RAMMS::ROCKFALL User Manual

RAMMS
rapid mass movements simulation

A numerical model for rockfall in research and practice

User Manual v1.7

Rockfall

WSL-Institut für Schnee- und Lawinenforschung SLF

WSL Institut pour l‘étude de la neige et des avalanches SLF

WSL Instituto per lo studio della neve e delle valanghe SLF

WSL Institute for Snow and Avalanche Research SLF

Title picture: Rockfall event at Brienz (GR), Photo: SLF, 24.07.2014

Manuscript update

September 2022

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Table of Content
1 Introduction ........................................................................................................................ 6

1.1 Motivation .................................................................................................................. 6

1.2 RAMMS ........................................................................................................................ 6

1.3 RAMMS::ROCKFALL Model .......................................................................................... 7

2 Installation and Setup ......................................................................................................... 9

2.1 System requirements .................................................................................................. 9

2.2 Installation ................................................................................................................... 9

2.3 Licensing .................................................................................................................... 16

2.3.1 Personal license request file .............................................................................. 17

2.3.2 Getting the personal license key ..................................................................... 17
2.4 Update ....................................................................................................................... 18

3 Theory ............................................................................................................................... 19

3.1 Overview .................................................................................................................... 19

3.2 Modeling Rock Shape............................................................................................. 21

3.3 Free Flight Motion with Gravity and Gyroscopic Forces ........................................... 22

3.4 Contact forces ............................................................................................................ 23

3.5 Friction forces ........................................................................................................... 24

3.6 Impulsive forces (Rebound)...................................................................................... 25

3.7 Contact Friction and Drag ......................................................................................... 26

3.7.1 Coulomb Friction and Slippage......................................................................... 27

3.7.2 Viscoplastic Ground Drag ................................................................................... 29
3.8 Forest/Vegetation...................................................................................................... 30

3.9 Terrain Material ......................................................................................................... 31

3.10 Terrain Model ............................................................................................................ 36

4 Setting up a simulation ..................................................................................................... 38

4.1 Preparations ............................................................................................................. 38

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 4.1.1 Topographic data - Digital Elevation Model (DEM)....................................... 38
4.1.2 Project and Scenarios ........................................................................................ 39
4.2 Preferences .............................................................................................................. 39

4.3 Creating a new project .............................................................................................. 42

4.4 Working with the interface ....................................................................................... 46

4.4.1 Moving, resizing, rotating, viewing ................................................................... 46

4.4.2 Colorbar .............................................................................................................. 48
4.4.3 Changing maps and remote sensing imagery ................................................... 49
4.4.4 How to save input files and program settings .............................................. 49
4.4.5 About RAMMS................................................................................................... 51
4.5 Rock Input ................................................................................................................ 52

4.5.1 Rockfall starting zone ........................................................................................ 52

4.5.2 Rock builder ....................................................................................................... 56
4.6 Terrain/Forest Input ................................................................................................. 58

4.6.1 Terrain material ................................................................................................. 58

4.6.2 Forested area ................................................................................................... 60
4.7 Running a simulation .............................................................................................. 61

4.7.1 General ............................................................................................................... 61

4.7.2 Terrain ................................................................................................................ 61
4.7.3 Forest.................................................................................................................. 62
4.7.4 Release ............................................................................................................... 62
4.7.5 Rock .................................................................................................................... 63
4.7.6 Exercise how to run a simulation ....................................................................... 64
4.7.7 Scenario Preparation and Simulation Process ................................................... 70
5 Results ............................................................................................................................... 73

5.1 Statistic Mode.......................................................................................................... 73

5.1.1 Quantile Values .................................................................................................. 74

5.1.2 Statistic Vocabulary ............................................................................................ 75
5.1.3 Open a Scenario ................................................................................................. 77
5.1.4 Summary Plot .................................................................................................... 80
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 5.1.5 Barrier Plot ......................................................................................................... 81
5.1.6 Number of Rocks ................................................................................................ 84
5.1.7 Number of Deposited Rocks............................................................................... 84
5.1.8 Reach probability ............................................................................................... 84
5.1.9 Trajectory Impact-Analysis from Shapefile ........................................................ 85
5.1.10 Open Trajectories from Shapefile ...................................................................... 86
5.2 Trajectory Mode ........................................................................................................ 87

5.2.1 Open results in Trajectory Mode ....................................................................... 88

5.2.2 Visualize different parameters ........................................................................... 89
5.2.3 Working with trajectories .................................................................................. 91
5.2.4 Rock Trajectory XY Plot ...................................................................................... 93
5.2.5 Line profile.......................................................................................................... 94
5.2.6 Trajectory Data Log File ..................................................................................... 96
5.2.7 Trajectory Standard Output Log File ............................................................ 97
5.2.8 Trajectory Input File ........................................................................................ 98
5.2.9 Rock trajectory animation .................................................................................. 99
5.2.10 Creating an image or a GIF animation................................................................ 99
6 References and further reading .................................................................................. 100

6.1 References .............................................................................................................. 100

6.2 Publications ............................................................................................................ 101

List of figures .......................................................................................................................... 105

List of tables ........................................................................................................................... 108

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CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION

1 Introduction
1.1 Motivation
Mitigation of natural hazards relies increasingly on numerical process models to predict the area
inundated by rapid geophysical mass movements. These movements include

• snow avalanches,
• torrent based debris flows and hillslope debris flows,
• mudslides,
• ice avalanches and glacier lake outbreaks
• rockfalls and rock avalanches.

Process models are used by engineers to predict the speed and reach of these hazardous movements
in complex terrain. The preparation of hazard maps is a primary application. The models are especially
helpful when proposing technical mitigation measures, such as dams and embankments or rockfall
protection barriers. The models allow hazard engineers to optimize limited financial resources by
studying the influence of different hazard scenarios on defense options.

1.2 RAMMS
The RAMMS (RApid Mass Movements Simulation) software system contains three process modules:

• RAMMS::AVALANCHE
• RAMMS::DEBRISFLOW
• RAMMS::ROCKFALL

The RAMMS::AVALANCHE and RAMMS::DEBRISFLOW modules are designed for flow phenomena
containing fast moving particulate debris of snow and rocks. In the avalanche module, the interstitial
fluid is air, whereas in the debris flow module the interstitial fluid is mud. The RAMMS::AVALANCHE
and RAMMS::DEBRISFLOW models are used to calculate the motion of the movement from initiation
to runout in three-dimensional terrain. The models use depth-averaged equations and predict the
slope-parallel velocities and flow heights. This information is sufficient for most engineering
applications. Information in the slope-perpendicular direction (e.g. mass and velocity distribution) is
lost; however, this is seldom of practical interest. Both models require an accurate digital
representation of the terrain. Engineers specify initial conditions (location and size of the release mass)
and friction parameters, depending on terrain (e.g. roughness, vegetation) and material (e.g. snow, ice
or mud content of the debris flow).

The RAMMS::ROCKFALL module is used to study the rigid body motion of falling rocks. The model
predicts rock trajectories in general three-dimensional terrain. Rock trajectories are governed by the
interaction between the rock and ground. The model contains six primary state variables: three
translational speeds and three rotational velocities of the falling rock. From these, kinetic energy,
runout distance and jump heights can be derived. Generalized rock shapes are modeled. Rock
orientation and rotational speed are included in the rock/ground interaction. The RAMMS::ROCKFALL
module is therefore fundamentally different from the RAMMS::AVALANCHE and
RAMMS::DEBRISFLOW modules because it is based on hard-contact, rigid-body Lagrangian mechanics,
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CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION

not Eulerian flow mechanics. It also differs from existing rockfall modules because the rock/ground
interaction is not governed entirely by simple rebound mechanics, but frictional (dissipative)
rock/ground interactions. These govern the onset of rock jumping. The RAMMS::ROCKFALL module
predicts all rigid-body motions – rock sliding, rolling, jumping and skipping.

