GLASS
Glass is an inorganic solid and non-crystalline material that is transparent in appearance. glass
is defined as an amorphous, non-crystalline solid formed by rapidly cooling (quenching) a molten
material, typically a mixture of silicates, alkali metals, and other metallic oxides, to a rigid state
without crystallizing. It's essentially a supercooled liquid, meaning it's been cooled below its
melting point but doesn't form a crystalline structure. Using archaeological evidence, we can
trace the usage of glass in the stone age period too. Some of the weapons and tools were made
of naturally occurring volcanic glass.
COMPOSITION OF GLASS
Glass is mainly made by heating together several raw materials until they melt and fuse. The
basic composition usually includes:
1. Silica (SiO₂) – around 70–75%
o Main ingredient (also called sand).
o Provides the basic structure and hardness.
2. Soda (Na₂O) – around 12–15%
o Added usually as sodium carbonate (soda ash).
o Lowers the melting point of silica, making it easier to shape.
3. Lime (CaO) – around 8–10%
o Added as limestone or calcium carbonate.
o Improves chemical durability and stability (otherwise pure glass would dissolve
in water!).
Sometimes small amounts of other materials are added to modify properties:
• Alumina (Al₂O₃) — increases durability.
• Magnesia (MgO) — improves workability.
• Potassium oxide (K₂O) — used in some specialty glasses.
• Lead oxide (PbO) — makes glass denser and gives brilliance (used in crystal glass).
TYPES OF GLASS
1. Soda-Lime Glass
Soda-lime glass is the most commonly produced type of glass. It is mainly composed of silicon
dioxide (sand), calcium oxide (lime), and sodium bicarbonate (soda ash). These ingredients are
heated until they melt and then shaped into different products. Soda-lime glass is affordable,
easy to manufacture, and offers good durability under normal conditions. However, it has limited
resistance to heat and chemicals. It is widely used for manufacturing window panes, everyday
drinking glasses, and bottles for beverages due to its clarity and low cost.
2. Float Glass
Float glass is a refined form of soda-lime glass. In its production, molten glass is floated over a
bath of molten tin, creating a perfectly flat and uniform surface without the need for grinding or
polishing. The main components remain silicon dioxide, calcium oxide, and soda ash. This type
of glass is used extensively for making large glass sheets, windows, mirrors, and architectural
panels. The float process ensures the glass is smooth, free of distortions, and has a consistent
thickness, which is critical for clear visibility in windows and display cases.
3. Borosilicate Glass
Borosilicate glass is made by adding boron oxide to the traditional soda-lime mixture. The
presence of boron significantly improves the glass's resistance to heat, chemical corrosion, and
thermal shock. It can withstand rapid temperature changes without cracking. Borosilicate glass
is widely used in laboratory equipment like beakers and test tubes, kitchenware such as
measuring jugs and bakeware, and in automotive headlights. Its durability under extreme
conditions makes it an essential material for scientific and industrial applications.
4. Lead Glass (Crystal Glass)
Lead glass, often known as crystal glass, is produced by replacing calcium oxide with lead oxide
in the glass composition. The addition of lead increases the density and refractive index of the
glass, giving it a heavier feel and a brilliant sparkle as it bends and disperses light more
effectively. Because of these optical properties, lead glass is highly valued for fine glassware,
decorative art objects, chandeliers, and high-end optical lenses. The sparkling effect makes
crystal items particularly prized for their elegance and beauty.
5. Tempered Glass
Tempered glass is a type of safety glass created by heating ordinary glass to high temperatures
and then cooling it rapidly. This process introduces internal stresses that significantly strengthen
the glass. Tempered glass is much stronger than regular window glass and, importantly, when
broken, it shatters into small, blunt pieces rather than dangerous sharp shards. This property
makes it ideal for applications requiring enhanced safety, such as the side and rear windows of
automobiles, shower doors, and glass doors in commercial buildings.
6. Laminated Glass
Laminated glass is formed by sandwiching a tough plastic layer, typically polyvinyl butyral (PVB),
between two sheets of ordinary glass. When laminated glass breaks, the plastic layer holds the
pieces together, preventing sharp fragments from causing injury. This construction makes
laminated glass ideal for use in car windshields, skylights, and hurricane-resistant windows. Its
impact resistance and ability to stay intact under force also make it suitable for applications
where both safety and security are priorities.
7. Bulletproof Glass
Bulletproof glass, also known as ballistic glass, is a layered composite that combines layers of
hard and soft glass materials. Typically, a softer layer is sandwiched between harder glass layers.
The softer layer absorbs and disperses the energy of bullets or other impacts, preventing
shattering. Although the structure involves different types of glass, they are carefully matched for
refractive index to maintain clear visibility. Bulletproof glass is used for armored vehicles, military
installations, banks, and other facilities where high protection against ballistic threats is
necessary.
