Agriculture and Human Values (2018) 35:885–898

[Link]

Intentions to consume foods from edible insects and the prospects

for transforming the ubiquitous biomass into food
Kennedy O. Pambo1 · Robert M. Mbeche1 · Julius J. Okello2 · George N. Mose3 · John N. Kinyuru4

Accepted: 14 August 2018 / Published online: 23 August 2018

© Springer Nature B.V. 2018

Abstract
Edible insects are a potentially less burdensome source of proteins on the environment than livestock for a majority of rural
consumers. Hence, edible insects are a timely idea to address the challenges of the supply side to sustainably meet an increas-
ing demand for food. The objective of this paper is twofold. The first is to identify and compare rural-households’ intentions
to consume insect-based foods among households drawn from two regions in Kenya—one where consumption of insects is
common and the other where the practice is uncommon. The second is to explore consumers’ trust in sources of informa-
tion regarding quality and appropriateness of food items. The study employed an extended theory of planned behaviour and
involved 432 participants. Results indicate that rural households have positive intentions to consume insect-based foods
and those intentions are higher for individuals who are more familiar with the practice. Results also show that information
sources from industry are more trusted than those from the media. Further, the study revealed that control variables such
as perceived availability of insect-based foods and their level of fit with the culinary practices have a higher influence on
consumption intentions than general attitudes. In addition, age of the respondent, gender, household size and level of formal
education, significantly influence the consumption intentions. The study discusses the implications of these findings in the
development of sustainable agri-food systems.

Keywords Insect-based foods · Environmental sustainability · Consumer behaviour · Practical factors · Familiarity ·
Barriers to action

Abbreviations
FFEI Foods from edible insects
* Kennedy O. Pambo PBC Perceived behavioural control
kennedypambo@[Link]
SI_F Interacting self identity and familiarity
Robert M. Mbeche SN Subjective norms
robertmbeche@[Link]
TPB Theory of planned behaviour
Julius J. Okello
[Link]@[Link]
George N. Mose Introduction
mosegn@[Link]
John N. Kinyuru Food consumption is remarkable in that its structure can only
jkinyuru@[Link]
be changed incrementally, but cannot be entirely avoided,
1
Department of Agricultural and Resource Economics, Jomo because nutrition is one of the basic human needs (Urban
Kenyatta University of Agriculture and Technology, P.O. et al. 2012). The dilemma is that with increasing population,
Box 62000‑00200, Nairobi, Kenya urbanization and incomes, food consumption, particularly of
2
International Potato Center, Uganda Liaison Office, protein origin, is expected to rise (FAO 2013), thus creating
P.O. Box 22274, Kampala, Uganda uncertainties and pressures on the current global food sys-
3
Department of Social Sciences, Kisii University, tems (FAO 2009). Given that a large volume of plant protein
P.O. Box 24749‑00100, Nairobi, Kenya is inefficiently converted to animal protein (i.e., meat), the
4
Department of Food Science and Technology, Jomo impact on the environment will increase, making the produc-
Kenyatta University of Agriculture and Technology, tion and supply unsustainable (Pambo et al. 2016; van Huis
P.O. Box 62000‑00200, Nairobi, Kenya

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Vol.:(0123456789)
886 K. O. Pambo et al.

and Vantomme 2014). Therefore, the search for dietary cur- Therefore, the potential contribution of insect-based prod-
tailments and alternatives that can reduce the environmental ucts to the national food systems remains poorly understood
burden of the expected increase in meat production and con- and exploited. This is despite the fact that there is much
sumption and promote the development of sustainable food appreciation of the role of edible insects in the environ-
systems has dominated recent policy discourse in develop- ment by rural communities in Kenya. Indeed, an explora-
ing countries (Alemu et al. 2017b; Pambo et al. 2017). This tory reconnaissance research including extensive literature
search has recently settled on edible insects (Alemu et al. searches and six focus group discussions conducted as part
2017a; FAO 2013; Lensvelt and Steenbekkers 2014; Pambo of the research design (see Pambo et al. 2016) and focusing
et al. 2018; Tan et al. 2015). on insect-based foods prominently showed themes relating
Edible insects have been part of African indigenous diets to environmental concern. Participants argued that crickets
for as long as the human race has existed, and it is culturally are easy to rear in terms of space, feeds, water, among other
accepted in many African societies (Ramos-Elorduy 2005). things, compared to conventional livestock. Furthermore, in
With the advance of technology in food science, edible their study on preference for insect-based foods in Kenya,
insects can be reared artificially to provide large quantities Alemu et al. (2017b) revealed four consumer market classes.
of edible mass. This is key in overcoming several challenges The first class (largest with 48% of the participants) was
associated with the rudimentary nature of traditional gather- characterized by individuals who were positively and sig-
ing of insects, including those relating to conservation of the nificantly associated with the nutritional and environmental
ecosystem. Insects are a rich source of proteins and other benefits of FFEI. At the same time, Pambo et al. (2017)
ingredients that can improve the quality of human diet (FAO investigated what would motivate consumption of FFEI in
2013). Kenya and reported environmental concern/care/responsi-
Consumption of insects can conserve the environ- bility as one of the leading factors. These studies suggest
ment because they are exceptionally efficient in convert- that the communities targeted by this study are as concerned
ing what they eat into consumable tissue—that is, they about the impact of food decisions on their environment as
require less feed and water to produce edible mass than the western counterparts.
traditional livestock varieties (van Huis and Vantomme Moreover, and borrowing from the arguments of House
2014). Entomophagy1 is considered as a sustainable food (2016), past research on the subject in Kenya has largely
system2 because it can promote proper utilization of the conceived intentions to consume FFEI (acceptance in gen-
local resources and preservation of traditional knowledge eral) as a merely psychological matter that is based on the
and diversity within the communities where the practice is sensory properties of the product. As such, past research on
common. Entomophagy can also promote other economic the subject has mainly focused on an ‘individual consumer’
and livelihood opportunities through the edible insects’ as the locus of final food purchase and consumption deci-
value chains, for example commercial rearing and market- sions, in total disregard for the apparent role of the envi-
ing (Ramos-Elorduy 2005). ronmental and social-cultural aspects that intertwine human
Taking advantage of the environmental benefits of behaviour and decisions. For example, Alemu et al. (2017a)
entomophagy to promote sustainable development requires examined the market potential for FFEI; Pambo et al. (2017)
that insect-based foods are widely consumed. In Kenya, the analyzed the individual’s cognitive process and motivation
consumption has been largely traditional and sporadic and to consume FFEI; and Pambo et al. (2018) investigated the
little is known about the role that edible insects play in the role of nutrition information on consumers’ evaluation of the
diets of local households (Alemu et al. 2017b; Pambo et al. appropriateness of sensory attributes of FFEI.
2016). Moreover, as is in other developing countries, pro- While these studies assume that persuading individuals
cessed foods from edible insects (FFEI) are new and gaining to try insect-based foods can imply intentions to integrate
momentum. Indeed, edible insects (particularly crickets) are such foods into their diets, they have failed to recognize that
being processed into meatloaf, muffins, sausages cookies, individuals are socially embedded in their decision-making
biscuits and buns (Alemu et al. 2017a; Pambo et al. 2017, processes. Thus, consumer decisions, attitudes, perceptions
2018). However, most of these initiatives are still at the pilot- and preferences, which are the key determinants of their
ing stages and are yet to grow into commercial enterprises. behaviour across a wide range of social contexts, are rarely
stable. While the above studies provide useful insights into
consumers’ decisions to accept or decline FFEI, they are
1
confined by their narrow focus on an individual consumer
The practice of consuming edible insects.
2
rather than the social, cultural and environmental contexts
Halloran et al. (2018) define sustainable food system as a system
within which consumer decisions are made (House 2018).
that “…delivers food security and nutrition for all in the way that eco-
nomic, social and environmental sustainability is not compromised Moreover, they employ methods that do not account for the
for future generations”.