The RAMMS::ROCKFALL module was coupled to the same user-friendly visualization tool used in the
RAMMS::AVALANCHE and RAMMS::DEBRISFLOW modules. The visualization tool allows easy
preparation, execution, visualization and interpretation of simulations.

In all RAMMS modules, new constitutive models have been developed and implemented, thanks to
calibration and verification at full scale test sites such as St. Léonard/Walenstadt (rockfall, mitigation
measures), Vallée de la Sionne (snow avalanches) and Illgraben (debris flow). At present, two new
scientific RAMMS modules are under development: RAMMS::AVAL_EXTENDED and
RAMMS::DBF_EXTENDED.

The RAMMS web page [Link] provides useful information such as a moderated discussion
forum, frequently asked questions (FAQ) or recent software updates. Please visit this web page
frequently to stay up to date.

1.3 RAMMS::ROCKFALL Model

The RAMMS::ROCKFALL model was developed by the Centre of Mechanics at the ETH Zurich and the
RAMMS team of the WSL Institute for Snow and Avalanche Research SLF. This joint project was
supported by the Swiss National Science Foundation (Grant: SNF 200021-19613). The Centre of
Mechanics was responsible for the development of the simulation code in close contact with
geological, geophysical and software engineering experts from the SLF/WSL to discuss modeling issues
specific to rockfall mechanics. The SLF/WSL calibrated and validated the simulation code and provided
rock shapes. The RAMMS team of SLF/WSL integrated the simulation code in an extensive and easy-
to-use graphical user interface (GUI). This manual describes the features of the RAMMS program,
allowing beginners to get started quickly as well as serving as a reference to expert users.

1.4 Learning by doing

This manual provides an overview of RAMMS::ROCKFALL. Exercises exemplify different steps in setting
up and running a RAMMS simulation especially in Chapter 2 ‘Setting up a simulation’. However, to get
the most from the manual, we suggest reading it through while simultaneously having the RAMMS
program open, learning by doing. We assume RAMMS users to have a basic level of familiarity with
windows-based programs, commands and general computer terminology. We do not describe the
basics of windows management (such as resizing or minimizing). RAMMS windows, click options and
input masks are similar to other Windows-based programs and can be used, closed, reduced or
resized in the same way.

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CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION

DISCLAIMER

RAMMS is intended to be used as a tool to support experienced users. The interpretation of the
simulation results has to be done by a rockfall expert who is familiar with the local as well as with
the topographic and geological situation of the investigation area. In no event shall SLF/WSL be liable
for any damage or lost profits arising, directly or indirectly, from the use of RAMMS. Swiss law
applies. Court of jurisdiction is Davos. If you encounter problems, please contact ramms@[Link].

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CHAPTER 2: INSTALLATION AND SETUP

2 Installation and Setup

2.1 System requirements
We recommend the following minimum system requirements for running
RAMMS::ROCKFALL:

• Operating System: Windows 8, 10 or higher

• RAM (memory): 2 GB (more recommended)
• CPU: Intel Pentium 1 GHz (multi core recommended), only 64-bit supported!
• Hard disk: ca. 185 MB

2.2 Installation
Please download the RAMMS::ROCKFALL setup file “ramms_rock_user_setup_64.zip” from
[Link] (Downloads section). Please make sure that you have a 64-bit Windows system.

Direct download link: [Link]

Please do the following steps before beginning to install RAMMS:

• Click on the path given above or copy the path to any browser. A window pops up and the
automatic download of the file ramms_rock_user_setup_64.zip starts after clicking Yes.
• Unzip the file to a temporary location.
• You must have Administrator privileges on the target machine. If you do not have such privileges,
the installer cannot modify the system configuration of the machine and the installation will
fail. Note that you do not need Administrator privileges to run RAMMS afterwards.
• Read first, install afterwards! Please read the whole installation process once, before you begin
the installation.
• Start the file “ramms<version>_rock_user_setup_64.exe”.

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CHAPTER 2: INSTALLATION AND SETUP

Step 1: Welcome

The welcome dialog introduces you to the English setup program and will guide you through the
installation process. Click Next to continue.

Figure 2-1: Installation - welcome dialog window.

Step 2: Readme

Short introduction to RAMMS. Click Next to continue.

Figure 2-2: Installation - readme dialog window.

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CHAPTER 2: INSTALLATION AND SETUP

Step 3: Accepting the license agreement

Read the license agreement carefully and accept it by activating the check box in the lower left
corner. If you do not accept the license agreement, you are not able to proceed with the
installation. After accepting the license agreement, click Next to continue the installation.

Figure 2-3: Installation - license agreement dialog window.

Step 4: Select destination directory

Choose your destination directory. This dialog shows the amount of space available on your hard disk
and required for the installation. Click Next to start the installation process.

Figure 2-4: Installation - destination directory dialog window.

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CHAPTER 2: INSTALLATION AND SETUP

Step 5: Installing the files

RAMMS is copying the files to the destination location. The window shows the installation progress.

Figure 2-5: Installation - installing files dialog window.

Step 6: Finished installing the files

RAMMS finished copying the files. Click Next to finish the installation process.

Figure 2-6 : Installation - finished installing files dialog window.

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CHAPTER 2: INSTALLATION AND SETUP

Step 7: RAMMS installation finished!

RAMMS successfully finished the installation. Click Finish.

Figure 2-7: Installation - finished installation dialog window.

Step 8: Welcome to IDL Visual Studio Merge Modules

To ensure that all important system libraries are installed on your target machine follow the
instructions below:

The welcome dialog introduces you to the English setup program and will guide you through the
installation process of the IDL Visual Studio Merge Modules. Click Next to continue.

Figure 2-8: IDL Visual Studio Merge Modules - welcome dialog window.

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CHAPTER 2: INSTALLATION AND SETUP

Step 9: Ready to install the program

Click Next to continue.

Figure 2-9: IDL Visual Studio Merge Modules - ready to install the program.

Step 10: Installing IDL Visual Studio Merge Modules

The wizard is installing the files. Please wait until it is finished.

Figure 2-10: IDL Visual Studio Merge Modules - installing...

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CHAPTER 2: INSTALLATION AND SETUP

Step 11: InstallShield Wizard Completed

The wizard completed the installation. Click Finish.

Figure 2-11: Installation - destination directory dialog window.

After having successfully installed RAMMS and the necessary files on your personal computer, you
will notice the RAMMS icon on your desktop (for all users):

Figure 2-12: RAMMS icon.

Additionally, a new application folder is created in Start → Programs (for all users):

• RAMMS Rockfall → Run RAMMS Rockfall

• RAMMS Rockfall → Uninstall RAMMS Rockfall

Figure 2-13: RAMMS program group

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CHAPTER 2: INSTALLATION AND SETUP

2.3 Licensing
Access to RAMMS is controlled by a personal use license. Personal use licenses are time limited licenses
tied to a single personal computer. This method of licensing requires a machine’s unique host ID
to be incorporated into a license request file. After the license request file is sent to SLF/WSL, you
will receive a license key. Entering the license key on a personal computer enables full RAMMS
functionality for the specific personal computer. For more information please visit
[Link] Alternatively, the license can also be installed on a Windows Server and
accessed by different users (only one at a time) by RDC (Remote Desktop Connection).

Double-click the RAMMS icon or use Start → Programs → RAMMS Rockfall → Run RAMMS Rockfall
to start RAMMS for the first time. Whenever you start RAMMS, the splash screen below will pop
up:

Figure 2-14: RAMMS start window.

Click on the image. It will disappear and RAMMS will start up. The following dialog window appears:

Figure 2-15: RAMMS licensing window

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CHAPTER 2: INSTALLATION AND SETUP

2.3.1 Personal license request file

Click the button to create your personal license request file. In Figure 2-16 enter your full
name and the name of your company.