Type of Glass Composition Application
Soda-Lime Silicon dioxide, calcium oxide, Used for window panes, beverage
Glass sodium bicarbonate. bottles, jars, and common glassware.
Float Glass Same as soda-lime glass; Used for flat surfaces like windows,
produced by floating on molten mirrors, display panels, and glass
tin. doors.
Borosilicate Soda-lime mixture with added Laboratory equipment (beakers, test
Glass boron oxide. tubes), kitchenware (measuring jugs),
automobile headlights.
Lead Glass Replacement of calcium oxide Decorative art pieces, fine glassware
(Crystal Glass) with lead oxide. (crystal glasses), chandeliers, optical
lenses.
Tempered Glass Ordinary glass strengthened by Automobile side and rear windows,
heat treatment (rapid heating and shower doors, commercial glass
cooling). doors, safety panels.
Laminated Two sheets of ordinary glass with Car windshields, skylights, hurricane-
Glass a plastic (PVB) interlayer. resistant windows, security glazing.
Bulletproof Multiple layers of hard and soft Armored vehicles, military facilities,
Glass glass materials with matched bank security windows, high-
refractive indices. protection areas.
GLASS FRACTURES
Glass is a versatile material used in various industries, including construction, automotive, and
electronics. Despite its strength and durability, glass is inherently brittle, making it susceptible
to fractures when subjected to stress, impact, or thermal changes. The way glass breaks provides
valuable insights into the nature of the force applied and the conditions leading to its failure.
Understanding glass fractures is crucial for forensic analysis, product safety, and material
engineering. Different types of fractures, such as radial, concentric, and stress fractures, occur
under specific conditions and can help determine the cause of breakage. By studying glass
fracture patterns, experts can enhance safety measures, improve glass manufacturing
processes, and aid in criminal investigations.
Elasticity is the ability of a material to return to its previous shape after a force is exerted on
it. When a force is exerted on a pane of glass, it stretches (this bending may not be visible to the
naked eye). If the force is not too high, the glass will then return to its original state and no damage
occurs. However, if the force exceeds the glass's elasticity, the glass fractures.
Glass may be subjected to three types of forces (strains):
• Compressive force: squeezes the material.
• Tensile force: expands the material.
• Shear force: slides one part of the material in one direction and another part in a different
direction.
Each of these forces causes a deformation, which is resisted by the internal cohesion (stress) of
the material. Glass breaks when a tensile strain that is sufficient to overcome the natural tensile
stress limit of the material is applied.
FORMATION OF GLASS FRACTURE
• Initial Load Application: A weight on the glass creates compressive strain on the loaded
side (L) and tensile strain on the unloaded side (U). If tensile strain exceeds the glass's
strength, cracks form on the unloaded side.
• Radial Crack Formation: Cracks begin on side U and grow toward side L, spreading
outward from the load point in a pie-shaped radial pattern.
• Tangential (Concentric) Crack Formation: Continued loading causes radial sectors to
push outward, generating new tangential cracks on side L, linking radial cracks into a
spider-web pattern.
TYPES OF GLASS FRACTURES
1. Radial Fractures:
These cracks form first when an object impacts glass, starting at the point of impact and radiating
outward like spokes on a wheel. They occur on the
opposite side of the impact due to tensile stress.
Radial fractures form on the opposite side of the impact
due to tensile stress.
2. Concentric (Tangential) Fractures:
These circular cracks develop later around the impact
point, connecting radial fractures. They form due to
continued stress, appearing on the same side as the impact.
Concentric (tangential) fractures form on the same side as the impact due to compressive stress.
3. Cone Glass Fractures:
When a bullet strikes glass, the entrance side is the loaded
side and the exit side is the unloaded side.
Radial and tangential cracks still form, but at higher
speeds, but the exit hole is wider than the entrance hole.
The cracking pattern is simpler at high velocities. This
creates fractures in the shape of cones, also called cone
glass fractures.
4. Rib Marks and the 3R Rule:
Examination of broken edges reveals rib marks (curved
stress lines).
Radial cracks follow the 3R Rule
Radial cracks produce Rib marks at Right angles on the Reverse side of the applied force.
The direction of crack propagation is from the concave side of rib marks to the convex side.
5. Hackle Marks:
Hackle marks are irregular, approximately parallel linear highs and lows with relatively low relief.
They are often seen as lines. They are formed by high-velocity cracks, often caused by impact or
explosion. They are a definitive indication of crack propagation direction.
