missile (SLBM)
 capability.
It was subsequently integrated with India’s nuclear-powered
Arihant class submarine.
It is capable of carrying nuclear warheads.
Sea-based, short-range, liquid-propellant ballistic missile.
Dhanush Dhanush missile is also known as Prithvi-III.
Naval version of Prithvi II.
Maximum range 350 km.
Surface-to-surface ballistic missile (SSM) variant of the K-15
Sagarika.
The nuclear capability of the missile enhances India’s second-
Shaurya
strike capability.
It reduces the dependence on the K-15 which was built with
Russian assistance.

Anti-Satellite Missile Test (ASAT) - Mission Shakti

Anti-satellites (ASATs) are weapons designed to destroy or disable satellites in orbit.
They can be ground-based, air-based, or space-based. ASATs can use various methods to
attack satellites, including kinetic impact, lasers, and directed energy weapons.

In March 2019, India successfully conducted Mission Shakti, an anti-satellite missile test,
making India the fourth country in the world to have demonstrated the ability to destroy a
satellite in orbit.

Anti-Satellite Weapons (ASAT)

Anti-satellite (ASAT) technology refers to the capability to intercept, disable, or destroy

satellites in orbit. This technology is primarily developed for defence and strategic purposes.
Types of Anti-Satellite Weapons

ASATs are broadly classified into two types: those that employ brute force and those that do
not.

• Kinetic energy methods: This involves launching a missile that

intercepts and physically collides with the target satellite to destroy it.
o The kinetic energy ASATs physically collide with satellites and
can reach altitudes. These ASATs can be ballistic missiles,
drones, and other satellites.
• Non-kinetic methods: They use non-physical attacks such as cyber-
attacks, jamming, and even lasers to blind satellites without
physically destroying them.
o All of these attacks can be launched from the air, low orbit, or
even ground installations.

Other Countries with ASAT Technology

ASATs were first developed during the Cold War era. They have never been used in warfare,
but have been used to remove decommissioned satellites. Besides India, three other countries
have successfully demonstrated anti-satellite (ASAT) technology in tests; the United States,
Russia, China, and India.

Country ASAT Missile/Weapon

Bold Orion air-launched ballistic missile

USA
(ALBM)

Russia (Former Soviet

Nudol Missile
Union)

China SC-19 ASAT missile

Need for ASAT Technology

• National security: ASAT weapons can be developed with the goal of

protecting national security interests such as safeguarding critical
infrastructure, military communications, and intelligence-gathering
capabilities that rely on satellites.
• Destroying retired satellites: There are many satellites in space right
now, many of which have outlived their usefulness and are orbiting
aimlessly.
o ASATs can be used to destroy these satellites.
• Deterrence: The possession of ASAT capabilities can act as a
deterrent to potential adversaries. Knowing that a nation can defend
its space assets and retaliate if its satellites are targeted may
discourage hostile actions in space.
o For instance, China was not impressed by India's ASAT
demonstration which neutralises China's counter-space
capabilities.
• Technological advancements: Advances in missile and space
technology make it feasible for more nations to develop ASAT
capabilities.
o It is often seen as a natural progression in a country's
technological evolution, particularly when it already has
experience in space research and missile technology.

Mission Shakti

On March 27, 2019, the Defence Research and Development Organisation (DRDO) from Dr.
APJ Abdul Kalam Island in Odisha, successfully neutralised a satellite in space with its anti-
satellite (ASAT) missile test ‘Mission Shakti’, a part of the Indian Ballistic Missile Defence
Programme.
 • Test objective: Mission Shakti aimed to demonstrate India's ASAT
capabilities by destroying a defunct Indian satellite in a low Earth
orbit (LEO) at an altitude of approximately 283 kilometres.
o The entire effort was indigenous, which demonstrated the
Nation’s capability to develop such complex and critical
missions.
• The weapon used: The Prithvi Delivery Vehicle Mark-II (PDV MK-
II), developed by India's DRDO, collided with and destroyed an Indian
Microsat-R satellite in flight.
o It was the country's first ASAT missile test.

Significance of Mission Shakti

• Strengthened strategic position: The success of Mission Shakti

positioned India as a spacefaring nation with advanced ASAT
capabilities, bolstering its national security.
o It made India the fourth country with ASAT capabilities
after the USA, Russia, and China.
o The mission's success demonstrated DRDO's technical prowess
and ability to protect the country's assets in space, the fourth
dimension of warfare.
• Signalling deterrence: India's ASAT program was a signal of
deterrence that it possesses the capability to protect its space assets.
o This signals India's preparedness to respond to any potential
enemy attack on its satellites in the future, serving as a
deterrence strategy.
• Validation of Ballistic Missile Defense Technologies: The ASAT test
also validated various emerging Indian ballistic missile defence
technologies, contributing to India's broader defence capabilities.

Implications of Anti-Satellite Weapons

• Space debris: Destructive ASAT tests result in the creation of a

substantial amount of space debris, posing a severe threat to other
satellites and spacecraft in space, increasing the risk of collisions.
• Kessler Syndrome: It can lead to Kessler Syndrome, a situation
where an increasing amount of space debris in orbit leads to a self-
sustaining cascade of collisions, creating more debris and making
space activities increasingly hazardous.
• Race for arms control: The proliferation of ASAT capabilities may
lead to an arms race in space, resulting in the weaponisation of space.
• International concern: The consequences of ASAT testing, especially
in light of the dangers of debris, have prompted calls for a global ban
on destructive ASAT tests.
Anti Ballistic Missile Defence System
Indian Ballistic Missile Defence (BMD) Programme, initiated in 2000 after the Kargil
War, aims to protect India from missile threats, particularly from Pakistan and China.

At present, the BMD system includes the endo-atmospheric Advanced Air Defence (AAD)
interceptor and the exo-atmospheric Prithvi Air Defence (PAD) systems.

Components of India's BMD Network

A ballistic missile follows a high-arched trajectory and is powered only during the initial
launch phase. Ballistic missiles can be equipped with conventional or Weapons of Mass
Destruction (WMD) payloads and pose a grave security threat.

• Detection and tracking: Long-range surveillance radars like

Swordfish detect incoming missiles and multi-object tracking
radars continuously monitor their trajectory.
• Command and control centres: Mission control centres analyse real-
time tracking data to ascertain missile trajectory, launch
interceptors and coordinate appropriate response measures across the
network.
• Interceptor launchers: These are containers that store interceptor
missiles linked with the tracking and command nodes.
o Launchers fitted with electromechanical systems eject
missiles at hostile projectiles based on trajectory predictions.
• Communications network: Reliable communication connectivity
between the sensors, interceptors and control centres using wired or
high-frequency radio links essential for coordinated BMD functioning.

India's Two-Tier Ballistic Missile Defence System

As conceived in original plans, India's BMD shield comprises two interceptor missile systems
– Prithvi Air Defence (PAD) and Advanced Air Defence (AAD) missiles with specialised
capabilities:

High Altitude PAD Interceptors

The Prithvi interceptors are designed to tackle longer-range ballistic missiles above (50km-
80km) altitudes in exo-atmospheric space. Two PAD variants are developed:

• Pradyumna Missile: It is a two-stage solid and liquid-fueled quick-

reaction missile to intercept incoming missiles at 80 km altitude with
a maximum speed of Mach 5.
• Prithvi Defence Vehicle: Advanced variant consisting of a kinetic kill
vehicle attached to the top of dual stage PAD interceptor instead of
explosives.
o It collides directly with hostile missiles above the atmosphere.
Lower Altitude AAD Interceptors

The Advanced Air Defence missiles provide an additional interception layer engaging
enemy missiles endo-atmospherically in the 15 to 30 km altitude range:

• AAD Ashwin Interceptors: Single-stage solid rocket-propelled

missiles that can attain 4.5 Mach speeds, 100 km range and 20 km
operational altitude to neutralize hostile projectiles.

Together, the PAD and AAD interceptors form a robust and impenetrable missile shield
reducing leakage of hostile missiles significantly.