Figure 2-16: Enter user name and company name.

In the next dialog window, choose the destination directory of your personal license request file and
save it to your target machine. Your personal license request file should look similar to Figure 2-17.

Figure 2-17: Personal license request file RAMMS_ROCK_request_Muster.txt

2.3.2 Getting the personal license key

You find an order form on the RAMMS web page (Order Form or Demo Order Form) at
[Link] Fill in all your personal information, choose the license period, license type and
number of licenses you wish to order, attach your personal license request file(s), accept the license
agreement and click Submit Order.

An order confirmation email is sent to your email address. We then process your order and send
you an invoice. As soon as we received your payment, we will send you your personal license key.
Your personal license key is named similar to ROCK_Muster_Test_RAMMS.txt. Open the file in a
text editor. It should look similar to Figure 2-18.

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CHAPTER 2: INSTALLATION AND SETUP

Figure 2-18: Personal license key file RAMMS_license_Muster [Link]

Now, restart RAMMS (as explained before). The IDL splash screen appears (Figure 2-14) and then the
dialog window of Figure 2-15 shows up (RAMMS - Licensing). Copy the license key (in this example:
ROCKFALL ebei-flhl-ilkq-behe-1i5m) and paste it at the field LICENCE KEY (see Figure 2-15). Notice
that there is the prefix ROCKFALL. This prefix is part of the license key and has to be inserted as
well! If RAMMS accepts your installation key, you successfully finished the installation.

2.4 Update
When you start RAMMS it will automatically check for updates on the internet. This can lead to an
error message, if your firewall blocks the executable [Link] (this file starts the IDL-Virtual Machine
you need to run RAMMS). Please unblock this file for your firewall. You can also disable the
AutoWebUpdate-function by unchecking Help → Advanced... → AutoWebUpdate. In the same way
you can enable the AutoWebUpdate-function by checking Help → Advanced... → AutoWebUpdate.

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CHAPTER 3: THEORY

3 Theory
3.1 Overview
The RAMMS::ROCKFALL model utilizes a hard- contact, rigid-body approach to model rockfall
trajectories in general three-dimensional terrain (Leine et al., 2013). The program is designed to be
used by hazard engineers to predict rockfall velocity and runout for hazard mapping and planning of
rockfall mitigation measures. The calculation engine and user interface were developed as part of a
joint research project between the WSL Institute for Snow and Avalanche SLF and the Institute of
Mechanics, Swiss Federal Institute of Technology (ETHZ) between the years 2010-2013. The rockfall
model is the third RAMMS module, following the RAMMS::AVALANCHE and RAMMS::DEBRISFLOW
modules and offers many of the same user-friendly features. The RAMMS::ROCKFALL model was
officially released after a period of calibration and application testing in April, 2015.

To date most rockfall models utilize simple rebound mechanics to describe the complex interaction
between the rock and the ground (Bourrier et al. 2012; Dorren 2003; Dorren and Seijmonsbergen 2003;
Schweizer 2015, Volkwein et al. 2011). Rock geometries consisted of simplified shapes, mostly spheres
or ellipsoids. The rock-ground interaction was parameterized using apparent restitution coefficients to
model the rock jumping. To account for the wide variation of possible jump distances and heights (even
in homogenous terrain, see Glover 2015), random, stochastic methods were used to define the
bandwidth of possible restitution coefficients. Rockfall modeling was therefore both quasi-
deterministic and quasi-stochastic.

In RAMMS the rock-ground interaction is parameterized by frictional operators that act at the rock
surface. Compared to rebound models (that employ apparent restitution coefficients to model
entire ground-rock interaction), the hard-contact, rigid-body approach applies contact forces to the
rock’s edges and corner points. The primary advantage of using hard-contact approach is that the
role of rock shape is accounted for in the ground-rock interaction. This facilitates a natural modeling
of the four primary modes of rock motion: sliding, rolling, skipping and jumping – without the use of
random, stochastic methods to define the rebound parameters. All four modes of rock propagation
are modeled in RAMMS. Long and widespread rock runout is generally associated with the jumping
mode; however, rock stopping requires a transition from jumping to a rolling/sliding mode. Modeling
all four modes is essential for a realistic, self-consistent and risk-based rockfall hazard analysis. The
natural variation of jumps is defined automatically by the rock shape and orientation at impact. The
statistical spread of rockfall runout and dispersion is generated only by changing the initial conditions.
Ground parameters are not random: they are deterministic in the sense that one material type is
assigned to describe hardness and the general tendency of the terrain to react to a rock impact. In
RAMMS the clear separation between stochastic initial conditions and deterministic boundary
conditions simplifies and enhances the construction of engineering-based hazard scenarios and the
interpretation of model results. At present, the RAMMS rockfall model contains six ground categories:
soft, medium soft, medium, medium hard and hard. A seventh category snow has been introduced to
model rockfall motion on snow in high mountain terrain.

Applying RAMMS to a rockfall problem necessitates that rocks of different shapes and sizes can be
easily specified. In RAMMS::ROCKFALL the rock-body is modelled as a convex hull polyhedron. The

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CHAPTER 3: THEORY

shape of a rock body is user defined by providing a point cloud file, defining the surface geometry of
the rock. Shapes can be simple geometric forms, such as equant, platy or columnar. A unique feature
of RAMMS is that real rock geometries obtained from laser scans during field investigations can be
used in a modeling application. Over time, the user can build-up and manage a rockfall library
containing rock shapes representative of different geologic settings. At present, the rocks are
considered indestructible; that is, they do not fragment or change form during the analysis.

Over and above weathering processes, the geometric relationships of rock-mass discontinuities
(joints, fractures, contacts, bedding, asperities and schistosity) govern block shape, size and release
mechanism (Jaboyedoff, 2011). With RAMMS::ROCKFALL preconditioning the shape and size and
number of possible release orientations of detachable rocks is an essential part of the analysis. The
observation that different basic geological settings produce characteristic rock shapes has been well
documented by Fityus et al. 2013, among others. Some commonly encountered rock shapes and
the associated geological setting are given below (Figure 3-1).

Figure 3-1: Photographs of rock masses and their aggregate forms. Top left: An example of equant
cubic rock forms generated in a sequence of sandstones exposed to an extensional deformation
regime, the primary joint sets are near equally spaced and orthogonal to one another. Topright:
The complex joint of this granodioritic rock mass results in highly irregular and angular rock block
forms. Bottom left: The uplifted and folded limestone sequence is well bedded producing
distinguished slabs which detach as pronounced platy rock forms. Bottom right: Distinguished
columnar jointed basalt sequence produces the characteristic elongate rock forms (Glover 2015).

The specification of general rock geometries will be discussed in the next section 3.2.

Another feature of the RAMMS::ROCKFALL model is the inclusion of rock rotations in both the airborne
phase and during the interaction with the ground. The RAMMS::ROCKFALL model includes gyroscopic

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CHAPTER 3: THEORY

forces induced by rock rotations. These forces are necessary to model wheel-like rock skipping and
jumping modes that are often responsible for extreme runout. To model ground interaction
considering rocks with arbitrary geometry and rotational speed requires methods to accurately track
the rock orientation relative to the ground. RAMMS::ROCKFALL employs quaternion algebra for this
purpose. This method tracks rotation sequences even when non-linear contact forces change the
translational and rotational direction of the rock. Modeling the rock-ground contacts in this way
permits the entire mechanics of an impact to be simulated deterministically. The moment arms and
torques responsible for how different rock-shapes convert translational movement into angular
momentum and influence rebound heights are computed, and therefore allows an accurate
modeling of rolling, skipping, sliding and jumping.

The three-dimensional motion equations including rock rotations and gyroscopic forces will be
presented in section 3.3.

Complex mountain terrain is modelled using a high- resolution digital elevation model (DEM). The
specification of the DEM will be discussed in more detail in section 3.10.