Type of Appearance Cause Example Significance
Fracture
Radial Cracks radiate High-velocity impact Stone hitting a Helps determine
Fracture outward like on one side of glass windowpane point and
spokes of a direction of
wheel impact
Concentric Circular cracks Sustained force Hammer Found alongside
Fracture forming around applied to a single striking a glass radial fractures;
the point of point surface aids in impact
impact analysis
Cone Cone-shaped High-speed impact by Bullet impacts Indicates
Fracture break with small, hard objects on glass direction of
smooth and impact; useful in
rough surfaces ballistic studies
Thermal Straight-line Rapid temperature Hot water Common in
Fracture cracks, often changes causing poured on variable
from the edges expansion/contraction frozen glass environments;
thermal stress
evidence
Rib Curved or wave- Slow propagation due Stress Determines
Fracture like markings on to gradual stress accumulation sequence of
fracture surface over time breakage in
failure analysis
Hackle Rough, parallel Rapid crack — Indicates
Lines ridges along the propagation due to direction of
fracture surface impact or stress fracture
movement
Wallner Wave-like or Interaction of stress — Helps determine
Lines arc-shaped waves with crack sequence of
patterns on the propagation failure events in
fracture surface forensic analysis
BACKWARD FRAGMENTATION OF GLASS
Backward fragmentation of glass refers to the pattern that forms when glass breaks due to an
impact, with the fractures occurring on the side opposite the force. In this process, the glass
tends to break inwards towards the point of impact. The characteristic pattern includes radial
fractures that radiate outward from the point of impact, while concentric fractures form in a
circular pattern around it. The key feature of backward fragmentation is that it helps determine
the direction of force and can indicate which side the impact originated from, which is crucial for
forensic analysis.
The phenomenon was first systematically studied in 1967 by Dr. D.F. Nelson and B.C. Revell in
their paper titled "Backward Fragmentation from Breaking Glass" published in the Journal of the
Forensic Science Society.
Methods for Forensic Examination of Glass Fractures
Method Explanation
Fracture Pattern Analysis - Study of how the glass broke.
- Helps determine direction, force, and type of impact (high-
velocity like bullets or slow force like stones).
Radial and Concentric - Radial fractures: Lines that radiate outward from the point of
Fracture Analysis impact (like spokes of a wheel).
- Concentric fractures: Circular cracks around the point of
impact.
- Use: Helps determine which side the force came from.
- Rule: Radial cracks form first, concentric cracks later.
Rib Mark (Stress Mark) - Rib marks are curved lines seen at the edges of broken glass.
Analysis - They help show direction of force:
• Rib marks are at a right angle to the side opposite to the
force.
• They curve away from the point of impact.
Direction of Force - By studying fracture lines and rib marks:
Determination • Side where the impact occurred usually has a wider opening.
• Cracks are more smooth on the opposite side.
Order of Impacts - If there are multiple impacts (like two bullet holes), the
Determination fracture lines from the first impact will stop the fracture lines
from the second.
- Important in reconstructing sequence of events.
Hole Size and Shape - High-speed projectiles (bullets) make a smaller entry hole
Examination and a larger exit hole.
- The cone-shaped fracture can indicate the direction of bullet
travel.
Reconstruction (Physical - Attempt to reassemble pieces of glass.
Matching) - Match edges, surface features, and fracture lines.
- Helps prove that two pieces were once a single object (e.g.,
glass found on suspect’s clothes matches broken window).
Microscopic Examination - Use a stereomicroscope to observe small fracture features,
striations, or stress marks.
- Important for detailed directionality and force analysis.
Chemical and Optical - Sometimes used to compare the composition of glass pieces if
Analysis (if needed) physical matching isn't possible.
- Techniques like Refractive Index measurement, Density
comparison, Elemental analysis (like SEM-EDS) may support
fracture analysis.
FORENSIC EXAMINATION OF GLASS EVIDENCE
Forensic scientists analyze glass evidence to:
Classify Glass Type: Determine if the glass belongs to a specific category (e.g., window
glass, tempered glass, or laminated glass).
Individualize Glass Attempt to match a recovered fragment to a single source, which is
Fragments: challenging due to the widespread presence of glass.
This is more challenging due to the widespread use of similar glass compositions. Key methods
include:
➢ Fracture Matching (Physical Fit Analysis) – If two broken pieces fit together like a puzzle,
they are confirmed to be from the same source.
➢ Optical and Physical Comparisons – Examining color, thickness, and surface markings to
differentiate glass samples.
➢ Density and Refractive Index Measurements – Using specialized techniques to compare
unknown glass with known samples.
Non-optical Physical Properties of Glass
1. Surface Curvature and Texture:
Curvature: This property helps distinguish between flat glass (like
window panes) and curved glass (such as bottle fragments). The
curvature can be measured to determine if two pieces of glass could
have originated from the same source.