Significance of the Ballistic Missile Defence Programme

• National security: The IBMDP is vital for India to defend against

missile attacks that can target key assets and major population
centres.
o Intercepting adversarial missiles acts as a protective barrier and
enhances India's security in an evolving threat environment.
• Regional threats: The detection and interception capabilities, enable
India to counter missile threats from adversarial nations in the region.
o Successful interceptions of incoming missiles by the DRDO
demonstrate this strategic capability as an active deterrent.
• Nuclear Arsenal: With nuclear weapons, India faces risks of pre-
emptive strikes. An effective missile defence shield reduces the
chances of nuclear assets being compromised, thereby fortifying
India's deterrence posture.
• Technological capabilities: Developing unique technologies like
missile interceptors and modern radars stimulates the indigenous
defence industry, helping India become self-reliant in critical domains.
o This brings advancements aligned with the future needs of the
armed forces.
• International Cooperation: India's progress in this sphere has led
countries like the USA with shared security interests in Asia to
actively collaborate and exchange missile defence technologies.
o This highlights the credibility of Indian missile defence
capabilities globally.

Challenges associated with the Ballistic Missile Defence Programme

• Technological complexity: The system integrates specialised

technologies like interceptor missiles, tracking radars and command
centres.
o Technical issues faced in developing key interception missiles
like the AAD exemplify the sophisticated technological barriers.
• Limited Interceptor range: Current operational Indian interceptor
missiles have a maximum interception range of around 80 km only.
 o This significantly limits defence coverage against adversary
longer-range missile strikes.
• Simultaneous Multi-vector threats: India faces likely threats from
multiple geographies simultaneously.
o Providing 360-degree missile defence with current systems
against synchronised attacks is still an operational challenge.
• Resource and Cost implications: The substantial investments
required to place a strain on budgets and skill allocations.
o This has opportunity costs with funds being diverted from
conventional capacity upgrades. Balancing the allocation of
resources between offensive and defensive capabilities is a
challenge for India.
o This challenge is exemplified by the need to prioritise
investments in both conventional and strategic deterrence.
• Fast-advancing threat dynamics: Adversaries are rapidly
modernising missile technologies and may employ counter-measures
too.
o India has to expend efforts continuously to upgrade systems
against an unpredictably progressing threat.
• Technology access issues: Despite external partnerships, India's
indigenous missile defence relies considerably on technology transfer
and access to controlled items.
o Export control regimes affect technology availability due to
global non-proliferation norms.

THAAD Missile System:

• It is a missile defense system that can engage and destroy short-,

medium-, and intermediate-range ballistic missiles during their
terminal phase of flight.
• Key features
o It has a “hit to kill” approach which blasts missiles as they
enter their target zone during their descent.
o It uses kinetic energy to destroy incoming nuclear warheads.
o Target range: It can cover a wide area, engaging targets at
distances between 150-200 kilometers (93-124 miles).
• Development of THAAD
o It was developed by the US after their experience of Iraq's Scud
missile attacks during the Persian Gulf War in 1991.
o In 2008, the US deployed an early missile warning radar, a part
of the THAAD system to Israel. Similar deployments were also
made in 2012 and 2019, aiding Israel's ability to emerge as a
military power.

THAAD Missile Defense System:

 The primary role of this missile system is to track and destroy missiles
before they are launched using a powerful radar.
 Each THAAD system consists of interceptors, launchers, radars, fire
control units and support equipment.
 THAAD is connected to space-based and surface-based surveillance
stations, which issue warnings by transferring data about incoming
missiles and also inform the THAAD interceptor missile about the
classification of the type of threat.
 THAAD is alerted about incoming missiles by space-based satellites
with infrared sensors.
Patriot Air Defence System

Description-It stands for Phased Array Tracking Radar for Intercept on Target. This is a
versatile surface-to-air missile defence system designed to intercept tactical ballistic missiles,
cruise missiles, and advanced aircraft in any weather and altitude. It is the U.S. Army’s most
advanced air defence system.
Deployment-It was first used in combat during the 1991 Gulf War and later during the 2003
U.S. invasion of Iraq. Recently, it has been deployed in Ukraine (2023) to counter Russian
missile attacks.

Features-

It can be moved on trucks or trailers, deployable in less than

Mobility
an hour

A) Radar system for detection and tracking

B) Engagement Control Station (ECS)
Components
C) Launching stations
D) Interceptor missiles

Range Average range of 150 km

interceptor missiles can reach an altitude of more than 24

Altitude
kilometers and hit targets up to 160 kilometers away
S-400 Missile System

The S-400 Triumf (SA-21 Growler) is a long-range surface-to-air missile (SAM) system
developed by Russia's Almaz Central Design Bureau in the late 1980s to counter advances in
Western air defence systems like the MIM-104 Patriot. It was intended to replace the earlier
S-200 and S-300 systems developed in the 1960s-1970s.

Features and Capabilities

The S-400 stands out for its sophisticated radars, long-range missiles, high mobility,
flexibility, adaptability, and networking capabilities. Some of its notable features and
capabilities are:

• Detection and tracking:

o Wide area search and track capability: S-400 radars can
maintain 300 target tracks while engaging 36 threats.
o Diverse radar suite: Multiple radars like the 96L6E provide
360-degree surveillance against various kinds of targets.
o Counter VLO/stealth: Radars can detect and track low
observable and stealth aircraft using a variety of advanced
methods.
o Resilient in EW environments: Phased array radars offer
electronic protection measures to operate in dense EW
environments.
o Altitude coverage: It can detect and engage targets including
ballistic missiles at the edge of space at 30 km altitude.
o Active and passive guidance: Accurate tracking using both
target illumination and passive homing for resistance to EW.
• Long-range missiles:
o 400 km range with 40N6 missile: It can intercept threats well
before they reach protected assets, and force enemy aircraft to
stand off.
o 250 km range with 48N6 baseline missile: Significant area
denial for enemy air power.
o Ability to hit slow and fast targets: Long-range missiles can
hit slow targets like helicopters, UAVs, and cruise missiles.
Short-range 9M96 can hit fast jets and PGMs.
• Mobility and Rapid deployment:
o Components mounted on wheeled vehicles: Launchers,
radars and command posts mounted on trucks for easy
transport.
o 5–10-minute setup time: System designed for high mobility
operations and rapid relocation.
o Shoot and scoot tactics: The launchers can fire missiles on the
move immediately after stopping, then quickly displace.
• Flexibility and adaptability:
o Point defence or area defence modes: It can protect high-
value targets or deny access to larger areas.
 oLow to very high-altitude engagement: It can intercept
terrain-hugging cruise missiles to exo-atmospheric ballistic
missiles.
o Multiple guidance modes: Missiles use inertial, active, passive
radio, and satellite guidance for flexibility.
o Adaptable to threats: Software can be reprogrammed to
counter new aircraft, missiles, and countermeasures.
• Networking and integration:
o Interfaces with Radars and launchers: Command posts
coordinate sensors and launchers across wide areas.
o Integrates with other systems: It can exchange data with S-
300, Tor, Pantsir and Air Defence for comprehensive coverage.
o Resistant to jamming and EW: Networked sensors and
launchers increase redundancy and resistance to electronic
attack.

Strategic Implications of the S-400 in India

India’s S-400 acquisition from Russia in 2018 is geopolitically significant, giving it leverage
in relations with both China and Pakistan.