3 . 2 Modeling Rock Shape

Rock bodies are introduced into the simulation domain coordinate frame with origin (O) as a cloud of
points based in a coordinate system of their own with origin (K). The coordinate frame (K) serves to
map the rotations of the rock-body. Points are given in x, y, z format as *.pts files, and can be artificially
generated or gathered from a laser scan of rock deposits (Figure 3-1 and Figure 3-2). A convex hull of
the rock-body’s point cloud is created, in doing so an entirely convex body is created; concavities are
closed over in the process. The next step is to calculate the center-of-mass of the body, for which the
density is assumed homogeneous. Finally, the inertial tensor of the body is calculated finding the
three principal moments of inertia; the origin is the rock’s gravity center (S). The translations of
the rock-body in the simulation domain are mapped using coordinate frame S in relation to O
(Figure 3-3). The rock’s mass m is given from its volume calculated from the convex hull of the point
cloud and a density ρ which is user defined (typically 2700 kg m−3 ). The rock has three translational
(linear momentum) and three rotational degrees of freedom (spin) to describe the rocks mass
center position qT = ( X , Y , Z ) at any time t in the terrain coordinate frame O . Rotational
motions capture the orientation of the rock’s external geometry in space. At time t = 0 the rock
is released from position q0 = ( X 0 , Y0 , Z 0 ) , which, of course, must be located some distance above
T

the terrain, Z0  Z m , and thus the release height h0 is Z 0 − Z m .

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CHAPTER 3: THEORY

Figure 3-2: Laser scans of real rocks are captured in the field. The point cloud representing the
rocks geometry are then used by the rockfall model to create a convex-hull polyhedron
representative of the rock-body.

Figure 3-3: Rock is generated from a point cloud and converted into a rigid-body polyhedral.

3.3 Free Flight Motion with Gravity and Gyroscopic Forces

In free flight, the governing equation of motion is (see Leine et al., 2013)

Mu − h(q, u ) = 0 (3.1)

where M is the constant and diagonal mass matrix (containing the mass and three moments

of inertia I ). The vector 𝑢̇ contains the rock’s three translational and three rotational velocities.
The rock-body’s motion is governed by a number of forces which determine its trajectory.

Gravitational force (Fg) acts globally; a drag force (D) is implemented to represent the effects of
trees, undergrowth and soil deformation. Along with gyroscopic forces G which can cause rocks
of irregular shape to become upright and rotate about a rolling axis. All force terms h are a
function of the rock’s position q and velocity u forming the force vector h:

 F + D
h ( q, u ) =  g  (3.2)
 G 

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CHAPTER 3: THEORY

3.4 Contact forces

On contact detection between the rock-body and the terrain, contact forces λ and frictional
contact forces (Fc ) act about the point of contact. These forces can be considered as external
forces that change the direction of the falling rock.

The contact of the rigid rock-body is detected by continually measuring the vertical gap length
g N between the rock-body’s corner points (P) and the terrain projections (Q) (Figure 3-4). The
gap length is defined as

g N ( X , Y , Z ) = Z − Z m ( X m. , Ym ) (3.3)

Then, when g N  0 there is no contact; when g N  0 there is contact and the contact forces  , acting

at the contact point P, are computed. (The contact forces are denoted using the Greek letter lambda
because the contact forces are Lagrangian multipliers that enforce the non-penetration constraint).
Minimal penetration with the terrain is permitted to allow the assessment of the contact condition
(Eq. 3.3).This is a non-physical penetration and purely for numerical purposes.

Contact forces are modeled as hard unilateral constraints with Coulomb friction using non-
smooth contact dynamics approaches (see Acary and Brogliato, 2008, Glocker, 2001 and Moreau,
1988). For the case of contact, the governing equations of motion now become

Mu − h(q, u ) = W (q) (3.4)

where the direction of the contact forces is given by W (q) . There can be a number of active
contact forces depending on the rock-body’s configuration at the point of contact. Ultimately it is
the combination of these forces λ (and force directions W (q) ) that allows the complex rotations
and trajectory deviations that are inherent to rockfall to be simulated.

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CHAPTER 3: THEORY

Figure 3-4: Contact detection. Definition of gap length, gN.

The advantage of this hard-contact rigid-body approach is that the contact forces are applied
directly about these contact points, respecting the configuration (orientation and kinetics) of the
impact. This is achieved by considering the contact pair (Q, P) within the contact frame C = (n,t1 ,
t2 ) which is attached to the terrain surface at contact point Q (Figure 3-5).

3.5 Friction forces

The contact frame C has a normal contact force component λN and two tangential components λT1 ,
λT2 . The contact force λN guarantees the unilaterality of the contact, i.e. the non- penetration
constraint. The tangential force components are due to Coulomb friction and are governed by the
contact laws.

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CHAPTER 3: THEORY

Figure 3-5: Contact frame C at point Q detected with the gap function gN.

The normal force component λN is resolved with a contact cone differential inclusion, in which the
transient normal force vector over the finite contact period can be computed. Over the contact
period this is a set-valued normal force considering all periods of contact identified with the gap
function gN.

The tangential force component λT is assumed to obey spatial Coulomb’s friction law (see Figure 3-6).
Stiction of the contact γT = 0 occurs as long as the magnitude of the tangential force ‖𝑘𝜆𝑇‖ is less
than µλN, in which λN is the applied normal force and µ the friction coefficient. The direction is also
resolved with a normal cone inclusion projecting a friction disc on to the surface (Figure 3-6). The
formulation covers both sticking and sliding cases.

3.6 Impulsive forces (Rebound)

Impulsive contact forces occur whenever the gap function detects contact with negative velocity 𝛾𝑁− <
0 that is to say that the point would theoretically move through the terrain surface if not treated with
the impulsive contact force. This requires a velocity jump such that the post impact normal velocity is
non-negative 𝛾𝑁+ < 0. This impact law is based on Newtonian impact law in which the relative normal
velocities of the contact pair before and after impact are governed by 𝜀𝑁 the normal restitution
coefficient. 𝜀𝑁 = 1 corresponds to complete restitution of normal velocity while a smaller 𝜀𝑁 dissipates
energy. Generally speaking this value is set very low. Newton’s action-reaction law is always fulfilled.

25
CHAPTER 3: THEORY

Figure 3-6: Friction forces at the contact point.

 N+ +  N− = 0 (3.5)

Impulsive normal forces can also induce impulsive tangential forces. While this is mainly seen in the
elastic impacts of superballs (Cross, 1999), and therefore in the rockfall model εT is set at εT = 0
since these effects are absent.

To determine the resultant force direction acting on the rock-body the configuration of the impact
must be computed. This requires finding the relative velocity between the contact points P and the
terrain Q. Importantly, the velocity of contact point P is composed of the translational velocity with
respect to the body’s center of mass vS and its angular velocity KΩ in the fixed body frame (K); for
which P also has a fixed position vector relative to the center of mass S. That is, the contact algorithm
in the rigid-body approach considers the rotational speed of the rock at contact. Because the forces
are then applied at points away from the center of mass, and with a direction respecting the impact
configuration to a body with three degrees of translational and rotational freedom, torques and
moment, arms can act generating rotations and rebounds that represent the true mechanics of an
impact.

3.7 Contact Friction and Drag

Two physically different forces oppose the motion of a falling rock: sliding friction and drag. Sliding
friction acts at points of the rock’s surface that are in contact with the ground; it is Coulomb-type
friction associated with the distance the rock slides on the ground. When the rock is no longer in
contact, this friction no longer acts. However, because this friction acts on a point on the rock’s
surface, it will generate torques that initiates rotational movements. The parameterization of the

26
CHAPTER 3: THEORY

friction force is of great importance because it controls when the rock slides, rolls or jumps. Drag,
on the other hand, acts at the rock’s center of mass and therefore creates no additional
rotational moments. It acts in the direction opposite to the rock’s movement (velocity). There are
two drag forces in the RAMMS::ROCKFALL model. The first accounts for vegetation drag; the
second accounts for the viscoplastic drag due to terrain deformation during ground contact.