A spherometer is used to measure the radius of curvature of the
glass fragments with curved surfaces. The radius of curvature of the
fragment is calculated using the formulae.
l: mean distance between the legs,
h: height of the curved surface
Texture: Different types of glass may have distinct textures due to manufacturing processes. For
example, frosted glass has a rougher texture compared to clear glass.
2. Special Treatments:
Lamination: Laminated glass, commonly used in windshields, consists of multiple layers of
glass with a plastic film in between. This type of glass is difficult to penetrate and holds together
when broken.
Tempering: Tempered glass is strengthened by rapid cooling during manufacturing, making it
more resistant to breakage. When it does break, it shatters into small, blunt pieces.
3. Surface Contaminants:
Paint and Putty: The presence of these materials can indicate how pieces fit together and provide
additional evidence through chemical analysis.
4. Density:
A density gradient is created using two liquids with different densities.
Glass fragments are introduced, and they settle at positions corresponding to their densities.
Matching densities suggest a possible link between the questioned and reference samples.
Density Comparison by Density Gradient Tubes
Heavier Liquid Density (gm/cc) Lighter Liquid Density (gm/cc)
1. Bromoform 2.89 i. Benzene 0.875
2. Sym-Tetrabromoethane 2.96 ii. Kerosene 0.80
3. Methylene iodide 3.32 iii. Xylene 0.88
iv. Nitrobenzene 1.20
v. Bromobenzene 1.52
5. Surface Striations and Markings:
Ream Marks: These are parallel striations left on the surface of glass by rollers during the
manufacturing process. They can help orient fragments and suggest how pieces fit together.
Scratches and Etchings: These can be used to match fragments by aligning scratches or
etchings on different pieces.
6. Thickness & Hardness:
Measuring the thickness of glass fragments can help determine if they come from the same
source. However, thickness can vary, especially in curved pieces, so multiple measurements are
necessary.
Edge thickness: A micrometre is used to measure accurately the edge thickness of the glass
fragments. Readings should be taken all around the broken edges to find out at which point, the
crime exhibits match with any portion of the broken glass.
This will further help during the matching of surface patterns and other identifying
characteristics, along the broken edges.
While glass generally falls within a narrow range on the Mohs hardness scale (between 5 and 6),
hardness is less useful for distinguishing between different types of glass in forensic analysis
Optical Properties of Glass
1. Color Analysis
The color of a glass sample is compared to a reference sample to determine similarity.
This is done by placing glass pieces on their edges against a white background for optimal
visualization.
If significant differences in color exist, the glass fragments may not have a common origin.
2. Refractive Index Measurement
When light passes from one medium to another, it bends
(refraction).
The refractive index (𝜂η) of glass is determined by measuring
how much light bends as it enters the glass.
This is assessed using methods like the oil immersion technique,
which involves heating silicone oil and monitoring the
disappearance of the Becke line at the match point.
Abbe refractometer: An optical instrument used to measure the refractive index of transparent
materials such as glass, liquids, and gemstones.
REFRACTIVE INDEX BECKE LINE EFFECT:
The Becke line is a bright halo observed near the boundary of a transparent material when it is
immersed in a liquid with a different refractive index and viewed under a microscope.
3. Microscopic Oil Immersion Method (SILICONE OIL)
The oil immersion method determines the refractive index of glass by placing fragments in
silicone oil with a known refractive index. The oil is heated in a hot-stage microscope, causing its
refractive index to change.
As the temperature rises, the Becke line (a bright halo around the fragment) disappears when the
oil’s refractive index matches that of the glass. This match point is recorded, and the refractive
index is determined.
RI of Silicone oil is temperature dependent (35-100 degree Celsius/ with every increase in 1
degree Celsius decrease in RI 0.004)
This method is highly accurate and used in forensic labs, often with automated systems like
GRIM (Glass Refractive Index Measurement) system, to compare glass samples in criminal
investigations.
Instrumental Analysis:
Method Description Limitations
SEM-EDS Minimally destructive surface technique used in Limited
forensic labs to analyze glass. information &
precision
SEM Primary tool for observing the morphological
structure and elemental composition of the
fragments.
μXRF Uses an X-ray excitation source to detect major,
minor, and trace elements in glass.
ICP-OES, ICP-MS, Wide range of elements, long linear response Cost inefficient &
LA-ICP-MS ranges, high selectivity, low detection limits, destructive
excellent precision and bias.
RAMAN Can discriminate the fragments based on the
SPECTROSCOPY characteristic Raman spectra.
FTIR Identifies the type of glass based on the type of
characteristic absorption band of its component.
LIBS Uses micro-plasma and excites species on the Less precise &
sample, emitting light with discrete spectral selective
peaks detected by a spectrograph.
ED-XRF Non-destructive method for examining
automotive glass (e.g., SiO₂, Na₂O, and CaO can
be identified).