13
Intentions to consume foods from edible insects and the prospects for transforming the ubiquitous… 887

fact that food choice is a factor of both product attributes, 4. Do intentions to consume FFEI differ by region, as dic-
routine, culture, and practical factors. tated by familiarity with entomophagy?
However, a few studies have acknowledged the impor-
tance of various facets of practical factors driving con- The above research questions are addressed using TPB
sumption of insect-based foods. For instance, taste, price constructs and the structural equations model. This study
and nutritiousness (Lensvelt and Steenbekkers 2014; Pambo also had the secondary aim of assessing the efficacy of TPB
et al. 2017, 2018; Tan et al. 2015; Verbeke 2015), avail- model in predicting intentions to consume novel food prod-
ability and convenience, such as fitting within the existing ucts like FFEI.
eating habits and culinary trends or culturally appropriate
(Menozzi et al. 2017; Tan et al. 2016). Indeed, House (2016,
p. 50) argues that “food choice is not solely an individual Theoretical framework
matter, but rather is also substantially dependent on practi-
cal factors such as price, availability, habit, routine, social The theory of planned behaviour (TPB) proposed by Ajzen
context and social practice”. However, these practical fac- (1991) postulates that ‘planned’ behaviour (i.e., the behav-
tors have received little empirical attention in the literature iour that is at least partly reflected upon by the actor) can
from developing countries. As such, their prospective roles be best predicted from the intentions to act. The intention to
on FFEI consumption in a country like Kenya is unknown. act is, in turn, influenced by attitudes, subjective norms, and
Against this background, this study3 employed the the- perceived behavioural control related to particular behav-
ory of planned behaviour (TPB) to examine and compare iour. Specifically, TPB posits that the intentions to act will
intentions to consume FFEI among consumers drawn from be stronger when attitudes and subjective norms towards
the western region of Kenya where entomophagy is com- a behaviour are favourable and when there is greater per-
mon (familiar), and the eastern region where the practice is ceived behavioural control (Fishbein and Ajzen 2010). In the
uncommon. Familiarity with food has been shown to drive current context, TPB provides information regarding what
food choice in general (Verbeke 2015) and was expected to informs consumption behaviour prior to any observable
influence intentions to consume FFEI. The TPB was pre- action, hence a useful policy-tool for marketing.
ferred because it takes into account the role of other norma- The theory postulates that individuals form beliefs that
tive and control influences within the social environment and are of three types—behavioural, normative and control. In
the possible barriers to action, which has been identified as the context of this study (and as presented in Fig. 1), the
a limitation from the past research. The theory (TPB) posits projection of what will be the outcome if one consumes
that intention is the proximal determinant of behaviour, and FFEI represents the behavioural belief. It corresponds to
has been applied in several studies to predict food choice the expectations of the potential consumer. This concep-
behaviour (e.g., Armitage and Conner 2001; Urban et al. tualization encompasses the subjective perception for the
2012). utility (either positive or negative) of consuming FFEI to
In particular, this study examines the effect of four inde- the decision-maker and provides a bridge to the common
pendent variables of an extended TPB that introduces per- economic approaches (Zoellner et al. 2012). If positive out-
sonal norms as well as an interaction-effect of self-identity comes are expected, positive attitudes towards consuming
and familiarity as additional constructs. It addressed the fol- FFEI are developed, and vice versa.
lowing research questions: Normative beliefs reflect what one considers the norm
in society with regard to consuming FFEI. For example, do
1. What is the effect of consumers’ attitudes, subjective other community members consider FFEI-consumption nor-
norms, and perceived behavioural control (PBC) on mal? What will the family, friends and peers of the decision-
intentions to consume FFEI? maker, i.e., people who are important to the ‘consumer’,
2. What is the simultaneous effect of self-identity and think and say, when he or she consumes FFEI? This belief is
familiarity on intentions to consume FFEI/ adjusted on the basis of personal propensity to comply with
3. What role does consumers’ trust in sources of informa- the norms or to deviate from them (Sparks and Shepherd
tion regarding quality (or appropriateness) of food items 1992; Verbeke and Vackier 2005).
play in consumers intentions to consumer FFEI? Control beliefs deal with the perceived ease or difficulty
of consuming FFEI (Ajzen 1991). Hence an individual trust
in his or her own ability to face and overcome hurdles to
consuming FFEI, is an important facilitator to developing
3
The study is part of ‘GREEiNSECT’ project, which aims to the intentions to eat FFEI (Mollers et al. 2015). For exam-
improve production and consumption of protein and mineral-rich edi-
ble insects, particularly crickets, by the households that suffers from ple, if an individual thinks that he/she lacks the knowledge
low protein uptake in Thailand and Kenya. on how to prepare FFEI, or assess their quality, his or her

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888 K. O. Pambo et al.