3.7.1 Coulomb Friction and Slippage

The mechanical contact law considers hard contacts between the rigid-body and the terrain. In
principle, this is only representative of extremely hard rock-on-rock contacts. In reality rock-
ground interaction occurs on a range of different materials with differing deformation
properties. In an extreme case, the rock contact can be with soft soils that easily deforms under
contact. In such contacts there is a compliance of the soft soil terrain and a degree of
penetration and sliding of the rock-body as it ploughs into the earth cover accumulating material
behind it, leaving behind distinctive impact scars in the terrain (Figure 3-7).

Figure 3-7: Rock impact scar on soft soil; the scar morphology is tapered widening towards the
accumulation of earth at the scar end, where an earth ramp structure is formed. This is
modeled as a climbing friction from the beginning of the scar s = 0 at first contact which tends
towards high friction at the end of the scar.

To simulate ground deformation within the framework of a hard contact model requires introducing
a slip (s) dependent friction that acts during sliding and accounts for the increase in friction due to
material accumulation behind the rock- body as it slides through the impact (Figure 3-7 and Figure
3-8). The slip dependent friction is an extension of the Coulomb friction model in which the friction
value µ is made dependent on the slip distance (s) travelled by the center of mass µ(s) (Figure 3-8).

27
CHAPTER 3: THEORY

Figure 3-8: Sliding friction in RAMMS is governed by a slip-dependent material law. At rock impact
slip is s=0 and sliding friction is given by min; with s>0, friction increases according to the
coefficient . At some point s the maximum friction max is reached. After contact, the friction
exponentially decreases with coefficient . Therefore  describes the duration of the friction as the
rock is leaving the scar (ramping).

Moreover,

T =  (s) N (3.6)

force λN enforces the non-penetrability constraint; the force λT acts tangentially on the terrain
surface (see Figure 3-6). The dependence of the friction coefficient on the slip distance (s) is:

2
 ( s) =  min + (  max −  min ) arctan( s ) (3.7)


where µmin, µmax and κ are parameters of the friction model. The initial friction encountered at the
contact where s = 0 is µmin. Over the slip period, µ tends toward µmax for large slip values, see
Figure 3-8. The parameter κ controls how quickly the friction increases from µmin to µmax. Typically
µmin < µmax meaning that the friction increases the longer the rock is in contact with the ground. It
is entirely possible that there are brittle ground materials where the opposite behavior (µmax >
µmin) is encountered.
28
CHAPTER 3: THEORY

The slip distance (s) is a transition state variable having a time evolution which is described by a
simple differential equation:

 v if g N  0
s =  s (3.8)
−  s gN  0

The parameter β controls how quickly the friction is released as the rock departs the ground scar.
If β is large, friction is immediately removed as the rock moves away from the ground. Conversely,
when β is small, sliding friction can act, even after the rock is no longer in contact with the ground.
The parameter β is linked to the penetration depth of the rock into the ground. Larger penetration
depths (softer materials) are associated with smaller β values.

3.7.2 Viscoplastic Ground Drag

An additional slip dependent drag force is introduced to account for the viscoplastic deformation
that occurs in soft soils under rock impact. Large viscoplastic deformations are also encountered in
harder substrate materials such as scree, where rubbing between scree granules dissipates energy.
Viscoplastic ground drag is given by:

m
Fv = − C v v s2 (3.9)
2

Ground drag acts when the rock is in contact with the ground (gN < 0) as the rock is sliding on the
2
terrain surface (s > 0). The drag force Fv is proportional to the square of the rock velocity v s as
well as the mass of the rock m . That is, heavier and faster moving rocks will experience more drag
than smaller, slower moving rocks, as they penetrate the ground surface. The drag force is
proportional to the rock’s total kinetic energy. The drag coefficient C v varies between 0.0 m-1 (hard)
and 1.0 m-1 (soft).

29
CHAPTER 3: THEORY

3.8 Forest/Vegetation
Forest drag is given by (Figure 3-9):

 if Z  Z h
Fdf = −C f vs Cf =  f (3.10)
 0 Z  Zh

The idea behind forest drag is that a resisting force acts on the rock’s center of mass when it is located
below the drag layer height Zh. This force is linearly proportional to the rock velocity v s . The forest is
parameterized by the effective height of the vegetation layer Zh as well as the drag coefficient  f . The
effective height Zh roughly corresponds to the height of the forest but in some cases, for example old
forests, the drag force in the tree crowns might be negligible and therefore the effective height could
be smaller than the real tree height. The model does not account for a Z-dependency in forest structure
as it assumes a homogeneous layer with mean drag properties. Typical values for Zh are between 5 m
and 30 m (default value is 30m); typical values for  f range between 100 kg/s and 1’000 kg/s. Three
different forest types are implemented in RAMMS::ROCKFALL for now:

• Open Forest → 20 m2/ha → forest drag = 250 kg/s

• Medium Forest → 35 m2/ha → forest drag = 500 kg/s
• Dense Forest → 50 m2/ha → forest drag = 750 kg/s

This model description is a simplified summary of a more complete and detailed explanation provided
by Leine et al. (2013) in which the time stepping methods are also explained. While it is possible with
the rigid-body approach to model multi-body interaction of many particles, and it would be possible
to include a fragmentation law in the model, these features are not yet implemented in the model and
remain as future additions to the model.

30
CHAPTER 3: THEORY

Figure 3-9: Forest drag Fdf is implemented to act on the center of gravity of the rock-body at
height Z.

3.9 Terrain Material

The terrain material has considerable influence on the simulation result. Shapefiles are used to delimit
terrain areas with specific terrain materials. Eight predefined terrain categories are listed in Table 3.1.
These are:

• Extra Soft
• Soft
• Medium Soft
• Medium
• Medium Hard
• Hard
• Extra Hard
• Snow

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CHAPTER 3: THEORY

Selection of the appropriate terrain material model is the primary task of the hazard engineer when
using RAMMS. If there is uncertainty about the specific terrain material we recommend the user to
compare the results of different terrain scenarios. Please consider the examples in Table 3.1 as a
preliminary suggestion.

Table 3.1: Terrain Categories in RAMMS::ROCKFALL

Category Picture Description Example

Very wet ground.

Cannot cross
Extra Soft without deep sink- Moor, turf, gley
in. No high
vegetation.

Soft ground with

many deep soil
layers. Ground
contains no large
rock fragments.
Soft Moist meadow
Often very moist.
Foot inundations
remain and are
visible. Wet and
deep surface soil.

Rocks penetrate
meadow surface
leaving impact
Medium Soft scars. Soil is deep, Meadow
few rock
fragments. Rank
vegetation.

32
CHAPTER 3: THEORY

Meadow is deep,
but contains rock
fragments. The
meadow can be
covered with
Medium vegetation. Soil Meadow
structure of a
medium
deepness. Rank
vegetation.

Penetration
depths are small.
Ground is flat. Non-paved
Medium Rocky debris is mountain roads,
Hard present. Shallow mountain
surface soil. meadow, pebble
Usually little
(initial) vegetation.

Rocks jump over

ground. Mixture
Rock scree,
of large and small
pebble, coarse
Hard rocks. Usually
rock, paved
without any
roads
vegetation.

33
CHAPTER 3: THEORY

Ground is very
hard and is
marginally
Extra Hard deformed by Bedrock, cliff
rocks. No
vegetation and no
surface soil.

Rocks slide on
Snow Snow
snow surface.

The used parameters for every terrain material are explained in the table below:

Table 3.2: Terrain parameters default values.