• Deters regional adversaries:

o Pakistan: The S-400’s 400 km range covers vast stretches of
Pakistani airspace. Pakistani F-16s have a combat radius of
just 550-600 km.
 S-400s located in Punjab can thus effectively enforce ‘no-
fly zones’ over Pakistan's border regions.
 This reduces adversary air activity across the frontiers.
India can also take steps like shutting down Pakistani
AWACS to dominate air battles.
o China: The long reach allows India to shoot down Chinese
fighter jets from within its territory in case of hostilities.
 S-400 can counter China's J-20 stealth fighter and shut
down vulnerable support systems like AWACS and aerial
refuelling tankers.
 It complicates PLAAF's options for air campaigns and
limits its ability to assist Pakistan.
• Defensive shield over key cities: The S-400 provides a defensive
shield over India's major cities, critical infrastructure and strategic
facilities.
o Delhi, Mumbai, Kolkata and 30 other cities come under the
protective umbrella of the system with its 100 km+ engagement
radius.
o Vital assets like nuclear command centres, space facilities,
economic hubs and military bases can be secured. This reduces
vulnerability to punitive strikes.
• Sea denial against Naval forces: The S-400's long-range surveillance
provides extensive tracking of naval surface forces.
 oChinese aircraft carriers and Pakistan Navy ships can be
detected and engaged hundreds of kilometres away from the
coast. Their freedom to manoeuvre close to India during a
conflict was reduced.
o Shore-based S-400 batteries make the seas unsafe for
adversaries while sanitising airspace for the Indian Navy to
dominate.
• Boosts offensive air operations:
o By securing airbases, forward posts and national strategic
infrastructure, the S-400 provides a defensive counter-air
shield under which Indian offensive airpower can operate more
freely.
o Offensive forces do not need to be diverted to protect the
homeland and can solely focus on targeting adversary assets.
o Patrols near borders also become more risk tolerant with S-400
cover top-down.

Limitations and Constraints of S-400 Missile System

The S-400 aptly fulfils India's deterrence requirements from a defensive technology
perspective against regional adversaries. Despite boosting India's military capability, the S-
400 has some strategic constraints:

• Defensive-only asset: It remains a defensive system unable to

conduct surface attacks or seize enemy territory.
• China-Pak nexus: Joint air power cooperation between China and
Pakistan, including operations from each other's soil, can create two-
front challenges that increase the stress on Indian air defence.
• Missile gaps:Upper-tier area defence gaps remain against
hypersonic glide vehicles which the S-400 has yet to demonstrate full
capability against.
o Short-range protection against saturated artillery rocket attacks
is also limited.
• Cost implications: The S-400's high unit and lifecycle costs constrain
funding available for other military modernisation programs.
o It impacts the fiscal headroom for acquisition.
• Geopolitical fallout: More S-400 purchases could attract US
sanctions. Acquiring interoperable Western systems gets complicated.
The S-400 thus also brings geopolitical costs.

Iron Dome Air Defence System: Israel

o It is a short-range, ground-to-air, air defence system that

includes a radar and Tamir interceptor missiles that track
and neutralise any rockets or missiles aimed at Israeli targets.
o It is used for countering rockets, artillery & mortars as well as
aircraft, helicopters and Unmanned Aerial Vehicles (UAV).
 • It is capable of being used in all weather conditions,
including during the day and night.
o It was developed by the state-run Rafael Advanced Defense
Systems and Israel Aerospace Industries and was deployed
in 2011.
o Rafael claims a success rate of over 90%, with more than
2,000 interceptions, however experts agree the success rate is
over 80%.
o It can protect deployed and manoeuvring forces, as well as the
Forward Operating Base (FOB) and urban areas, against a
wide range of indirect and aerial threats.
 Components:
o The Iron Dome has three main systems that work together to
provide a shield over the area where it is deployed which are:
o Radar: It has a detection and tracking radar to spot any
incoming threats.
o Weapon Control: It has a battle management and weapon
control system (BMC),
o Missile Fire: It also has a missile firing unit. The BMC
basically liaises between the radar and the interceptor
missile.
What are the different tiers of Israel's missile defence system?

Israel has several air defence systems, each one designed to intercept incoming missiles at
different altitudes and distances.

Iron Dome, the most well-known of Israel's missile shields, is designed to intercept short-
range rockets, as well as shells and mortars, at ranges of between 4km and 70km from
the missile launcher.

Key Facts About Israel's Air Defense System

 Aspect Details
Key
Iron Dome, David's Sling, Arrow, and Barak-8
Components
It is a Short-range missile defense. It has a range of up to 70 km. It
Iron Dome
intercepts rockets and artillery shells and has beem operational since 2011.
It is a Medium-range missile defense. It has a range of 40-300 km. It is
David's Sling
designed to intercept tactical ballistic missiles and larger aerial threats.
It is a Long-range missile defense. It has a range of up to 2,500 km. It
Arrow
targets incoming ballistic missiles, part of Israel's multi-tiered defense.

Directed Energy Weapons (DEWs)

• DEWs are ranged weapons that use concentrated energy from electromagnetic or
particle technology, rather than kinetic energy, to incapacitate, damage, disable or
destroy enemy equipment, facilities, and/or personnel.
• DEWs expand the range of electronic warfare.
 o Electronic warfare includes any strategic use of the electromagnetic
spectrum against an enemy in a military conflict.
• How do DEWs Work?
o DEWs emit electromagnetic energy at the speed of light, using different
regions of the electromagnetic spectrum to penetrate various materials
based on their wavelength.
o Their power output is significantly higher than everyday devices (like
household microwaves), enabling them to disrupt or destroy targets
effectively.
• Applications of DEWs
o Military Defense: To intercept and destroy incoming missiles, neutralize
drones, and disable enemy electronics.
o Law Enforcement and Border Security: Non-lethal DEWs e.g. microwaves
or lasers can be used for crowd control and border security.
o Space Operations: To protect satellites from debris and anti-satellite
weapons.

Types of Directed Energy Weapons

• High Energy Lasers (HEL): Use highly concentrated light to destroy targets.
• HELs with a power of 100 kW can engage smaller targets like Unmanned
Aerial Systems (UAS), while 1 MW lasers could neutralize ballistic and
hypersonic missiles.
• Employed for fast-moving individual targets at a greater range
• High Power Microwaves (HPMs): Emit high-frequency electromagnetic waves to
damage electronic systems and incapacitate personnel

o Emplyed for widespread targets (Shorter range than HEL)

 • Millimeter waves: Use wavelengths between 1 and 10 millimeters. Applications
include non-lethal military applications like crowd control.
• Particle Beam Weapons: Use accelerated particles (protons or electrons) to inflict
damage.

Advantages of DEWs

• Cost efficiency per shot: Compared to traditional munitions, DEWs are potentially
less costly per shot than missiles.
o E.g., Britain’s DEW ‘DragonFire’ laser, which was successfully test fired
recently, is reportedly able to shoot down enemy aircrafts/missiles at a per-
shot cost of less than £10.
• Rapid response time: The speed of light in a laser beam enables near-instantaneous
reach to a target, a critical factor in countering fast-moving threats.
o It eliminates the need for calculating intercept courses as required for
interceptor missiles,
• Logistical efficiency: They eliminate the need for traditional (physical)
ammunition and mechanical loading, relying instead on a power source, which can
simplify supply chains.
• Precision: Light and other forms of directed energy are unaffected by gravity, wind,
or Coriolis force, allowing for highly accurate targeting.
• Stealth: Many DEWs operate silently and invisibly, especially those outside the
visible spectrum, making them difficult to detect.
• Countering Low-cost drones and rockets: DEWs can target large volumes of cheap
unmanned systems and munitions, which can overwhelm current air and missile
defences.

Challenges of DEWs

• Technological limitations: DEWs are generally less effective the farther they are
from the target, and atmospheric conditions and cooling requirements can limit their
effectiveness.
o E.g., fog and storms can reduce laser beam range and quality.
• Battlefield use: Decisions about how and when to use DEWs may be challenging.
o E.g., wider beam DEWs such as high-power microwave or millimeter wave
weapons, affect all assets in an area, whether friend or foe.
• Ethical and health concerns: Uncertainty around DEWs' long-term health effects on
people (either intentionally or unintentionally exposed to directed energy) has raised
ethical questions about their use.
• Arms race: Development of DEWs by one government can trigger an arms
competition among other nations, escalating tensions.
• Other concerns:
o Currently, DEWs are comparatively large and need substantial energy for
their operation.
o High costs associated with the research and development of DEWs.
o Need for HELs to have a clear line of sight to the target.
o Reflective materials and other countermeasures can be employed to
mitigate the effectiveness of DEWs.
Steps taken by India for DEWs

• Directionally Unrestricted Ray-Gun Array (DURGA)-II Project: Initiated by

Defence Research Development Organization (DRDO) to build 100-kilowatt
lightweight DEW.
• 2kW DEW System: Developed by Bharat electronic limited for countering new
threats like drones and Unmanned Aerial Systems.
• Laser Science and Technology Centre (LASTEC): Laboratory of DRDO
developing direct energy weapons, called project Tri-Netra.
• Kilo Ampere Linear Injector (KALI): It is a linear electron accelerator for targeting
long-range missiles being developed by DRDO and the Bhabha Atomic Research
Centre (BARC) .