Fig. 1  Conceptual framework. Reproduced with permission from Ajzen (1991)

intentions to consume them would be weak. In the context of the consumption of FFEI. Nevertheless, the personal
the TPB, such an individual’s perception of own abilities to responsibility may lead to performing the behaviour for
overcome expected hurdles is termed perceived behavioural another reason, such as giving the family a nutritious meal.
control (PBC). Thus, there could be a conflict in norms (i.e., mixed-feel-
Prior applications of the TPB in the context of food pur- ings) between personal norms and social norms (Verbeke
chase and consumption (for example, Mecking and Roosen and Vackier 2005).
2015; Cook et al. 2002) suggest that attitudes, subjective Self-identity embodies a label that individuals use to
norms and PBC explain from 15 to 80% of the variance describe themselves (Sparks and Shepherd 1992). For
in consumer-intentions. In these studies, consumer’ inten- example, the labels ‘green’ and ‘healthy’—portray envi-
tions were influenced by their personal attitudes towards the ronmental and health concerns, respectively (Cook et al.
respective behaviour. Moreover, consumption behaviour 2002). Support for entomophagy is anchored on the claim
was not fully under consumers’ volitional control, but was that insect value-chains conserve the environment. It is
strongly influenced by external factors such as advertising therefore likely that intentions to consume FFEI could
(media), food chain actors (foodservice retailers), public be an expression of environmental and health concerns
authorities, health personnel, and peers. Thus, PBC and (Hartmann and Siegrist 2016). Such expressions embody
subjective norms becomes valuable theoretical constructs. self-identity, which has been shown to influence food pur-
The study therefore, tests the following hypotheses: chase intentions (Sparks and Shepherd 1992). However,
there has been inconclusive debate in the literature, see for
1. Ho: Favourable attitudes positively influence consumers’ example, Fekadu and Kraft (2001) and Smith et al. (2007),
intentions to consume FFEI. as to whether self-identity and familiarity are measures
2. Ho: Subjective norms positively influence intentions to of the same underlying construct. This is because of the
consume FFEI. high correlation that is usually common between the two
3. Ho: PBC positively predict intentions to consume FFEI. constructs. These debates warrant simultaneous analysis
of self-identity and familiarity. Examination of the inter-
Within the construct of subjective norms, the study action-effect of these two constructs can contribute to a
considers personal norms, together with social norms, as greater understanding of the relationship between self-
an additional predictor. Personal norms represent feelings identity and familiarity in the prediction of consumption
of moral obligation or personal responsibility to perform, behaviour. Thus, the fourth hypothesis to be tested is that:
or to refuse to perform certain behaviour (Mollers et al.
2015). Social norms could prevent people from perform- 4. Ho: The interaction-effect of self-identity and familiarity
ing a particular behaviour, such as consuming FFEI. This has positive effect on intentions to consume FFEI.
could occur, for instance, if a family member disapproves

13
Intentions to consume foods from edible insects and the prospects for transforming the ubiquitous… 889

Empirical methods (FAO 2013; Piha et al. 2016; van Huis and Vantomme 2014;
House 2018).
Sampling and data collection For cricket-flour buns to become marketable goods in
Kenya, higher prices (compared to those of conventional
The data used in this study was collected from rural house- buns) are expected because of the enhanced quality (added
holds4 through personal interviews using pre-tested ques- nutrients). Such price difference mimics future market
tionnaires. Prior to the main survey, a pre-test of measure- trends, hence practical. Empirical evidence from FFEI stud-
ment scales was performed with 36 participants to establish ies in Kenya suggest that such changes in price may not
whether the designed TPB-measures were valid for the negatively affect the acceptance of such products. Further,
extended TPB-constructs, and to minimize the differences research findings show that consumers in Kenya prefer buns
in observed and real responses as suggested by Fishbein and containing cricket flour to standard buns (see for example,
Ajzen (1975), and Verbeke and Vackier (2005). Alemu et al. 2017a, b).
Upon recruitment, informed consent to participate was The survey was conducted in two counties of Kenya,
obtained. Consenting participants were presented with a namely Siaya County (in the western region) and Machakos
real FFEI (i.e., cricket-flour buns5), but were not required to county (in the eastern region), as described in Pambo et al.
taste. In addition, the participants were given general infor- (2018). A county is a geographical and an administrative
mation about the benefits of insect-based foods, borrowed unit of the government in Kenya (KNBS 2012). The western
from Verbeke (2015) and Hartmann and Siegrist (2016). region was selected for this study because consumption of
Specifically, participants were informed that; “insects are edible insects is common among its occupants. In addition,
a good source of proteins, fats and vitamins, their produc- Siaya county has been hosting numerous pilot programmes
tion requires little space, their feed conversion is efficient, that aim at commercialization of insect-based products
and therefore consuming them provide benefits in terms of (Münke-Svendsen et al. 2016). In contrast, consumption of
conservation of the environment and creation of employment edible insects in Machakos county is relatively uncommon.
opportunities.” Participants then answered questions related The two counties were also targeted because of the high
to the TPB constructs, their trust in sources of information levels of poverty and food insecurity (Alemu et al. 2017b),
regarding quality of food items and socio-economic aspects which was expected to result in low consumption of protein-
like age, education, and household size, in order to monitor rich animal foods. Indeed, low per capita consumption of
their effect on intentions to consume FFEI. protein is a problem of most inhabitants for the two regions
Cricket flour was selected because crickets can be mass- (KNBS 2012). The diets in the two regions tend to be domi-
reared and there is an increasing interest in establishing such nated with staple cereals comprising maize, sorghum, and
a cricket production in Kenya (Münke-Svendsen et al. 2016). finger-millet (Pambo et al. 2018). It was envisaged that the
The technology for rearing crickets has already been devel- residents would benefit from improved nutrition when flour
oped and is being used in many parts of Asia (Alemu et al. from the popular staples are enriched with cricket flour/
2017a). This technology is currently being transferred and powder.
adapted in Kenya to overcome the burden of the rudimentary The sampling of the respondents proceeded as follows:
nature of traditional gathering of edible insects. The market first, two counties, Siaya and Machakos, were purposively
for cricket flour also already exist in most parts of Asia, selected. From each county, four administrative locations
some parts of South America and Europe. Additionally, were randomly sampled, followed by random selection of
while different kinds of edible insects form ‘industry stand- one ward in each of the four locations. Next, three villages
ards’ in different regions worldwide, crickets are dominant were randomly selected from each ward and in each village,
in most parts of Europe, Asia and South/Central America a list of all households was generated with the help of local/
village leaders. From each village list, 18 households were
randomly sampled for the interview. This procedure yielded
a total of 432 participants whose socioeconomic characteris-
4
Ethical guidelines laid down in the Declaration of Helsinki were tics are reported in Table 1. Within the sampled household,
adhered to while conducting the current study, and all procedures either the head of the household, the spouse or an adult who
involving human subjects were approved by the Kenyatta National
Hospital/University of Nairobi—Ethical Review Committee (refer- participates in food purchase decisions was selected.
ence KNH-ERC/A/493; Protocol reference P609/09/2015).
5
The buns were baked by professionally trained technical assistants Measurements and reliability
at the Food Processing Workshop Unit of the Jomo Kenyatta Univer-
sity of Agriculture and Technology, in Kenya. They were prepared by Behaviour was defined for all participants as consumption
replacing 10% wheat-flour with cricket-powder and baked in a stand-
ard manner using a recipe adopted from Alemu et al. (2017b). The of FFEI regularly for the next twelve (12) months. Partici-
details are described in Pambo et al. (2017, 2018). pants were asked to use this definition when answering all

13
890 K. O. Pambo et al.