Terrain Mu_Min Mu_Max Beta Kappa Epsilon Drag
Extra Soft 0.2 2 50 1 0 0.9
Soft 0.25 2 100 1.25 0 0.8
Medium Soft 0.3 2 125 1.5 0 0.7
Medium 0.35 2 150 2 0 0.6
Medium Hard 0.4 2 175 2.5 0 0.5
Hard 0.55 2 185 3 0 0.4
Extra Hard 0.8 2 200 4 0 0.3
Snow 0.1 0.35 150 2 0 0.7

34
CHAPTER 3: THEORY

Terrain conditions vs. selected terrain category vs. rock size

With this current version, we urge the user to go for softer categories when the rocks get large (see
table below, considering the bigger scarring effects and larger energy dissipation of larger rocks).
Moving towards softer soil for larger rocks is always the preferred direction. The block sizes have to be
compared with the assumed grain size distributions of the terrain material on a qualitative basis. In
Table 3.3, suggestions of terrain categories for typical alpine geomorphological terrain units are listed
for different rock sizes. Please note, bare rock surfaces should be chosen as Hard to Extra Hard,
regardless of rock size.

Table 3.3: Suggestions of terrain categories based on empirical test assuming a 2m DEM resolution
Typical morphological Thin, fine Thick, coarse Thick, medium- Cultural land
alpine units grained Alpine grained grained low- (vegetated)
talus Alpine talus altitude talus
Block size scenario
0.1-0.5 m3 Medium hard - Medium hard Medium Medium
Medium - Medium
1-5 m3 Medium Medium – Medium soft Medium soft -
Medium soft Soft
5-50 m3 Medium Medium soft Soft Soft – Extra
Soft

With this deterministic modeling approach, the influences of rock-shape on the dynamics and
persistence of runout can be simulated. This is important because the model is highly sensitive to
rock shape, which in the case of rebound approaches has to be treated with stochastic methods
(Bourrier et al., 2009). The role of rock-shape in runout dynamics is crucial in determining the
rotational and rebound behavior. For specific rock-shapes, characteristic of geological zones,
distinctive runout behavior such as extreme jump heights and runout distances are observed.
Dynamics of this kind are decisive for hazard mapping and rockfall protection structures; and with
full three-dimensional data of rock position, velocities, rotations and energies (see Table 3.4 for a
full list), rockfall management and the design of protection structures can be optimized. The listed
data (Table 3.4) are available as *.log files which can be generated from simulations. The application
of rigid-body theory to rockfall modeling has advanced the capacity to include detailed and hazard
specific information on rock-shapes and sizes. This allows the inclusion of lithology and geological
setting to establish realistic initial conditions for a hazard simulation.

Table 3.4: RAMMS::ROCKFALL output parameters

Data symbol Description Units
t time s
x X coordinate CoM (CoM = Center of mass) m
y Y coordinate CoM m
z Z coordinate CoM m
p0 Quaternion
p1 Quaternion
p2 Quaternion
p3 Quaternion
vx Velocity (X) CoM ms−1
35
CHAPTER 3: THEORY

Data symbol Description Units

vy Velocity (Y) CoM ms−1
vz Velocity (Z) CoM ms−1
wx Angular velocity about inertial axis (X) rot · s−1
wy Angular velocity about inertial axis (Y) rot · s−1
wz Angular velocity about inertial axis (Z) rot · s−1
Etot Total energy including potential energy with respects kJ
to the lowest point in simulation domain
Ekin Total kinetic energy kJ
Ekintrans Translational kinetic energy kJ
Ekinrot Angular kinetic energy kJ
zt Height position of lowest point on rock-body’s m
surface
Fn Normal contact force kN
Ft Tangential contact force kN
Slippage Slippage distance m
µs Coulomb friction value µ = tanθ
vres Absolute velocity ms−1
wres Absolute angular velocity rot · s−1
jumpH Jump height, plumb-vertical distance of CoM to the m
terrain surface
projDist Projected distance traced over ground from release m
point
Jc Distance to the center of SD m
J HJ c Distance between SD at Jc to CoM m
SD Distance between two impacts m

3.10 Terrain Model

The RAMMS::ROCKFALL model simulates the trajectories of falling rocks in three-dimensional
terrain using a high-resolution digital elevation model. The terrain coordinate system is taken as
the simulation frame O. Terrain elevation Zm is specified for each coordinate pair (Xm , Ym ), for
which four coordinate pairs define the vertices of planes constructing the tessellated terrain
surface (Figure 3-10). The planes are flat, while their orientation is different because the Zm -
elevation of each coordinate pair can differ. The distance between coordinates (Xm , Ym ) defines
the model terrain resolution and therefore the accuracy with which the terrain morphology is
represented. Typically, a resolution between 1 m and 10 m is employed for simulations, as this
accurately models important terrain features such as gullies and cliffs. The properties of each
plane can be varied to consider variable surface properties, such as hardness and roughness. For
example, forests are defined to be planes with enhanced drag.

36
CHAPTER 3: THEORY

Figure 3-10: High resolution three dimensional terrain model forms simulation frame O in which
the four sided planes form the tessellated terrain surface with which the rock-body can come into
contact.

DEM resolution

A minimal cell size of 2-5m should be used to obtain realistic results. The cell size can be increased
in case of long runout distances of > 2 km and scenarios with big block sizes (>10-50 m3). If the
project perimeter is rather small, corresponding runout distances short (<50m) and the
variability of the terrain is high within a few meters, then the cell size of the DEM should be
lower, e.g. 1.0 or even 0.5m.

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CHAPTER 4: SETTING UP A SIMULATION

4 Setting up a simulation
4.1 Preparations
To successfully start a new RAMMS project, a few important preparations are necessary. Topographic
input data (DEM in ASCII- or GEOTIFF-format), project boundary coordinates and georeferenced
maps or remote sensing imagery should be prepared in advance (.tif format and .tfw-file, maps and
imagery are not mandatory, but nice to have). Georeferenced datasets have to be in the same
Cartesian coordinate system (e.g. Swiss CH1903 LV03) as the DEM. Polar coordinate systems in
degree (e.g. WGS84 Longitude Latitude) are not supported. For more information about specific
national coordinate systems please contact the national topographic agency in your country.

4.1.1 Topographic data - Digital Elevation Model (DEM)

The topographic data is the most important input requirement. How a rock moves (i.e. final runout
distance, jump heights, translational and rotational velocities and total energy content of the rock)
is strongly influenced by the interaction with the terrain. Therefore, the simulation results depend
strongly on the resolution and accuracy of the topographic input data. We recommend a DEM
resolution of 2-5 m or better for meaningful rockfall simulations in complex terrain. However, if such
high spatial resolution DEM data is not available, the user has to keep in mind that important terrain
features may not be correctly represented by the DEM. This can lead to unrealistic simulation results.
Before you start a simulation make sure all important terrain features are represented in the input
DEM. RAMMS is able to process the following topographic data:

• ESRI ASCII grid (Figure 4-1)

• GEOTIFF
• ASCII X, Y, Z single space data (Figure 4-2)

ASCII X, Y, Z data (regular and irregular) can be converted within RAMMS into an ASCII or GEOTIFF grid.
A wizard will guide you through the conversion process. The following interpolation methods are
available: LINEAR or INVERSE DISTANCE.

The header of an ESRI ASCII grid must contain the information shown in Figure 4-1.

Figure 4-1: Example ESRI ASCII grid. Figure 4-2: Example ASCII X, Y, Z single space
data.

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CHAPTER 4: SETTING UP A SIMULATION

4.1.2 Project and Scenarios

A project is defined for a region of interest. Within a project, one or more scenarios can be specified
and analyzed. For every scenario, a calculation can be executed. A project consists therefore of
different scenarios (input files) with different input parameter files (release and friction files). The
basic topographic input data is the same for every scenario. If you want to change the topographic
input data (e.g. change the input DEM resolution or the project boundary coordinates) you have to
create a new project. Other input parameters (like rock shape, surface information, end time, time
step etc.) can be changed for every scenario.