DEWs across the globe

• USA: HEL with Integrated Optical-Dazzler and Surveillance (HELIOS), High Energy
Laser Weapon System (HELWS), Tactical High Power Microwave Operational
Responder (THOR) etc.
• United Kingdom: DragonFire laser directed energy weapon (LDEW)
• Israel: 'Iron Beam', a laser-based interception system.

Russia, France, Germany, China etc. are also reportedly among countries which have
programmes to develop DEWs or Laser DEWs.

Types of Warships in the 21st Century

Modern warships are generally divided into seven main categories, which are:

• Aircraft carriers
• Cruisers
• Destroyers
• Frigates
• Corvettes
• Submarines
• Amphibious assault ships.
• Offshore Patrol Vessels (OPVs)
A brief explanation about these types of ships will be given below:

1. Aircraft Carriers: An aircraft carrier is a warship that serves as a seagoing airbase,

equipped with a full-length flight deck and facilities for carrying, arming, deploying, and
recovering aircraft. Typically, it is the capital ship of a fleet, as it allows a naval force to
project air power worldwide without depending on local bases for staging aircraft operations.

2. Cruisers: A cruiser is a type of warship. Modern cruisers are generally the largest ships in
a fleet after aircraft carriers and amphibious assault ships, and can usually perform several
roles.

As of 2021 only two countries operate vessels formerly classed as cruisers: the United States
and Russia, and in both cases the vessels are primarily armed with guided missiles.

3. Destroyers: A destroyer is a fast, manoeuvrable, long-endurance warship intended to

escort larger vessels in a fleet, convoy or battle group and defend them against powerful short
range attackers. At the start of the 21st century, destroyers were the global standard for
surface combatant ships.

Most destroyers are armed with guided missile systems.

4.Frigates: A frigate is a type of warship, having various sizes and roles over time. In the
17th century, a frigate was any warship built for speed and manoeuvrability, the description
often used being “frigate-built”.

In modern navies, frigates are used to protect other warships and merchant-marine ships,
especially as anti-submarine warfare (ASW) combatants for amphibious expeditionary forces,
underway replenishment groups, and merchant convoys.

5. Corvettes: A corvette is a small warship. It is traditionally the smallest class of vessel

considered to be a proper warship.

The warship class above the corvette is that of the frigate, while the class below was
historically that of the sloop-of-war.

The modern types of ship below a corvette are coastal patrol craft, missile boats and fast
attack craft. In modern terms, a corvette is typically between 500 tons and 2,000 tons,
although recent designs may approach 3,000 tons, which might instead be considered a small
frigate.

6. Submarines: A submarine (or sub) is a watercraft capable of independent operation

underwater. Submarines are referred to as “boats” rather than “ships” irrespective of their
size.

Most large submarines consist of a cylindrical body with hemispherical (or conical) ends and
a vertical structure, usually located amidships, which houses communications and sensing
devices as well as periscopes.

7. Amphibious assault ships: An amphibious assault ship is a type of amphibious warfare

ship employed to land and support ground forces on enemy territory by an amphibious
assault.

Modern ships support amphibious landing craft, with most designs including a well deck.
Coming full circle, some amphibious assault ships also support fixed-wing aircraft, now
having a secondary role as aircraft carriers.

8. Offshore Patrol Vessels (OPVs) are built to meet the challenge of

maintaining security in a fast-changing maritime environment. Flexible,
robust and optimised to achieve high levels of performance, OPVs can be
deployed rapidly to protect economic resources, combat criminal activity or
safeguard life at sea.
Warships of the Indian Navy

The following table gives details about the types of warships currently in active service in the
Indian Navy:

Types of Indian Navy Warships

Category Name
• INS Kalvari (S21)

• INS Khanderi (S22)

Submarines
• INS Karanj (S23)

• INS Sindhuvijay

• INS Vikramaditya
Aircraft Carrier
• INS Vikrant (inducted in 2022)

• INS Kolkata (D63)

• INS Kochi (D64)

• INS Chennai (D65)

Destroyers
• INS Delhi (D61)

• INS Mysore (D60)

• INS Mumbai (D62)

• INS Shivalik (F47)

• INS Satpura (F48)

Frigates
• INS Sahyadri (F49)

• INS Kamorta (P28)

• INS Kadmatt (P29)

Corvettes
• INS Kiltan (P30)

• INS Kavaratti (P31)

Types of submarines
Nuclear and Conventional Submarines

The main difference between conventional submarines and nuclear

submarines is the power generation system.

Nuclear submarines

Nuclear submarines are powered by a nuclear reactor which is modified

for use in a confined , underwater environment. These nuclear reactors
produce heat , which in turn produces steam , which works on the steam
turbines and turns a shaft. This shaft is connected to the propeller as well
as a generator which recharges the battery for onboard use. This nuclear
reactor gives them an unlimited range, and the ability to stay underwater for
months without surfacing. On-board oxygen generating systems and a large
supply of food and water give them a realistic 90 days of continuous
underwater time before they need to be re-supplied.

Conventional submarines

Conventional Diesel submarines run on diesel and electricity. They have

a huge network of batteries which depend on the diesel generator for
charging. These submarines have to surface to charge their batteries. They
can also snorkel, which means to travel just below the surface of the water
with the periscope and the exhaust pipe above the water surface. Since they
become vulnerable when they surface, these subs usually snorkel while
charging their batteries. Once they charge the batteries, they dive into the
ocean and run silently on battery power with the diesel generators shut
down.

A diesel-electric submarine‘s biggest advantage is that it has a smaller hull

that is easier to manoeuvre in shallow waters and harder to detect.

Here’s how they differ.

INS Vikrant

• INS Vikrant (IAC-I) is the first aircraft carrier built in India and the
first Vikrant-class aircraft carrier built by Cochin Shipyard (CSL) in
Kochi, Kerala for the Indian Navy. The motto of the ship is Jayema
Sam Yudhi Sprdhah which is taken from Rig Veda and is translated
as “I defeat those who fight against me”.
• The carrier is 262 m long, 62 m at the widest part and with a depth of
30 m minus the superstructure. There are 14 decks in all, including
five in the superstructure.
 • It features a Short Take-Off But Arrested Recovery(STOBAR)
configuration with a ski-jump. The deck is designed to enable aircraft
such as the MiG-29K to operate from the carrier. It is expected to
carry an air group of up to thirty aircraft, which will include up to 24–
26 fixed-wing combat aircraft, primarily the Mikoyan MiG-29K .
• The naval variant of the HAL Tejas was rejected by the navy on Dec 2,
2016 for being overweight. Besides carrying 10 Kamov Ka-31 or
Westland Sea King The Ka-31 will fulfill the airborne early warning
(AEW) role and the Sea King will provide anti-submarine warfare
(ASW) capability.
• Vikrant is powered by four General Electric LM2500+gas turbines on
two shafts, generating over 80 megawatts (110,000 hp) of power. The
gearboxes for the carriers were designed and supplied by Elecon
Engineering.
• Once operational, Vikrant is going to sport a gender-sensitive living
environment and infrastructure, with provision to accommodate eight
women officers. The ship will then accommodate 1,645 personnel in
all, including 196 officers.
• For now the Navy has only one carrier, INS Vikramaditya , contracted
from Russia under a $2.3-billion deal and inducted into service in
November 2013.INS Viraat was recently retired from service after
cumulatively serving the British and Indian Navies for over 50 years.
In that line, when the new INS Vikrant joins the Navy sometime after
2020, it would be the fourth aircraft carrier to defend India’s shores.
Each of these carriers has grown in size, capability and sophistication
adding more teeth to Navy’s power projection.
• The first Vikrant displaced 20,000 tonnes and operated a mix of
Westland Sea Kings, HAL Chetak and Sea Harrier jets. Viraat
displaced 28,500 tonnes andVikramaditya displaces 45,400 tonnes.
The new Vikrant will displace 40,000 tonnes.