Table 1  Description of the main characteristics of the survey participants

Variables Means (SD) Mann–Whitneya
Whole sample Western region Eastern region

Descriptives
Average age of household members (years) 28.1 (11.8) 24.6 (10.5) 31.2 (12) 0.034
Size of the household 4.9 (2.1) 5.5 (2.1) 4.2 (1.7) 0.031
Frequencies
Income category (%)
Low income (< 70,400) 33.1 43.5 22.7 < 0.001
Medium income (from 70,400–260,000) 33.1 34.7 31.5 0.047
High income (above 260,000) 33.8 21.8 45.8 < 0.001
Gender (% Female) 55.6 60.2 50.9 0.011
If familiar with edible insects (% yes) 92.4 93.2 91.5 0.019
Edible insects are available (% yes) 92.0 93.7 90.2 0.015
If familiar with insect-flour products (% yes) 5.3 7.3 3.4 < 0.001
Insect-flour products are available (% yes) 4.7 5.1 4.4 0.014
Highest education level attained (%)
Non-school and incomplete primary 20.4 33.3 7.9 < 0.001
Primary school 39.1 46.3 33.8 0.007
Secondary school 27.5 14.8 38.4 0.004
Some College (no University) 7.6 2.8 10.2 < 0.001
University 5.4 2.8 8.8 0.004
The household is a member of a community based 62.9 56 71.3 0.007
organization (% yes)
Who controls financial assets
Female 25.2 25.5 25.1 0.141
Male 45.7 50 41.7 0.023
Both male and female 29.1 24.5 33.2 0.041
Sample size 432 216 216
a
Test the hypothesis that the distribution of the variables for participants from the western and the eastern regions are the same. Standard devia-
tions (SD) for continuous variables are in parentheses

TPB related questions. The questions were presented in a Factor loadings for each construct and cross-factor load-
fixed random order to yield consistent responses from par- ings were then conducted before the variables were included
ticipants. All questions were measured on a 5-point scale in the structural equations model to make judgment on con-
(except those for affective attitudes which were measured vergent validity and construct validity. All factor loadings
on a 7-point scale) and only the endpoints were anchored. were over 70% and were larger for each construct than for the
Where appropriate, variables were reverse coded. The relative cross-factor loadings, implying construct validity.
questions were adopted from Dean et al. (2008) and Ver- Moreover, the composite reliability for each factor extracted
beke and Vackier (2005) with minor modifications, follow- from the principal component analysis (PCA) exceeded 0.7,
ing the procedure proposed by Fishbein and Ajzen (1975), thus establishing convergent validity. A reliability test was
and are reported in Table 2. further conducted and yielded Cronbach alphas for all fac-
We used more than two items for all the TPB constructs tors above 0.75 as shown in Table 2. Following Verbeke and
in the questionnaire to achieve a greater reliability of the Vackier (2005), the test-results above the 0.7 cut-off value
results. For all the belief, normative and control variables, provide a satisfactory measure for internal consistency and
we included a corresponding outcome evaluation state- indicated the reliability of the measures employed in the
ment, measuring either the subjective evaluation (i.e., study.
motivation to comply). We then multiplied the two cor- Information about the quality of food items can come
responding measures to obtain a composite indirect meas- from different sources and understanding households’ level
ure for each TPB construct as suggested by Fishbein and of trust in these sources is important. The questionnaire con-
Ajzen (2010). tained questions seeking to solicit the trusted sources and

13
Intentions to consume foods from edible insects and the prospects for transforming the ubiquitous… 891

Table 2  Description of TPB questions and measurements (variables)

Construct Items Factor analysis
PCA_ Reliabil-
variance ity score
(%) (α)

Attitudes “Eating FFEI within the next 1 year would mean…?”

Behavioural beliefs Bbelief_1: Consuming foods that are safe 86
Bbelief_2: Consuming food that tastes good
Bbelief_3: Consuming foods that are healthy
Cognitive attitudes CognitiveAtt_1: Consuming FFEI is favourable 84 0.89
CognitiveAtt_2: Consuming FFEI is beneficial
Affective attitudes AffectiveAtt_1: Consuming FFEI make me feel sad 84
AffectiveAtt_2: Consuming FFEI make me feel disappointed
SN Nbelief_1: My family would encourage me to consume FFEI 71 0.77
Normative beliefs Nbelief_2: My religious leaders would approve of me consuming FFEI
Nbelief_3: My peers would approve of me consuming FFEI
Nbelief_4: My neighbours would approve of me consuming FFEI
PBC Cbelief_1: I find it easy to judge the quality of FFEI 85 0.88
Cbelief_2: FFEI are readily available when I need
Control beliefs Cbelief_3: FFEI are culturally appropriate
Cbelief_4: Consuming FFEI depends only on my decision
Cbelief_5: How much control do you think you have over whether you can consume or avoid con-
suming FFEI within the next 1 year?
Personal norms Pnorms_1: How important would it be to give your family FFEI? 72 0.75
Pnorms_2: Consuming FFEI would make me feel like I’m making a personal contribution to
conserving the environment
Pnorms_3: Consuming FFEI would make me conform to my culture
BI BI_1: I intend to consume FFEI within the next 1 year 77 0.76
BI_2: For sure I will consume FFEI within the next 1 year
BI_3: For me to consume FFEI within the next 1 year would be..
Self-identity Sidentity_1: I consider myself as a typical consumer of FFEI 86 0.83
Sidentity_2: I look at myself as a person who will consume FFEI
Sidentity_3: I am concerned that what I consume affect the environment
Familiarity How many times did you consume either termites, grasshopper, cricket, black ant, Lake Fly, or any
other insects in 2015?

BI behavioural intention, PCA_variance principal component analysis explained variance

participants were given the following statement: “Indicate This method allows for concurrent testing of all causal
to what extent you trust information (regarding the quality hypotheses of the model and provides an overall measure
of food items or drinks) from just this source. Consider each of the model fit. Model parameters were estimated by
source separately”. A 5-point scale i.e., strongly distrust to approximating the implied covariance matrix as closely
strongly trust, was used with the mid-point being neither as possible to the sample covariance matrix (Bollen 1989;
distrust nor trust. Hu and Bentler 1999). The χ 2 Goodness-of-Fit Index
(GFI) was used to determine whether the theoretical
Data analysis model fits the data well. Comparative Fit Index (CFI) was
included as the index of incremental fit, and root mean
Descriptive data and the correlations were analysed using square error of approximation (RMSEA) was included as
SPSS 20. First, all reverse-scaled statements of the ques- an absolute fit index. General rules of thumb for accept-
tionnaire were recoded in the same direction. Regression ability of model fit using these indices are: < 0.10 for
data was analysed in SPSS_AMOS Graphics 22 Software, RMSEA; > 0.90 for the GFI and CFI; and < 5 for χ 2/df
using covariance-based structural equation modelling. (Byrne 2010).