Figure 4-3: The same project extent (area of interest) can be used to calculate different scenarios
with different input parameters.

4.2 Preferences
To ease the file handling, we recommend setting the preferences prior to start with simulations. The
preferences set the path to the working directory and the necessary files such as DEM, maps and ortho-
imagery. If the path to the maps and the imagery files is set correctly in the preferences, RAMMS will
automatically open the georeferenced data when you generate a project.

Use Track → Preferences to open the RAMMS preferences window or click the button .
For resetting the general preferences use Help → Advanced… → Reset General Preferences.

Figure 4-4: General tab of RAMMS Figure 4-5: Rockfall tab of RAMMS
preferences. preferences.

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CHAPTER 4: SETTING UP A SIMULATION

General Tab

Setting Purpose
Working Directory Set your working directory. VERY IMPORTANT: DO NOT USE BLANKS
in the working directory path!
Map Directory Set the folder where you place your georeferenced digital maps
(consists of a .tif file and a corresponding .twf file (world-file).
Orthophoto Directory Set the folder where you place your digital georeferenced
orthophotos (aerial picture, consists of a .tif file and a corresponding
.twf file (world-file).
DEM Directory Set the folder where you place the Digital Elevation Models (format
ASCII grid)

Rockfall Tab

Setting Purpose
Nr of Colorbar Colors Set default number of colorbar colors.
Rock Magnification *X Set values between 1 and 100 for magnification of the rock size in
the visualization.
GIF-Animation Interval [s] Set interval for GIF animation images in seconds.
Background Color Set background color.
Animation Delay [s] Set animation delay to the animation speed.

The following exercise Working directory shows how to choose a new working directory. All further
settings can be changed in a similar manner. The settings are saved, until they are changed again
manually.

40
CHAPTER 4: SETTING UP A SIMULATION

Exercise 4.1 : Working directory

Choosing the right working directory is very useful and saves a lot of time searching for files and
folders.

VERY IMPORTANT: Do NOT use blanks or special characters in the path names!

• Click (or use Track → Preferences or Ctrl+P) to open the RAMMS preferences window.
• Click into the field Working directory. A window pops up where you can choose your new
working directory. Click OK in both windows. Do this also for other directories if necessary.

Figure 4-6: RAMMS preferences Figure 4-7: Browse for the correct folder.

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CHAPTER 4: SETTING UP A SIMULATION

4.3 Creating a new project

A new project is created with the RAMMS Project Wizard, shown in the exercise below. The Wizard
consists of four steps:

Exercise 4.2: How to create a new project

• Click or Track → New... → Project Wizard to open the RAMMS Project Wizard.
• The following window pops up.

Figure 4-8: RAMMS Rockfall Project Wizard Step 1 of 4

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CHAPTER 4: SETTING UP A SIMULATION

Continuation of exercise 4.2: How to create a new project

Step 1:
• Enter a project name (1)
• Add some project details (2)
• The project location (3) suggested is the current working directory. To change the location
click into the Location field. A second window appears and you can browse for a different
folder (see figure below, VERY IMPORTANT: Do NOT use BLANCS or special characters in
the project location path!).
• Click Next (4)

Figure 4-9: Step 1 of the RAMMS Project Figure 4-10: Window to browse for a new
Wizard Project Information. project location.

Step 2:
• Click into the Select DEM-file field to
browse for the DEM file. Locate your
DEM file in the folder set in the RAMMS
preferences.
• The Grid Resolution field shows you the
dimension of a single grid cell.
• Click Next.

Figure 4-11: Step 2 of the RAMMS Project

Wizard: GIS Information.

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CHAPTER 4: SETTING UP A SIMULATION

Continuation of exercise 4.2: How to create a new project

Step 3:
Enter the X- and Y-coordinates of the lower left and upper right corner of your project area,
using the Swiss Coordinate System CH1903 LV03 (or another Cartesian coordinate system), as it is
shown below for the Vallée de la Sionne area.

Figure 4-12: Project coordinates: lower left and

upper right corner of project area. Figure 4-13: Step 3 of the RAMMS Project
Wizard: Project Boundary Coordinates.

Step 4:
• Check the project summary, especially if
a DEM-file was found.
• To make changes click Previous, to
create the project click Create Project.
• If several matching .tif-files exist,
RAMMS shows a list with all these files.

Figure 4-14: Step 4 of the RAMMS Project

Wizard: Project Summary.

Project creation:
The creation process can take a while. Different status bars will pop up and show the progress
of the project creation process.

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CHAPTER 4: SETTING UP A SIMULATION

The following files will be created in the project folder.

Figure 4-15: Files and directories created with a new RAMMS::ROCKFALL project.

Table 4.1: Listing of files and directories created with a new RAMMS::ROCKFALL project.
File / Folder Purpose
doc (folder) Folder containing input and output log files
logfiles (folder) Project creation and calculation log files
output (folder) Folder containing calculated scenarios
rocks (folder) Folder to save rock files (.pts)
[Link] GEOTIFF raster file with altitude values
[Link] Internal binary file containing DEM information
[Link] Calculated slope angles of DEM
[Link] Calculated planar curvatures of DEM
_.xml Input file
_.xyz Topographic data used in RAMMS

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CHAPTER 4: SETTING UP A SIMULATION

4.4 Working with the interface

Once the project is created, there are several useful tools which can be helpful when working with
RAMMS. They are explained in the exercises below.

4.4.1 Moving, resizing, rotating, viewing

Exercise 4.3a: Moving and resizing the model

a. Terrain model has a dimension of 100% or smaller:

• By clicking on the arrow the model can be moved and resized.

Figure 4-16: Active project with lines and corners for resizing.

• To move the model without changing size or aspect ratio, move the cursor to the
model and check if the cursor turns to . Then click and hold the left mouse
button and drag the model to the desired position.
• To resize the model without changing the aspect ratio, use the mouse wheel to zoom
in or out. Alternatively, you can resize the model by changing the percentage value in
the horizontal toolbar .

b. Terrain model has a dimension > 100%:

• All steps explained above are still possible.

• In addition to this, the white hand right next to the rotation button becomes active as
well. After clicking on this so-called view pan button , it is also possible to move
the model.

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CHAPTER 4: SETTING UP A SIMULATION

Exercise 4.3b: Rotating the model

After activating the rotation button , the model can be rotated along the rotation axis’,
by moving the cursor directly on one of the axis until the cursor changes from to . Otherwise
a freehand rotation in any direction is possible.

Figure 4-17: Active project with rotation axes.

Exercise 4.3c: How to switch between 2D and 3D mode

Click to switch from 3D to 2D view. This button then changes to and by clicking again, you
will return to 3D view.

Figure 4-18: 3D view of example model. Figure 4-19: 2D view of example model.

In 2D mode you have all possibilities that work for the 3D mode. It works for input files as well as
for simulations. For the following functions of RAMMS it is necessary to switch from 3D to 2D
view:

INPUT: OUTPUT:

Draw New Release Points Draw Line Profile

Draw New Release Line

Draw New Polygon Shapefile

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CHAPTER 4: SETTING UP A SIMULATION

4.4.2 Colorbar
As soon as a parameter is shown in the project, the colorbar appears on the right side of the
main window. It can be turned on and off by clicking on . The colorbar can be moved
anywhere in the screen (and can get lost). Use Project → Get Colorbar to find a lost colorbar.

Exercise 4.3d: Editing the colorbar

Changing the minimum and maximum values of the colorbar as well as changing the number
of colors used is done in the panel ROCKFALL (right of the map window) in the tab Display.

• Simply type a new value into the respective

field and hit the return key on the
keyboard. The display will be refreshed.
• To view the underlying topography or
image, you can change the transparency.
• ATTENTION
Values < [Link] are not displayed!
The cutoff depends on the min and max
values as well as on the number of colors.
Make sure that you have the range of values
you want to display!
Figure 4-20: The Display tab.

