Respiratory System
Respiratory System
The human respiratory system is a series of organs
responsible for taking in oxygen and expelling
carbon dioxide
Responsible for “Gas Exchange”
Lungs carry out this exchange of gases as we
breathe
Air moves through the nose, pharynx, larynx,
trachea and lungs
After reaching the lungs, the trachea branches into
smaller and smaller tubes called bronchioles, which
end in alveoli or air sacs
SINUSES help to regulate the temperature and humidity of the air
breathed in
PHARYNX (throat) collects incoming air from the nose and passes it
downward to your trachea
EPIGLOTTIS is a flap of tissue that guards the entrance to trachea. It
closes when anything is swallowed that should go into the esophagus
and stomach
TRACHEA (windpipe) is the passage leading from the pharynx to the
lungs
The trachea divides into the two main BRONCHI (tubes), one for each
lung. The bronchi, in turn, subdivide further into bronchioles
Right lung - 3 lobes and Left lung - 2 lobes
DIAPHRAGM is the strong wall of muscle that separates the chest
cavity from your abdominal cavity
The ALVEOLI are the very small air sacs that are the destination of air
that is breathed in (site for gas exchange)
Pleura-protective covering of lungs
The pleura is a thin membrane that lines the surface of
the lungs and the inside of your chest wall
Fold back onto themselves to form a two-layered
membranous structure
Parietal pleura is attached to the chest wall and the
inner pleura (visceral pleura) covers the lungs
The pleural cavity also contains pleural fluid
Acts as a lubricant and allows the pleura to slide
effortlessly against each other during respiratory
movements.
Surfactant in the lungs prevents collapse
• Pulmonary surfactant is a mixture of lipids
and proteins, which is secreted by the
epithelial type II cells of alveoli
• Reduce the surface tension at the air/liquid
interface in the lung
• Contributes to the spongy elastic
properties of pulmonary tissue
• Prevents the alveoli from collapsing
• Eg: Di-palmitoyl phosphatidyl choline
(DPPC)
Branch of
pulmonary vein
(oxygen-rich Branch of
blood) pulmonary artery
(oxygen-poor
blood)
Terminal
bronchiole
Nasal
cavity
Pharynx
Larynx Left
lung
(Esophagus) Alveoli
Trachea 50 m
Right lung
Bronchus Capillaries
Bronchiole
Diaphragm
(Heart) Dense capillary bed
enveloping alveoli (SEM)
Gas exchange within Alveoli
From heart (RV) To heart (LA)
Breathing vs Respiration
Gas exchange between lungs and outside air - Breathing
Gas exchange between / within the cells – Respiration
External and Internal
Respiration
Three steps in gas exchange
1. Pulmonary ventilation / breathing
Inhalation and Exhalation
Exchange of air b/w alveoli and outside environment
2. External (pulmonary) respiration
Exchange of gases b/w alveoli cells and blood cells
3. Internal (tissue respiration)
Exchange of gases between blood cells and tissue cells
through capillary vessels
Essential for cellular respiration (making ATP)
Gas exchange occurs due to difference in partial pressure
Partial pressure is the pressure exerted by a particular gas in a mixture of gases
A gas diffuses from a region of higher partial pressure to a region of lower partial pressure
Breathing - Negative pressure breathing draws air into lungs
Breathing ventilates the lungs Tidal volume is the volume of air inhaled with each breath
Respiratory centre - Control of breathing
Homeostasis:
Blood pH of about 7.4
CO2 level
decreases. Stimulus:
Rising level of
Response: CO2 in tissues
Rib muscles lowers blood pH.
and diaphragm
increase rate
and depth of
ventilation.