13
892 K. O. Pambo et al.

Table 3  TPB variables TPB constructs Variables Whole sample Western region Eastern region p-valuea
modulated by the two study
regions [means and standard Mean SD Mean SD Mean SD
deviations (SD)]
Attitudes Behavioural beliefs 4.19 1.14 4.49 0.93 3.88 1.25 < 0.001
Cognitive attitudes 5.62 1.32 5.44 1.42 5.81 1.18 0.005
Affective attitudes 3.92 0.32 3.95 0.31 3.88 0.41 0.007
Subjective norms Normative beliefs 3.76 1.33 4.03 1.27 3.48 1.33 < 0.001
Personal norms 4.03 1.2 4.39 0.89 3.68 1.35 < 0.001
PBC Control beliefs 4.11 1.01 4.42 0.81 3.78 1.23 < 0.001
Intentions Behavioural intentions 3.89 0.94 4.13 0.89 3.66 0.94 < 0.001
Self-identity 3.66 1.08 3.96 0.99 3.37 1.08 < 0.001
Familiarity 1.48 0.46 2.12 0.31 1.06 0.36 < 0.001
a
Test the hypothesis that the distribution of TPB variables for the western and the eastern regions are the
same

Results and discussions households’ level of trust in these sources of information.

This knowledge is required while designing tailor-made
Intentions to consume FFEI campaigns meant to promote consumption of FFEI. Results
in Table 4 show that radio is the most trusted media source.
Participants in general have high intentions to consume However, the mean trust for radio (3.4) is lower than most of
FFEI. Results in Table 3 show that the mean score of the those from foodservice retailers (industry) and policy quar-
likert scale responses is 3.89, and is significantly higher ters, for example, supermarket (3.9), insect farmers (3.7)
than the ‘neutral’ value of 3 (t(431) = 19.69, p < 0.001). The and institutions responsible for quality control (standardiza-
results further show that the mean value of intention to con- tion) (3.7). Doctors/Nutritionists (4.8) and food researchers
sume FFEI in the western (4.13) is significantly higher than (4.1) are the most trusted sources of information regarding
that of the eastern region (3.66). The attitudes towards con- food quality, suggesting that consumers value ‘advise’ from
suming FFEI are generally positive, but more so for partici- “experts”.
pants from the western region. The findings of the analysis The finding that sources within the industry and policy
of subjective norms suggest participants perceive that social circles are more trusted than those from the media contra-
referents such as family members, peers, neighbours and dicts those reported by Verbeke and Vackier (2005) that
religious leaders would approve of them consuming FFEI. ‘advertising’ is more relevant in predicting intentions to con-
Moreover, the mean score for personal norms (the internal sume fish in Belgium. The reasons for the difference could
pressure or personal responsibility to perform the behaviour) either be cultural or situational. Culturally, social-capital
is also positive (4.03), suggesting that it is not in conflict appears higher in most African societies than in Western
with the social norms (external pressure). Familiarity (i.e., societies (Putnam 1995). Therefore, it is easier for consum-
the average number of times participants actually consumed ers in Kenya to bank on the information from trusted-ones’
edible insects during the past 1 year) is higher (2.12) for ‘close ties or networks’ to reduce/hedge the risks of new
the western region compared to 1.06, for the eastern region experience, thus the lower trust in media sources. Regard-
(p < 0.001). ing the situational argument, fish is established within the
diets of Belgian consumers (Verbeke and Vackier 2005),
Consumer’ trust in sources of information while FFEI is not ingrained within the food-chain in Kenya
regarding quality of food items (Pambo et al. 2016). Therefore, one would probably find
information regarding common ‘foods’ from the media
In their study, Alemu et al. (2017b) reported that FFEI’ sources more often compared to ‘new’ or ‘uncommon’
consumption barriers in Kenya can be relaxed by acquir- foods.
ing a learned experience from social referents,6 including,
friends, relatives, media, as well as government institutions
and officials. The current study goes deeper to investigate

6
The empirical effect of information-sources (and other social refer-
ents) are discussed elsewhere in this paper as subjective norms (SN).

13
Intentions to consume foods from edible insects and the prospects for transforming the ubiquitous… 893

Table 4  Consumer trust Mean value Std. deviation p-value

in sources of information
regarding the quality of FFEI Trust in media sources
Television documentary 2.4 2.1 < 0.001
Television news/current affairs 2.9 1.9 0.74
Television adverts 1.9 1.9 < 0.001
Newspaper 2.7 1.8 0.007
Internet 1.4 1.6 < 0.001
Radio 3.4 1.6 < 0.001
Magazines 1.6 1.8 < 0.001
Trust in food chain and policy actors
Local traders (sellers at the market/retailers) 3.6 1.4 < 0.001
Supermarket chains 3.9 1.3 < 0.001
County council staff 2.1 1.4 < 0.001
Specialty stores (only sell insect-based products) 3.1 2.6 0.691
Edible-insect farmers 3.7 1.1 < 0.001
Doctors/health officials/nutritionists 4.8 0.6 < 0.001
Researchers (University scientists) 4.1 1.2 < 0.001
Standards bodies (KEBS) 3.7 1.1 < 0.001
Consumer bodies (CAK) 3.3 2.3 0.012
Political leaders 2.9 1.6 0.744

KEBS Kenyan Bureau of Standards, CAK Competition Authority of Kenya

Table 5  Standardized path Path Coefficient Significance (p)

coefficients and significance for
the whole sample Attitudes (ATT) → Intentions to consume FFEI 0.16 0.01
Subjective norms (SN) → Intentions to consume FFEI 0.14 0.01
PBC → Intentions to consume FFEI 0.21 < 0.001
SI_F → Intentions to consume FFEI 0.49 < 0.001
R2 0.54 < 0.001

PBC is perceived behavioural control and SI_F is interplay of familiarity and self-identity