Significance for India

An aircraft carrier is a command platform epitomising ‘dominance’ over a large area,

‘control’ over vast expanses of the ocean and all aspects of maritime strength. It makes India
only the fifth country after the US, Russia, Britain and France to have such capabilities of
developing indigenous aircraft carriers.

• In support of Land Battles

• Security of Sea-Lines of Communication

• Maintaining Influence in IOR:

• Security of Island Territories:

• Non-military Missions:
 Although the concept of a carrier is essentially centered on its military role, such a platform
would substantially increase India’s operational options to respond to a natural disaster in the
regional seas or littoral. While it has begun inducting large sealift platforms with integral
helicopters like the INS Jalashwa Landing Platform Dock (LPD), a disaster of a large
magnitude may necessitate the employment of a carrier.

Akin to a floating city, a carrier like Vikrant can provide virtually unlimited sealift,
substantial airlift and all conceivable essential services ranging from freshwater to electric
supply, and medical to engineering expertise. There is an effort to further enhance the
usefulness of a carrier for such roles, such as by incorporating a modular concept. It
incorporates modular spaces/containers carrying specialized personnel, engineering
equipment, medical facilities, etc., which can be rapidly deployed for specific missions.
Fighter Jets

Different Generations of Jet Fighters

 Subsonic fighter planes built during the mid-1940s to mid-1950s are

classified as first generation fighters. These planes had a basic
avionic system (electronic systems used on aircraft) with no radar or
self-protection system.
  Radar-connected second generation planes were made between the
mid1950s and early 1960s. These jets could reach supersonic speed
and were equipped with semi-guided missiles, unlike the earlier
generation that used cannons, machine guns and unguided bombs
and rockets for the attack. MiG-21 is perhaps the best known second-
generation fighter.
 Third generation planes manufactured between the early 1960s and
1970 had advanced maneuverability and weapons systems. These
planes, that included the MiG-23 and Mirage III, were capable of
shooting at targets beyond the pilot's visible range.
 Fourth generation fighters were conceived in the 1970s and became
operational in the early 1980s. These planes were also equipped with
flyby-wire systems, which meant replacement of manual fight control
with electronic devices. Notable fighters of this generation are the
American F15, F16, French Mirage 2000 and the Soviet MiG29.
 Fifth-generation multi-role fighters have features that are generally
taken to include all-aspect stealth even when armed, Low Probability
of Intercept Radar (LPIR), high-performance airframe, a high-
performance engine capable of supercruise (supersonic cruise without
afterburner), advanced avionics with long-range sensors and
networked data fusion providing full battle-space situational
awareness. In 2005, the Lockheed Martin F-22 Raptor entered service
with the United States Air Force (USAF), becoming the world’s first
combat-ready fifth-generation fighter.

Advanced Medium Combat Aircraft (AMCA) prototype

1. Led by: The project is led by the Defence Research and Development Organisation
(DRDO) and Hindustan Aeronautics Limited (HAL). It is set to revolutionize India’s defense
capabilities.

2. The first prototype is anticipated to be ready by 2028-29, with production expected to

commence by 2032-33, and induction into the Indian Air Force planned for 2034.
3. Aim: The AMCA aims to establish India’s prowess in aerospace technology and enhance
its self-reliance in defense manufacturing.

4. Importance:

i) The AMCA is a critical project for India’s defense strategy, especially as global powers
like China advance their own fifth-generation fighter aircraft programs.

ii) Strategic Importance: The AMCA project is vital for India as it represents the country’s
only indigenous fifth-generation fighter aircraft development.

iii) As global adversaries like China continue to deploy advanced aircraft such as the J-20
FGFA, the AMCA is crucial for maintaining strategic parity and bolstering national defense.

iv) By 2034, the AMCA is expected to be fully operational, enhancing the Indian Air Force’s
capabilities and reinforcing India’s position as a major player in the global defense arena.

v) This ambitious project underscores India’s commitment to advancing its technological and
defense infrastructure, ensuring readiness to meet future security challenges.

Key Features of the AMCA:

Aspects Description

i) The AMCA is designed as a 25-tonne twin-

engine stealth aircraft.
ii) It features an internal weapons bay,
ensuring reduced radar cross-section.
iii) The diverterless supersonic intake (DSI),
Design and Specifications
developed indigenously, enhances the aircraft’s
stealth and aerodynamic performance.
iv) Payload capacity includes 1,500 kg
internally and 5,500 kg externally, with an
internal fuel capacity of 6,500 kg.

i) The aircraft’s stealth capabilities are integral,

making it less detectable by enemy radar.
Stealth and Performance ii) The twin-engine configuration is intended to
provide superior speed, agility, and combat
performance.
Drones

A drone or UAV (Unmanned Aerial Vehicle) is a remotely controlled flying device that is
gradually being adopted in warfare for logistics, surveillance-reconnaissance, and combat
roles.

Drone warfare is becoming asymmetric as the capability of launchers is usually of

insurgent/terrorist scale. However, the Russia-Ukraine war also shows some asymmetric
nature with drone warfare by a state actor like Ukraine.

Drone use by state actors:

1. The USA and Israel are at the forefront of drone development with Predator and
Heron models.
2. The use of Turkish-made Bayraktar drones by Ukraine against the Russian
invasion has turned the tide of war.
3. Russia’s use of Orion drones in Syria in 2019 for striking strategic targets.

Drone use by non-state actors:

1. Houthi rebels used drones from Iran to attack Saudi oil facilities.
2. Islamist terror outfits like ISIS and Palestinian Islamic Jihad (PIJ) have used
drones for surveillance and attack.
3. Even organised narco-traders like the CJNG cartel of Mexico have used drones for
bombing targets.

Advantages of Drone Warfare for actors:

Types of UAVs

Depending on the specific application or problem at hand, different types of drones can be
utilised.

Types (based on rotors)

- Ideal for tasks like crop inspection

Multirotor UAVs - Have more than two rotors

- Allow efficient lift generation by adjusting rotor speeds

- They resemble helicopters in both design and structure.

- Have a longer flight time and can hover in place for aerial imaging
Single-rotor UAVs
and precision spraying.

- They are usually powered by gas engines.

- They are like normal aircraft and do not require as much energy to
stay in the air because they cannot hover in one place.
Fixed-wing UAVs
- Fly for longer periods and capture images across a large area of the
field
- They are a hybridisation of fixed-wing and multirotor UAVs.
Fixed-wing
- Ability to not only perform the vertical takeoff and land but also to
Multirotor Hybrid
perform
UAVs
- It has a longer flight time and can stay in the air much longer.
- These can perform the targeted flight in severe and windy
conditions.
Flexible Membrane
- These UAVs are made up of flexible membrane wings.
Wing UAVs
- They can carry a larger load, easy storage capacity, better control,
and manoeuvrability.
Types (based on altitude)
- Altitude: 0.5–1 km

- Endurance: Can fly for approximately 4 minutes and 10 seconds.

Low Altitude Deep
Penetration (LADP)
- Purpose: Suitable for missions requiring low-altitude, long-range,
and high-speed penetration.
 - Examples: UAV Model X1, UAV Model Y2
- Altitude: 3 km–9 km

- Endurance: Can fly for more than 24 hours.

Medium-Altitude
Long-Endurance
- Purpose: Primarily used for surveillance, reconnaissance, and
(MALE) UAVs
strike missions.

- Examples: Predator, MQ-9 Reaper.

- Altitude: Above 15-20 Kms.

- Endurance: Can fly for more than 24 hours continuously.

High-Altitude Long-
Endurance (HALE)
- Purpose: Primarily used for surveillance, reconnaissance, and
UAVs
communication tasks for long-duration missions.