Carotid
arteries
Sensor/control center: Aorta
Cerebrospinal fluid
Medulla
oblongata
Automatic control of breathing
Cerebrospinal
1 The control center in the fluid 4 The medulla’s control center also
medulla sets the basic helps regulate blood CO2 level. Sensors
rhythm, and a control center in the medulla detect changes in
in the pons moderates it, the pH (reflecting CO2 concentration)
smoothing out the of the blood and cerebrospinal fluid
transitions between bathing the surface of the brain.
inhalations and exhalations. 5 Nerve impulses relay changes in
CO2 and O2 concentrations. Other
Pons sensors in the walls of the aorta
2 Nerve impulses trigger Breathing and carotid arteries in the neck
muscle contraction. Nerves control detect changes in blood pH and
from a breathing control center centers Medulla send nerve impulses to the medulla.
in the medulla oblongata of the oblongata In response, the medulla’s breathing
brain send impulses to the control center alters the rate and
diaphragm and rib muscles, depth of breathing, increasing both
stimulating them to contract to dispose of excess CO2 or decreasing
and causing inhalation. both if CO2 levels are depressed.
Carotid
arteries
Aorta
3 In a person at rest, these
nerve impulses result in
about 10 to 14 inhalations
6 The sensors in the aorta and
per minute. Between
carotid arteries also detect changes
inhalations, the muscles Diaphragm in O2 levels in the blood and signal
relax and the person exhales.
the medulla to increase the breathing
Rib muscles rate when levels become very low.
Transport of Oxygen in blood
Hemoglobin present in RBCs acts as respiratory pigments
One hemoglobin can bind to four oxygen molecules in blood
Loading and unloading of oxygen by Hb
Carbon dioxide transport
CO2 transported in blood in three forms:
1. Dissolved in plasma (10%)
2. Protein bound (Bound to hemoglobin - Carbaminohemoglobin – 20 - 30%)
3. Chemically modified by Carbonic Anhydrase (CAH) enzyme as Bicarbonate ions in plasma (60 - 70%) –
Engineering Application for Air Pollution Control in Industries
Respiratory system diseases
Pharmaceutical Engineered Devices
• Nebulizers
• Metered dose inhalers
• Nasal Spray
Pneumothorax - Entry of air into pleural cavity / thorax
Artificial Respiration
It is employed when respiration fails due to drowning, carbon monoxide poisoning etc.
Artificial respiration must be given immediately when respiration fails. Most methods
employed are designed to increase and decrease the capacity of thorax. So, air can be drawn
into the lungs and expelled. The following are a few methods of artificial respiration:
• Schafer’s method and Holger Nialson method: Both involve compression of thoracic cavity
by pressure against ribs.
• Mouth to mouth method: It involves blowing air into jungs through mouth.
• Rocking method: This method is useful in children (upside down position).
• Instrumental methods: They are Drinker’s method, Bragg-Paul’s method and Iron lung
method. These methods can be carried out only in hospitals.
Useful for patients with
acute respiratory failure
Biomimic Respirator - Artificial Ventilator System
A ventilator blows air into the airways through a breathing tube. One end of the tube is inserted into the
windpipe and the other end is attached to the ventilator. The breathing tube serves as an airway by
letting air and oxygen from the ventilator flow into the lungs. The process of inserting the tube into the
windpipe is called intubation.
Usually, the breathing tube is put into the windpipe through the nose or mouth. The tube is then moved
down into the throat. A tube placed like this is called an endotracheal tube, which is held in place by tape
or with an endotracheal tube holder that is often a strap that fits around the head. A ventilator uses
pressure to blow air or a mixture of gases (like oxygen and air) into the lungs. This pressure is known as
positive pressure. A ventilator can be set to "breathe" a set number of times a minute. Sometimes it's
set to trigger the machine to blow air into the lungs. But, if it fails to trigger within a certain amount of
time, the machine automatically blows air to keep the person breathing.
Researchers are developing air purification systems inspired by the human respiratory
system, using microbubble filters and mimicking the lungs' natural filtration process to
remove pollutants and exchange gases, offering a potential solution for cleaner air
Bioengineering Applications - Bioreactor development for lung tissue engineering
Regeneration of Lung tissue
- Tissue Engineered Lung Transplantation
Lung on a chip - Drug testing applications
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