Factors predicting intentions to consume FFEI by 49%. PBC follow with 21%, attitudes 16%, and subjec-
and hypotheses testing tive norms 14%. All paths are significant (p < 0.05), and
jointly explains 54% of the variations of the intentions to
Table 5 shows the path coefficients for the whole sample.7 consume FFEI. These results compare favourably with those
For the purposes of interpretation, standardized coefficients of other studies, for example, Cook et al. (2002) found that
are reported. The strongest influencing variable on intentions TPB explained 24% of the variations in the intentions to
to consume FFEI is the interaction-effect of self-identity and purchase organic vegetables; Verbeke and Vackier (2005)
familiarity (SI_F), with a path coefficient of 0.49. Specifi- found that TPB explained 52% variations in fish consump-
cally, the finding suggest that if the SI_F were to increase tion behaviour among Belgian consumers; while Dean et al.
by 1 unit, the intentions to consume FFEI would increase (2008) found that an extended TPB accounted for 39% of the
variations of intentions to consume processed-foods (Pizza),
and 60% variations of intentions to consume fresh-foods
7 (organic-apples).
Maximum likelihood estimation (MLE) method was applied as the
standard algorithm for parameter estimation following the suggestion Hypothesis 1 of the study says that favourable attitudes
of Byrne (2010). Both the χ2, Goodness of Fit Index (GFI), Com- towards FFEI would positively influence participants’ inten-
parative Fit Index (CFI), and root mean square error of approximation tions to consume them. The results (Table 5) show that con-
(RMSEA) showed acceptable fit for the model i.e., χ2 (df) = 392.76 sumers’ attitudes towards FFEI independently accounts for
(85); p < 0.001; GFI = 0.919; CFI = 0.907; RMSEA = 0.082. The indi-
cation is that the extended TPB employed in this study is suitable for 16% of the variability of intentions to consume the prod-
explaining the intentions to consume FFEI. uct, hence no evidence to reject hypothesis 1 (χ2 = 4.63;

13
894 K. O. Pambo et al.

p < 0.05). The results also show that the subjective norms, Table 6  Standardized path coefficients and significance by consumer
PBC and the SI_F have positive and significant effects region
(p < 0.05) on the intentions to consume FFEI. Thus, hypoth- Path Western region Eastern region χ2
eses 2, 3 and 4, of the study also cannot be rejected.
Coefficient p Coefficient p
Attitudes and PBC significantly influence the intentions
to consume FFEI. Thus, respondents who report more posi- ATT → INT 0.35 < 0.001 0.16 < 0.001 < 0.001
tive attitudes towards FFEI, and who perceive that they have SN → INT 0.09 0.01 0.17 < 0.001 0.086
control over their consumption behaviour, report stronger PBC → INT 0.13 0.01 0.22 < 0.001 < 0.001
consumption intentions. However, the finding that PBC SI_F → INT 0.43 < 0.001 0.45 < 0.001 0.081
(21%) affect intentions to consume FFEI more than attitudes R2 58 < 0.001
(16%) contrasts several past results (for example, Menozzi
INT intentions, ATT​ attitudes, SN subjective norms, PBC perceived
et al. 2017; Oh and Yoon 2014; Piha et al. 2016; Urban et al. behavioural control, SI_F interactional-effect between familiarity and
2012), suggesting that practical factors, such as perceived self-identity, χ2 tests the hypothesis that path coefficients for the two
unavailability of FFEI, convenience, price, social practices study regions follow the same distribution
and the associated symbolic value, rather than general atti-
tudinal change, can be more important in determining the
intentions to consume FFEI. This is consistent with the find- also significant, indicating that participants easily estab-
ings of Menozzi et al. (2017). lished the defined social referents. Participants were moti-
The PBC, measured in terms of perceived availability of vated to comply with the opinions of family members,
FFEI, perceived ease of judging the quality of FFEI, and doctors/nutritionists and peers. A result that underscores
the perceived level of fit with one’s culture (see Table 2), the important influence of the socio-cultural indicators on
is a strong determinant of intentions to consume the prod- FFEI consumption. Moreover, the positive and significant
uct. The innovative way in which FFEI was presented to the influence of personal norms suggests that consumers (par-
participants during the study i.e., incorporated in a popular ticipants) possess the moral imperative (internal drive) to
bakery product (i.e., a bun) possibly enhanced its familiarity consume FFEI, rather than to avoid it. Hence, the personal
to the participants and improved its compatibility with their obligations associated with consuming FFEI stems from a
food culture, hence increased its PBC. These results cor- positive personal-drive to do something good like preserv-
roborate those of Hartmann and Siegrist (2016) and Menozzi ing culture, conserving the environment, providing nutri-
et al. (2017), who argue that edible insects are rejected by tious meal for the family or increasing dietary diversity
consumers who feel that they do not fit with their typical (measures for personal-norms are presented in Table 2).
culinary image. This is turn suggests that blending insects Table 6 presents the results by the region. All the paths
with popular cuisines to increase familiarity and cultural are significant (p < 0.05), but only two are significantly dif-
appropriateness might be effective. ferent between the two regions, the paths linking attitudes
Moreover, providing the real product (i.e., cricket-flour and PBC to the intentions to consume FFEI (p < 0.001).
bun) during the study enhanced the perceived availability of The finding means that the effects of attitudes and PBC
FFEI (because participants could see and touch the actual on intentions to consume FFEI are significantly different
product) and raised its PBC and intentions to consume it. between participants from the western and the eastern
Efforts to promote consumption of insect-based foods in regions. At a more abstract level and following the argu-
Kenya have been accompanied by parallel programmes to ment of Piha et al. (2016), these differences demonstrate
increase the supply of edible insects (Münke-Svendsen et al. that basic culinary processes informing FFEI choice, may
2016). The rationale stemmed from the realization that lack be very different even within a relatively unified cultural
of FFEI (unavailability) is a big barrier to the consump- region. Apparently, PBC has a reversed effect—that is,
tion of the product, lowering its PBC. Indeed, House (2016) has larger influence on intentions to consume FFEI than
argues that changing the dietary habits to incorporate FFEI attitudes in the eastern region, but lower in the western
depends more on the availability of the product because a region. The explanation borrows from the observation of
change in values is often supply driven, and not vice versa. Urban et al. (2012) that people who are more familiar with
That is, “a particular food must be widely available if it FFEI can easily identify the relevant barriers to consum-
is to be accepted and integrated as part of people’s diets” ing a product, and the possible solutions. PBC embodies
(House, ibid, p. 50). This argument is supported by the pre- FFEI consumption barriers which are expected to impact
sent results that PBC has greater influence on intentions to participants from the eastern region more because they are
consume FFEI than either attitudes or subjective norms. less familiar with FFEI. Possibly, intentions to consume
The effects of perceived external support or social pres- FFEI are affected much more with control barriers among
sure (subjective norms) on FFEI consumption intentions is individuals who are less familiar with such foods, probably

13
Intentions to consume foods from edible insects and the prospects for transforming the ubiquitous… 895

Table 7  Correlations between TPB constructs and participants’ socioeconomic characteristics modulated by region
TPB construct Education Age Gender Household size
WR ER WR ER WR ER WR ER