- Examples: Global Hawk, RQ-4 Global Hawk.

Types (based on Size)
- Range: Less than 10 Km, low altitude and for less time (< 1 hour)

- Weight: nano (up to 250 g), micro (250 g to 2 kg)

- Purpose: Intelligence gathering, but less as military drones (due

Micro and Nano
to lack of AI and machine learning ability), in the fleet of swarm
UAVs
drones (very dangerous as there are currently no effective
countermeasures), etc.

- Examples: AeroVironment Nano Hummingbird, DelFly MAV,

etc.
- Size: Between 2 to 4 metres in length

- Weight: Typically between 25 to 150 kg

Small UAVs
- Purpose: Versatile for various applications including aerial
photography, mapping, and monitoring.

- Examples: DJI Phantom series, SenseFly eBee.

- Size: Between 4 to 6 metres in length
Medium UAVs
- Weight: Ranges from 150 to 600 kg

- Purpose: Capable of carrying heavier payloads for longer

endurance missions.

- Examples: General Atomics MQ-1 Predator, Elbit Hermes 900.

- Size: More than 6 metres in length
Large UAVs
 - Weight: Exceeding 600 kg

- Purpose: Designed for long-endurance missions with heavy

payloads such as military surveillance or cargo transport.

- Examples: Northrop Grumman RQ-4 Global Hawk, General

Atomics MQ-9 Reaper.
Applications of Drone Technology

Drones nowadays have applications for both military and civil purposes. Some of these
applications are described below.

Military Applications

Military drones can change the nature of warfare, making it more economical, precise, and
efficient. This was observed in the Ukraine-Russia conflict. They can perform tasks such as:

• Surveillance and Reconnaissance: These drones can conduct

surveillance missions by hovering over an area for an extended period.
They provide real-time information on targets' positions, terrain, and
enemy movements.
o The Israeli-made Heron drones used by the Indian Army can
loiter for over 24 hours facilitating strategic monitoring of
sensitive areas.
o Drones, like the Nishant UAV used by the Indian Army and the
MQ-1 Predator UAV used by the United States, provide real-
time information on targets and terrain.
• Unmanned Combat Aerial Vehicle (UCAV): These are the UAVs that
are designed for combat operations, such as air-to-air and air-to-
ground attacks. They can carry weapons such as missiles, bombs,
and guns.
o Examples: Shahed 129 (Iran), Ghatak (upcoming Indian UCAV),
USAF Hunter-Killer (USA), etc.
o Swarm drones are a fleet of UAVs that work together to achieve
a specific goal.
 Examples: Use by Israeli Defence forces in Gaza and by
Houthi rebels against Saudi Arabia’s Aramco
installations.
o Kamikaze drones: These are drones that are loaded with
explosives and crash into their targets, causing damage and
destruction. They are also known as loitering munitions or
suicide drones.
 Examples: Use of kamikaze drones in the Ukraine-Russia
conflict.

Civil Applications

UAVs are also used for non-military purposes, such as:

 • Aerial Surveying and Mapping: Fixed-wing UAVs like the Dhaksha
(Indian multipurpose drone) offer high-resolution area imaging at 40%
lower costs than satellite mapping for agriculture, disaster
management, mining, forestry and urban planning.
o For instance, the Odisha Government conducted drone surveys
of Puri's destruction following Cyclone Fani.
• Law enforcement and crowd management: Drones can be deployed
for crowd monitoring and crime scene analysis as a means of smart
policing, as used by the Mumbai Police.
• Medical and Healthcare: Drones facilitate contactless delivery of
medicines, vaccines, blood samples and organs in remote areas where
road connectivity is limited.
o India's ‘Medicine from the Sky’ projects in Telangana and
Arunachal Pradesh use drones to improve access and deliver
medicines to primary healthcare facilities.
• Agriculture: Agricultural drones, equipped with multispectral
sensors, are revolutionising farming by mapping soil and crop health
at high resolutions.
o Trials by Mahindra Agri Solutions and Marut Drones
increased yields and lowered cultivation costs for smallholder
farmers in Punjab and Karnataka highlighting drones'
productivity potential.
• Environment: Drones can significantly contribute to environmental
conservation.
o For instance, drones have been used for data collection in the
Panna Tiger Reserve and Kaziranga Forest, aiding in wildlife
tracking and poaching prevention.

Challenges of Drone Technology

As an emerging technology, drones bring forth a series of growing challenges that demand
holistic solutions.

• Privacy: Drones have high-resolution cameras that capture images

and videos from great heights and can invade personal spaces and
record without consent.
• Ethical concerns: Drone applications in conflict zones provide
tactical advantages, including precise strikes and reduced risk to
military personnel.
o This trend leads to discussions concerning the ethics of remote
warfare when humans do not directly engage in battle.
• Environmental impact: Drones, especially fossil fuel-powered ones,
contribute to carbon emissions and worsen climate change.
• Airspace issues: Since drones occupy airspace, with many able to
reach heights rivalling those of a jet, concerns have been raised about
drones causing disasters and emergencies.
• Legal and Regulatory: The advancement of drone technology has
surpassed the development of legal and regulatory frameworks.
 Governments claim that targeted killings by drones are justified under
international law.
o The absence of clear guidelines raises questions about
accountability and transparency.

Security challenges to India:

1. Recently, drones were used for the first time to drop explosives at the Jammu
airbase.
2. Multiple incidents of cross-border drone threats from Pakistan-sponsored terror
groups to drop bombs and deliver arms, ammunition, and equipment.
3. Internal insurgents too are acquiring DIY (Do-it-yourself) drone kits to increase
such capabilities.
4. Drone Terrorism: Drones are increasingly used by terrorist groups due to their
affordability, manoeuvrability, and payload capacity.
5. Surveillance and Intelligence Gathering: Drones monitor military sites, borders,
and sensitive government facilities.
6. Critical Infrastructure Disruption: They can execute cyber-attacks, jamming, or
physical attacks on infrastructure.
7. Cross-Border Smuggling: Drones smuggle contraband, drugs, and weapons,
particularly from Pakistan.
8. Privacy Concerns: Drones with cameras threaten individual privacy and the security
of sensitive facilities, like nuclear plants.

Drone in India

India’s journey with UAVs began with the acquisition of the Israeli Searcher Mark 1 in
1998. Most of the UAVs of the Indian armed forces are procured from Israel and the USA.
The drone market in India reached ₹29 billion ($370 million) in 2020 and is estimated to
grow to ₹1.5 trillion ($19 billion) by 2026.

Initiatives in India

India aims to become a drone superpower by 2030, with a focus on indigenous development
and manufacturing. The Indian government has launched several initiatives in this direction.

• Make in India Initiatives: It encourages domestic manufacturing and

investment in the drone sector within the broader context of
promoting indigenous manufacturing.
o Production-Linked Incentive (PLI) Scheme provides financial
aid to Indian drone manufacturers and covers drone-related
software, aiming to boost domestic production.
• Drone (Amendment) Rules 2022: This simplifies regulations and
licensing requirements for drone operations, reducing the number of
permits and approvals.
o Due to new rules, the remote pilot certificate (licence) will not be
required from the Director General of Civil Aviation for flying
micro and nano drones in India for non-commercial purposes.
 o All other drone activities are permitted only after receiving the
prior approvals.
• Digital Sky Platform: It enables online applications for licensing to
fly, manufacture, and other activities; and provides information on
drones.
• Standard Operating Procedure (SOP) for Agricultural Drones:
These SOPs guide the safe and effective use of agricultural drones,
ensuring that they are used in compliance with regulations and best
practices.
• Private Investments and Startups:
o Drone Shakti Scheme promotes drone technology and
applications in India, encouraging startups to offer drone
services.

Steps taken:

1. Drone Rules 2021 to regulate the internal movement of drones while incentivizing
the indigenous drone manufacturing industry.
2. Indian Army Aviation Corp is being made responsible for offensives and drone
counter-measures.
3. Indigenous anti-drone systems are being developed like Indrajaal by Hyderabad-
based Grene Robotics.
4. Drone development by the DRDO including Nishant, Rustom, MALE, et al and
acquisition of foreign-made variants like the Heron.
5. Drone Import Policy 2022: Bans foreign drone imports, but allows drone component
imports.
6. PLI Scheme: Incentivizes domestic drone and component manufacturing.