Intentions to consume FFEI − 0.02 0.16* 0.09 0.07 0.03 0.24** − 0.18* 0.02
Behavioural beliefs − 0.30** 0.13 0.44*** − 0.27** − 0.19* 0.22** 0.08 0.05
Cognitive attitudes − 0.12 0.11 0.21* − 0.13 0.07 0.16* 0.07 0.07
Affective attitudes − 0.12 0.22** 0.06 − 0.22* − 0.22** 0.19* 0.07 0.11
Social norms 0.11 0.13 0.29** 0.29** 0.01 0.21** 0.21** 0.17*
Personal norms 0.20* 0.33*** 0.32*** 0.29** − 0.23** − 0.19* 0.06 0.09
Perceived control − 0.12 − 0.23* 0.33*** 0.25** 0.37*** 0.31*** 0.16* 0.20**
Facilitating conditions − 0.12 − 0.12 0.13 0.19* 0.26** 0.28** 0.23** 0.20**
Self-identity 0.12 0.20* 0.37*** − 0.23** − 0.31*** 0.28** 0.04 0.02
Familiarity with FFEI consumption 0.11 0.11 0.52*** 0.51*** 0.39*** 0.46*** 0.11 0.08

WR western region, ER eastern region

***1%; **5%; *10% Significance level

because either they lack experience, care less, or even are familiar with edible insects. However, where the practice is
indifferent. familiar, households abandon entomophagy as they become
The interaction-effect of self-identity and familiarity more educated. Somehow with increased education, the
(SI_F) highly predicts intention to consume FFEI, suggest- households consider some of their traditions as ‘primitive’
ing that the effect of self-identity is a function of repeated or outdated (Pambo et al. 2018). Education also correlates
experience of performing the relevant behaviour (familiar- positively with personal norms in both regions. These results
ity). When the results are moderated by the consumer region, contradict those reported by Verbeke (2015) that education
the surprising finding is that SI_F has stronger influence has insignificant influence on willingness to adopt insects as
(45%) on intentions to consume FFEI in the eastern region meat-substitute among Belgian consumers, a finding which
where entomophagy is less common compared to the west- is consistent with Verbeke and Vackier (2005) regarding fre-
ern region (43%). The explanation could be that intentions quency of fish consumption. Cultural aspects could explain
to consume FFEI become less under the control of cognitive the differences given that the aforementioned studies are
factors and more under the control of habitual (routine) pro- based on western societies (Europe) where edible insects
cesses at higher levels of familiarity, as suggested by Fekadu are largely not considered as edible. Indeed, Alemu et al.
and Kraft (2001). (2017b) reported that consumers having both primary and
secondary education have strong preference for the high
Correlations between TPB constructs nutritional value of insect-based foods in Kenya.
and participants’ socioeconomic characteristics Participants’ age correlates positively with attitudes and
self-identity constructs in the western region, but negatively
Results in Table 7 show that intentions to consume FFEI in the eastern region. The indication is that older households
correlate negatively with the mean household size in the highly identify themselves with and have more positive atti-
western region indicating that larger households in the tudes towards consuming FFEI in the western region, while
region have lower consumption intentions. The small quan- the converse is true for the eastern region. The reason could
tities of edible insects captured through traditional gathering be that in the western region where entomophagy is cultur-
(Alemu et al. 2017b) and the seasonal variations could be the ally rooted, older households conceive the practice as part of
reason, as larger households venture into alternative activi- their culture, hence their more positive attitudes. The results
ties which can satisfy all household members. further reveal that more educated households (who are rela-
The correlation between the intentions to consume FFEI tively younger) shun entomophagy, hence the negative atti-
and education is positive and significant for participants tudes. The finding that younger households in the eastern
from the eastern region but negative (although not sig- region where entomophagy is uncommon have more positive
nificant) for those from the western region. Education also attitudes regarding intentions to consume FFEI, may reveal
correlates negatively with attitudes in the western region, that younger households are more open and curious with
but positively in the eastern region. The suggestion is that unfamiliar foods compared with the older households for
intentions to consume FFEI are positively influenced with whom a higher degree of fear of new foods (food-neophobia)
increased formal education among households who are less has been reported (Alemu et al. 2017b; Verbeke 2015).

13
896 K. O. Pambo et al.

Correlations between the intentions to consume FFEI and formal education and being familiar with insect-based foods
gender is positive and insignificant in the western region, positively influence intentions to consume FFEI.
but significant in the eastern region. The indication is that The study concludes the following. First, consumers in
males and females have relatively similar intentions to con- Kenya have positive attitudes regarding novel foods such
sume FFEI in the western region, while in the eastern region as FFEI, especially if such foods are familiar. Therefore,
(lower-familiarity region), male households have relatively intentions to consume FFEI can be enhanced by designing
higher intentions to consume FFEI. Gender also, correlates targeted awareness campaigns to increase their familiarity.
negatively with both attitudes and self-identity constructs in Second, awareness creation would bear much fruit if trusted
the western region, but positively in the eastern region, con- sources are used. The study finds that consumers trust infor-
firming that male households have more positive attitudes mation sources from the industry more than those from the
and highly identify with FFEI in the eastern region (where mainstream media. Third, under the construct of subjective
entomophagy is uncommon). Obviously, female households norms, consumers clearly established their defined social
have more fear towards unfamiliar foods like FFEI (are more referents. Therefore, campaigns meant to champion dietary
food-neophobic). These results corroborate those reported change to incorporate FFEI have a higher chance of suc-
by Hartmann and Siegrist (2016) and Alemu et al. (2017b) cess if they target the identified social referents. Fourth,
that females have a more food-neophobia attitude towards PBC affects the intentions to consume FFEI more than atti-
insect-based products compared to male counterparts. Fur- tudes and subjective norms suggesting that practical factors
ther, Verbeke (2015) argues that the males possibly have like availability of the product (FFEI), level of fit with the
a more adventurous taste orientation or find the idea of prevailing culinary routines, and price, are possibly more
consuming insect-based foods less disgusting than women, important in determining the intentions to consume FFEI
hence their higher interest in consuming the products. In the compared to attitudes, in general. The suggestion is that con-
context of this study, the argument of Verbeke (ibid) may sumption barriers (practical factors) pose bigger threats to
only apply to the households in the eastern region because FFEI consumption decisions than consumer attitudes. The
in the western region where entomophagy is familiar, gender study concludes that while the motivation to consume FFEI
differences are insignificant. is high, the ability to do so (PBC) can be low, hence lower-
ing the consumption intentions. Therefore, identifying and
addressing the potential threats (barriers) would increase
households’ intentions to consume novel food products
Summary and conclusions like FFEI. Fifth, the interaction-effect of self-identity and
familiarity has the highest independent effect on intentions
Entomophagy is currently receiving increasing attention as to consume FFEI, hence individuals who identify them-
a promising way to cope with some of the major food and selves with FFEI consumption behaviour and who are more
nutrition challenges facing the world (FAO 2013; van Huis familiar with edible insects probably believe that consum-
and Vantomme 2014). However, the prospects of insect- ing FFEI is under their volitional control. Therefore, FFEI
based foods contributing significantly to food and nutrition marketers should design marketing messages that embody
security in developing countries like Kenya, lie in their wide self-identities of target consumers.
acceptance and usage by the local households. This study Finally, control beliefs (i.e., barriers), such as the per-
applied an extended TPB model to examine the rural house- ception of the risks and fear of insects, lack of information
holds’ intentions to consume insect-based foods (FFEI). The regarding appropriate culinary usage, unavailability of FFEI
study also assessed the level of consumer’ trust in sources of and the regulatory framework, strongly influenced the inten-
information regarding quality of food items, and the effect tions to consume FFEI. Furthermore, the results suggest that
of socio-economic characteristics on intentions to consume the negative effect of the identified barriers can be hedged
FFEI. The efficacy of TPB model in predicting intentions (reduced) by the recommendations from the value-chain
to consume FFEI was confirmed. Results indicated that actors, especially from the industry and policy quarters, such
rural households have positive intentions to consume FFEI as the health officials, nutritionists, scientists and regulators.
and those intentions are higher for individuals who are Thus, promoting edible insects’ value-chains in a develop-
more familiar with such foods. Results also indicated that ing country (like Kenya) can be hastened by developing the
information sources from the industry and policy quarters necessary standards (that is regulations) upon which recom-
(government institutions) are more trusted than those from mendations can be based to promote market competition and
the media. Additionally, the study found out that PBC has control/monitoring, and attract foodservice retailers through
greater influence on intentions to consume FFEI than either trade facilitation. Kenya has taken the first step by establish-
attitudes or subjective norms. Finally, results revealed that ing the Kenyan standard (KS) 2711:2017, ICS 65.120 to
being relatively young, being male, having a relatively lower guide processing insects into animal feed (KEBS 2017). A