Mitigating Drone-Related Threats:

1. Counter-Drone Technology: Neutralizes unauthorized drones.

2. Capacity Building: Improves drone detection and response by security forces.
3. Public-Private Partnerships: Supports indigenous drone technology development.

Indigenous Drones

India has made significant progress in developing indigenous drones. Here are some
examples:

Product/Location Role
- A cost-effective supersonic missile
DRDO Abhyas (ADE, Bengaluru) demonstrator developed by DRDO for training
purposes.
- A lightweight missile designed to target and
destroy enemy tanks.
DRDO Ghatak (ADE, Bengaluru)
- It is also called SWiFT.
HAL CATS (HAL and Newspace R&D) - A cooperative flight testbed developed by HAL
 and Newspace R&D for demonstrating avionics
technology.
- An indigenously developed UCAV for
Rustom-1 and 2 (ADE, Bengaluru)
surveillance and reconnaissance missions.
- A multi-role light combat helicopter for various
TAPAS-BH-201(ADE, Bengaluru)
military operations.
DRDO Imperial Eagle (DRDO’s ADE
and CSIR’s National Aerospace - An advanced trainer jet for training pilots.
Laboratory)
DRDO Lakshya (ADE, Bengaluru) - A subsonic cruise missile for long-range strikes.
- An AEW&CS for surveillance, tracking,
DRDO Netra (R&DE and IdeaForge) identification and classification of airborne and
sea surface targets.
- A tactical UAV for surveillance and
DRDO Nishant (ADE, Bengaluru)
reconnaissance operations.
NAL/ADE Golden Hawk
- A basic trainer aircraft for training pilots.
(DRDO’s ADE and CSIR’s NAL)
NAL/ADE Pushpak (DRDO’s ADE and - A utility transport aircraft for various transport
CSIR’s NAL) operations.

D4 Drone System:

The Drone Detect, Deter and Destroy system (D4S) is the first indigenously
developed anti-drone system to be inducted into the Indian Armed Forces.

• It is developed by Defence Research and Development Organisation

(DRDO) and manufactured by Bharat Electronics Limited (BEL).
• Purpose: To detect rogue drones that are likely to attack most
vulnerable places.
• Features:
o D4 system can instantly detect and jam micro drones (Soft
kill) and use a laser-based kill mechanism to terminate targets
(Hard kill).
o It uses DRDO's RF/Global Navigation Satellite System
(GNSS) to detect the frequency which is being used by the
controller and the signals are then jammed.
o It can detect and jam micro-drones at a distance of up to 3
km.
o It can lase a target 1-1.25 km far depending on the wattage of
the laser weapon.
Indrajaal:

• The drone defence dome has the capability to autonomously protect an area of
1000-2000 sq km against the aerial threats by assessing and acting on aerial threats
such as Unmanned Aerial Vehicles (UAVs), loitering munitions, and Low- Radar
Cross Section (RCS) targets.
• The ANTI-UAV systems will not only provide protection to defence bases but it
will be beneficial for linear infrastructures like international borders against
advanced weaponry.
• The path-breaking development is imperative because manual weapons and point-
based defence systems can’t defend modern warfares, which are operated by Artificial
Intelligence (AI) and robotics.
• The design principles of Indrajaal are based on delivering autonomy to the armed
forces.
• The synergic combination of 9-10 modern technologies helmed by Artificial
Intelligence (AI), cybersecurity and robotics.
• Capable of real-time situational awareness, Indrajaal comprises all current weapons
suite and infrastructure along with a honeycombed cell structure to provide a
seamlessly built over a combination of 9-10 technologies for 24×7 persistent
monitoring, tracking and action.

Salient features of Indrajaal

– Real-time situational awareness

– Integrated and Intelligent meshed network

– Integrated all current weapons suite and infrastructure

– Honeycombed cell structure for seamlessly built

– Synergic combination of 9-10 technologies

– 24×7 persistent and autonomous monitoring, action and tracking

Defence Indigenisation

Defence indigenisation refers to the strategic objective of a country to develop and enhance
its own industrial and technological capabilities for producing essential defence
equipment and systems. This approach aims to reduce dependency on foreign sources for
military hardware, ensuring self-sufficiency in meeting the national security requirements.
The ultimate goal is to establish a robust defence industry that can design, develop, and
manufacture a wide range of military equipment, from basic arms and ammunition to
advanced weapon systems and platforms.

Background of Defence Indigenisation in India

India's journey toward defence indigenisation is characterised by a significant defence

budget, a substantial defence industrial establishment, and a history of defence
production.

• Early Recognition of Need (1950s-1970s): India recognised the need

to reduce dependence on foreign sources, India took steps toward
indigenisation, stimulated by the Wars of 1962, 1965, and 1971.
• Integrated Guided Missile Development Programme (IGMDP),
1983: It aimed at developing strategic missile systems. Under Abdul
Kalam's leadership, it concluded in 2008, boosting India's indigenous
missile capabilities.
• Self-Reliance Index and Abdul Kalam's Initiative (1992): In 1992,
with a low Self-Reliance Index (ratio of indigenous content of defence
procurements to the total expenditure on defence procurements in a
financial year) of 0.3, Abdul Kalam formed a committee to create a
10-year plan, targeting an SRI of 0.7 by 2005.
• Responsibility Transfer (2000s): Responsibility for indigenisation
shifted from the Department of Defence Production (DDP) and
Directorate General of Quality Assurance (DGQA) to the Ordnance
Factories Board (OFB) and Services. The Army and Navy devised 15-
year Perspective Plans for Indigenisation.
• Defence Procurement Procedure (DPP): There have been continuous
developments and evolution of DPP from 2001 onwards.
• Project 75 (1997): It focused on indigenous submarine development,
emphasising self-reliance in submarine construction to reduce
dependence on foreign sources.

Need for Defence Indigenisation

India's goal of defence indigenisation is based on several aspects.

• India’s Share in Global Arms Market: India's share in the global

arms exports market is minimal, accounting for only 0.2 per cent
which goes against India’s Balance of Payments.
• SIPRI reports indicate that India ranked 23rd during the period 2017-
21, with a marginal presence in the global arms market.
• India as the Largest Importer of Arms: Despite efforts to promote
domestic production and reduce imports, India remains the largest
importer of arms in the world, accounting for 11 per cent of global
arms imports during 2018-22.
• Development of Military Industrial Complex: It is a network of
individuals and institutions involved in the production of weapons
and military technologies.
 o It aims to increase military spending by the national
government and its establishment is necessary, ensuring self-
reliance and reducing dependence on foreign sources.
• Technology Transfer and Independence: It allows the nation to
develop and maintain critical defence capabilities by facilitating
technology transfer through foreign collaborations.
• Exports: With the increasing defence indigenisation, India can widen
its export base.
o For example, India is in the process of exporting Brahmos
Cruise Missiles to the Philippines.
• Research and Development: Defence indigenisation promotes
substantial investments in research and development (R&D)
contributing to the growth of a defence industrial ecosystem in
India and spin-off effects on other manufacturing sectors.

Challenges Faced by Defence Indigenisation and Exports

The following are the challenges which the Defence sector faces in its indigenisation and
product exports:

• Lesser Defense Budget and Modernization: India's defence budget

for FY 2023-24 is ₹5.94 lakh crore, positioning it as the fourth-largest
military spender globally.
• Concerns are raised about the budget being below 2 per cent of GDP
and recommendations to increase it to 3 per cent for adequate
preparedness.
• Insufficient Infrastructure and Capacity: Despite the positive
strides in defence indigenisation, there is still insufficient
infrastructure and capacity in the domestic defence industry.
• Limited Participation of the Private Sector: While efforts are being
made to involve the private sector, a significant portion of defence
production is still dominated by Defense Public Sector Undertakings
(DPSUs).
• Inadequate Investments in R&D: Long-term success in defence
indigenisation requires sustained investments in Research and
Development (R&D).
• Adequate funding for R&D initiatives is crucial to developing cutting-
edge technologies and capabilities.
• Establishment of Economies of Scale: Achieving economies of scale
is crucial for the defence industry.
• This involves enhancing productivity, ensuring high-quality
standards, and concurrently reducing costs.