13
Intentions to consume foods from edible insects and the prospects for transforming the ubiquitous… 897

call for research initiatives to support the development of team and respondents who participated in the research leading to this
similar standards for the food industry is therefore, timely. paper. Further, we are indebted to the two anonymous reviewers for
their helpful and constructive comments that have greatly improved this
paper. This study was funded through the ‘GREEiNSECT’ Project with
funds from Danish International Development Agency (DANIDA),
Grant Number, 13-06KU.
Limitations of the study

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2016. Robert M. Mbeche PhD, is a lecturer in Agriculture and Rural Develop-
Oh, J., and S. Yoon. 2014. Theory based approach to factors affecting ment at Jomo Kenyatta University of Agriculture and Technology in
ethical consumption. International Journal of Consumer Studies Nairobi, Kenya. His interest relates to the interaction between people
38 (3): 278–288. and various organizations and which forms a basis for his work on
Pambo, K., R. Mbeche, J. Okello, G. Mose, and J. Kinyuru. 2016. social and economic reforms and transformations on livelihood condi-
Consumers’ salient beliefs regarding foods from edible insects tions of the poor and marginalized. Dr. Mbeche’s recent research inter-
in Kenya: A qualitative study using concepts from the theory of est has been on consumer acceptance of edible insects.
planned behaviour. African Journal of Food, Agriculture, Nutri-
tion and Development 16 (4): 11367–11384. Julius J. Okello PhD, is an Impact Assessment Specialist and Monitor-
Pambo, K., J. Okello, R. Mbeche, and J. Kinyuru. 2017. Exploring the ing, Learning & Evaluation Coordinator for the Sub-Sahara Africa
influence of differentiated nutrition information on consumers’ region at the International Potato Center (CIP). His research has
mental models regarding foods from edible insects—A means-end focused, among others, on the impact of agriculture-nutrition-health
chain analysis. Ecology of Food and Nutrition 56 (6): 530–551. linkages on household nutrition and health outcomes; using behav-
Pambo, K., J. Okello, R. Mbeche, J. Kinyuru, and M. Alemu. 2018. ioural and social sciences to understand drivers and effects of farmer
The role of product information on consumer sensory evaluation, and consumer acceptance and use of nutritious foods and the mental
expectations, experiences and emotions of cricket-flour-containing processes entailed in production and utilization of improved crop varie-
buns. Food Research International 106: 532–541. ties. Prior to joining CIP, Dr. Okello was a Senior Lecturer at the Uni-
Piha, S., T. Pohjanheimo, A. Lähteenmäki-Uutela, Z. Křečková, and T. versity of Nairobi, Kenya, where he researched and published widely
Otterbring. 2016. The effects of consumer knowledge on the will- on food safety issues and the smallholder farmers’ linkage to domestic
ingness to buy insect food: An exploratory cross-regional study and international markets, as well as consumer perception of safety of
in Northern and Central Europe. Food Quality and Preference domestically traded vegetables.
70: 1–10.
Putnam, R. 1995. Bowling alone: America’s declining social capital. George N. Mose PhD, has interests in innovation systems, agribusiness,
Journal of Democracy 6 (1): 65–78. food products and commodity marketing and food security research.
Ramos-Elorduy, J. 2005. Insects: A hopeful food source. In Ecologi- His recent research has focused on understanding decision making in
cal Implications of Minilivestock, ed. M. G. Paoletti, 263–291. smallholder households and implications for innovation and support,
Enfield, CT: Science Publishers. participatory approaches for facilitating farmer innovation in small-
Smith, J., D. Terry, A. Manstead, W. Louis, D. Kotterman, and J. Wolfs. holder farming systems as well as extension and communication for
2007. Interaction effects in the theory of planned behaviour: The smallholder farming systems.
interplay of self-identity and past behaviour. Journal of Applied
Social Psychology 37 (11): 2726–2750. John N. Kinyuru PhD, is a Food and Nutrition Researcher and Lecturer
Sparks, P., and R. Shepherd. 1992. Self-identity and the theory of in the Department of Food Science and Technology at Jomo Keny-
planned behaviour: Assessing the role of identification with green atta University of Agriculture and Technology, Kenya. His research
consumerism. Social Psychology Quarterly 55 (4): 388–399. interests fall broadly on utilization of indigenous knowledge and foods
Tan, H., A. Fischer, P. Tinchan, M. Stager, L. Steenbekkers, and H. for food and feed. Specifically the exploitation of edible insects in
van Trijp. 2015. Insects as food: Exploring cultural exposure and human nutrition and health is of interest to him. He has been involved
individual experience as determinants of acceptance. Food Qual- in funded projects in collaboration with international partners, experts
ity and Preference 42: 78–89. and local farming communities on edible insects.
Tan, H., A. Fischer, H. van Trijp, and M. Stieger. 2016. Tasty but nasty?
Exploring the role of sensory-liking and food appropriateness in

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