Government’s Initiative towards Defence Indigenisation

The Government has taken several policy initiatives in the past few years and brought in
reforms to encourage indigenous design, development and manufacture of defence
equipment, thereby promoting self-reliance in defence manufacturing & technology in the
country.

• Defence Procurement Policy, 2016:

o It was based on Dhirendra Singh committee recommendations
and includes the "Buy (Indian-IDDM)" category.
o It empowered the Defence Acquisition Council with a "fast-
track" route for acquiring weapons.
• Innovations for Defence Excellence (iDEX), 2018 or iDEX Prime,
2022:
o It engages industries, especially MSMEs, start-ups, individual
innovators, research and development (R&D) institutes, and
academia.
o iDEX provides grants, funding, and support for innovations
and R&D.
• SPRINT Challenges:
o The Naval Innovation and Indigenisation Organisation (NIIO)
introduced the SPRINT initiative in 2022 in collaboration with
the Defence Innovation Organisation (DIO).
o It aims to integrate at least 75 new indigenous
technologies/products into the Indian Navy under the SPRINT
project.
• Indigenous Manufacturing:
o To streamline the industrial landscape, the government has
undertaken significant measures.
o These include simplification of the industrial licensing
process, extending validity periods and liberalising FDI policy
allowing up to 74% FDI under the automatic route.
o The share of domestic procurement in the total procurement
has seen a significant uptrend i.e., 54% in 2018-19, 59% in
2019-20, 64% in 2020-21, and a significant increase to 68% in
the current year with 25% earmarked for private industry.
o There is a substantial reduction in defence procurement from
foreign sources i.e., from 46% to 36% in the last four years
(2018-19 to 2021-22).
• Defence Industrial Corridors: The government has established two
Defence Industrial Corridors, one each in Uttar Pradesh and Tamil
Nadu recognizing the significance of regional hubs for aerospace and
defence.
• Positive Indigenisation Lists: It prioritises procurement from
domestic sources, specifically under the Buy Indian (IDDM) category
with embargoes on imports.
• E-Biz Portal: A major leap towards efficiency was the digitization of
the application process for Industrial License (IL) and Industrial
Entrepreneur Memorandum (IEM) through the E-Biz Portal.
• Custom Duty and FDI Policy: Creating a level playing field, uniform
custom duty imposition on all Indian industries, whether public or
private, ensures parity.
 • FDI policy allows composite foreign investment of up to 49% through
the Government route (FIPB).
• Vendor Development Guidelines: To bolster private sector
participation, especially SMEs, in defence manufacturing,
comprehensive guidelines for Outsourcing and Vendor Development
were introduced for DPSUs and the Ordnance Factory Board (OFB).

Recent Rise in Exports of Indian Defence Products

India, traditionally known as a major arms importer, underwent a paradigm shift in its
defence export strategy after policy reforms initiated by the government in 2001. Later
measures under the Make-in-India and self-reliant India campaigns provided India with a
prominent position in the international defence market.

• Current Status of Exports and Trend: The year 2022-2023 saw a

remarkable rise, reaching ₹16,000 crore (US $1.94 billion), a ten-fold
increase from ₹1,521 crore (US $184.59 million) in FY 2016-17 despite
pandemic disruptions.
• Export Deals with Countries: Indian defence companies are now
exporting to over 85 Friendly Foreign Countries (FFCs) in Africa,
South Asia, Southeast Asia, and West Asia.
• Major platforms like Advanced Light Helicopter (ALH), Arjun Tanks,
BrahMos missiles, Light Combat Aircraft (LCA)-Tejas, Offshore
Patrol Vessels, and surveillance systems are garnering interest.
• India’s Arms Exports to Specific Countries: Major recipients
include Mauritius, Mozambique, and Seychelles in Africa, Myanmar
in Southeast Asia, and strategic deals with the Philippines for the
BrahMos Shore-Based Anti-Ship Missile System.
• Reasons for Recent Increase in Exports:
• The surge in exports is attributed to policy initiatives, especially the
involvement of the private sector, which contributed 70 per cent to
the total defence exports in FY 2021-22.
• Apart from that, several policy initiatives, such as liberalising FDI
policies, issuing Positive Indigenisation Lists, and simplifying
export procedures, contribute to the growth in defence exports.
• Future of Indian Exports: The Draft Defence Production & Export
Promotion Policy (DPEPP) 2020 aims to export ₹35,000 crore worth
of aerospace and defence equipment annually by 2025 aligns with the
overall goal of achieving a ₹1.75 lakh crore (US $25 billion) turnover
in defence manufacturing.

Defense Exercise
Indian Army:
SL Exercise name Country

1. Ex Hand in Hand China

2. Ex Surya Kiran Nepal

3. Ex Sampriti Bangladesh

4. Ex Mitra Shakti Sri Lanka

5. Ex Yudh Abhyas USA

6. Ex Vajra Prahar USA

7. IMBAX-2017 Myanmar

8. Ex HARIMAU SHAKTI Malaysia

9. Ex Garuda Shakti Indonesia

10. VINBAX-2018 Vietnam

11. Ex Ekuverin Maldives

12. Ex INDRA Russia

13. AL NAGAH Oman

14. DHARMA GUARDIAN Japan

15. EX MAITREE Thailand

16. Ex AJEYA WARRIOR UK

17. Ex PRABAL DOSTYK Kazakhstan

18. Ex NOMADIC ELEPHANT Mongolia

19. Ex LAMITIYE Seychelles

20. Ex BOLD KURUKSHETRA Singapore

21. Ex KHANJAR Kyrgyzstan

Indian Navy
S. No. Exercise name Country
1. SLINEX Sri Lanka

3. INDRA NAVY Russia

4. KONKAN UK

5. VARUNA France

6. NASEEM-AL-BAHR Oman

7. Sahyog HOP TAC Vietnam

9. IND-INDO CORPAT Indonesia

10. SIMBEX Singapore

11. IMCOR Myanmar

Indian Air Force

Sr. No. Exercise name Country

1. Ex GARUDA France

2. Ex EASTERN BRIDGE Oman

3. Ex AVIAINDRA-18 Russia

5. SIAM BHARAT Thailand

6. Ex DESERT EAGLE UAE

7. Ex INDRADHANUSH UK

8. Ex RED FLAG USA

Multilateral Exercises:

Sr.
Exercise Name Brief information
No.

It is the world’s largest maritime exercise. It was first

1. RIMPAC conducted in 1971 and is held biannually near
Honolulu, Hawaii (USA).

An annual trilateral naval exercise involving the

United States, Japan, and India as permanent
2. MALABAR partners. It originally began in 1992 as a bilateral
exercise between India and the US. Later in 2015,
Japan became a permanent partner

First joint military exercise between BIMSTEC

3. MILEX-18
countries.

A Counter Terror Military Exercise, held in Russia in

PEACE
4. September 2018, under the framework of Shanghai
MISSION
Cooperation Organisation (SCO).

The first multilateral Humanitarian Assistance and

Samvedna- Disaster Relief (HADR) exercise of Indian Air Force
5.
2018 (IAF) in association with South Asian Region nations,
was held off the coast of Kerala.

Ex COBRA It is the largest Asia-Pacific military exercise held in

6.
GOLD Thailand every year.

Started in 1993, it is a multilateral regional maritime

engagement exercise hosted by the Royal Australian
7. KAKADU
Navy. It derives its name from the Kakadu National
Park.

It stands for ASEAN Regional Forum Disaster Relief

8. ARF DiR Ex Exercise (ARF DiR Ex). It is aimed at organizing a
large-scale disaster relief exercise.

A biennial multilateral Humanitarian Assistance and

9. Ex KOMODO
Disaster Relief (HADR) exercise