• Open the editing window by either choosing

Edit → Colorbar Properties or clicking in
the vertical toolbar.
• To change the colorbar properties simply click
into the field you want to change, then click
OK.

➔ Under Edit → Colorbar White Color the text-

color of the colorbar can be changed to white.
This can be useful when changing the
background color of your project to black or Figure 4-21: The Colorbar Properties
window.
white Track → Preferences → Rockfall Tab →
Background Color.

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CHAPTER 4: SETTING UP A SIMULATION

4.4.3 Changing maps and remote sensing imagery

It is possible to change the map or imagery of a project anytime. Take into account, that the
corresponding .tfw-file (world-file) has to be in the same folder as the actual map (.tif ). If this is not
the case, the map will not be found!

Exercise 4.3e : How to add or change maps

a. Add or change a map:

• Go to Extras → Map… → Add/Change Map or click .

• If more than one map is found, the following window pops up, listing the maps found:

Figure 4-22: Window to choose map image.

• Information on the image dimensions (x-Dim and y-Dim, pixel) and size (in MB) are
provided and might be a selection criterion.
• Select the map you wish to add and click Load selected map.

b. Map not found:

• If the question "No map found, continue search?" appears, you either don’t have an
appropriate map, the map-folder directory is set wrong or the map is saved in a different
folder. In the second case click Yes and choose the correct folder. A window pops up to
browse for the correct map location and file.
• Or click No to cancel search.

c. Change remote sensing imagery:

• Go to Extras → Image… → Add/Change Image or click .

4.4.4 How to save input files and program settings

Once a project is created, it is saved under the name and location you entered during step 1 of
the RAMMS::ROCKFALL Project Wizard (Fehler! Verweisquelle konnte nicht gefunden werden.). The
created input file has the ending .xml. The second situation, in which the input file is saved
automatically, is when a simulation is started. The saved input file has the same name as the created
output file.

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CHAPTER 4: SETTING UP A SIMULATION

Exercise 4.3f : How to save input files and program settings manually

a. Input file:
• In case you want to save the input file manually before running a simulation, go to Track
→ Save. This is helpful, when for example a release line was loaded but you wish to close
the project before doing the simulation.
• If you wish to save a copy of your file under a new name, go to Track → Save
Copy As or click .
• A window pops up to choose an old file which should be overwritten or to type in a new
name, then click Save.
• Continue working on the original file, not the just saved one.

b. Position settings
• If you have moved and/or rotated your project for a better view, you can save this
position by going on Extras → Save Active Position.
• You can now get back to this position anytime by choosing Extras → Reload Position.

Exercise 4.3g : How to open an input file

Close any active project file .

• Go to Track → Open → Input File or click .
• A window opens to browse for a rockfall input file (.xml).
• Click Open after the file name was selected.
• The project will be opened.

Exercise 4.3h : How to load an optional shapefile

• To load a shapefile go to GIS → Import Shapefile or click .

• A window opens to browse for a shapefile (.shp).
• Click Open after the file was selected.

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Exercise 4.3i : How to open an output file/rockfall simulation

Close any active project file .

• Go to Track → Open... → Rockfall Scenario or click .

Choose a scenario in the output folder. Click OK. Choose the File Name Filter, click OK. Click
No if you will open only the chosen scenario, Yes if you will open another scenario.
• Go to Track → Open... → Rockfall Simulation Files (Ctrl+A)
A window opens to browse for rockfall simulation files (.rts). Click OK.
• Go to Track → Open... → Rockfall Trajectories (Ctrl+T)
• A window opens to browse for rockfall simulation files (.rts). Click OK.
• The simulation(s) will be opened.

4.4.5 About RAMMS

Some information about the RAMMS installation on your computer is found here: Help → About
RAMMS.

Figure 4-23: About RAMMS::ROCKFALL

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CHAPTER 4: SETTING UP A SIMULATION

4.5 Rock Input

4.5.1 Rockfall starting zone
A rockfall starting zone can be specified by setting a release point, drawing release line(s) (containing
many release points) or defining release area(s) (polygon). The definition and localization of a
rockfall starting zone has a strong impact on the results of RAMMS simulations. Therefore, we
recommend using reference information such as photography, GPS measurements or field maps to
define release points, release lines and release areas. This should be done by persons with
experience concerning the topographic, geological and meteorological situation of the investigation
area. The release points, lines and areas can only be drawn in 2D mode.

Release Point

There are two possibilities to set a new release point:

1. Click or use Input → Release... → Set New Release Point, move the cursor to the
desired position and click with the left mouse button at the position of the release
point.
2. Use Input → Release... → Enter Coordinates (X/Y) to manually enter the coordinates
(X/Y) of a release point.

Save your release point location with Input → Release... → Save Point Location. See exercise 4.4a
below for more details.

Release Line

Draw a new release line by clicking or use Input → Release... → Draw New Release Line. Draw
the line by clicking points with your left mouse button and finish the line by a click on your right mouse
button.

There are two possibilities to load an existing release line:

1. Use Input → Release... → Load Existing Release Line

2. Use the file-tree in the General tab in the ROCKFALL panel on the right side. Click on
the appropriate shapefile to load the release line into the visualization (see Figure
4-24). Click Refresh Tree to refresh the file-tree.

Figure 4-24: File-tree at the bottom of the right tab.

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CHAPTER 4: SETTING UP A SIMULATION

Release Area

Draw a new release area by clicking or use Input → Polygon Shapefile... → Draw New Polygon
Shapefile. Finish the release polygon with right-click. It is possible to define several release areas
within the same shapefile. There are two possibilities to load existing release areas:

1. Use Input → Polygon Shapefile... → Load Existing Polygon Shapefile

2. Use the file-tree in the General tab in the ROCKFALL panel on the right side. Click on the
appropriate shapefile to load the release area into the visualization. Click Refresh Tree
to refresh the file-tree.

Exercise 4.4a : How to define a release point

• Switch to 2D mode by clicking .

• Activate the project by clicking on it once.

• Click .
• Click into the project where you want to define your rockfall release point (1).

Figure 4-25: Define a release point and find its coordinates.

• The lower right status bar then displays the position of the release point within the
terrain (2).
• To save the coordinates of the release point go to Input → Release → Save Point
Location and enter a file name.

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Exercise 4.4b : How to load an existing release point

• Activate the project by clicking on it once.

• Click . The mouse cursor changes to an arrow.

• Click on the project with the middle button. Select release point file .txt and click open.
→ The release point appears in the project.

Exercise 4.4c : How to create a new release line

• Switch to 2D mode by clicking .

• Activate the project by clicking on it once.

• Click .
• Click into the project where you want to start drawing the outline of the release
line.
• Continue drawing the release line by moving the cursor and clicking the left mouse
button. If you would like to delete one step of the drawing, click the middle mouse
button.
• To end the release line, click the right mouse button.

Figure 4-26: Project with emerging release lines.

Before the release line is created, you have to answer the following questions:
• Add more polylines? You can either answer with Yes and create a second release line
as explained above or answer with No and continue with the next step.
• Choose a new release line file name: e.g. line_rel, the addition _rel helps the user to
run a simulation because the model recognizes the shapefile as a release line.

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Exercise 4.4d : How to load an existing release line

• Choose Input → Open Point/Line/Area File.

• Select the release file (.shp) and click Open.
➔ The release line appears in the project.

• Or simply click the name of the selected

release file (.shp) in the file tree in the
ROCKFALL panel (see Fehler! Verweisquelle
konnte nicht gefunden werden.). The release
line immediately appears in the project.
Figure 4-27: File Tree.

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4.5.2 Rock builder

RAMMS offers the Rock Builder to create realistic point cloud files from predefined rock shapes. We
strongly recommend using the Rock Builder instead of using spheres or cuboids for rockfall
simulations as the rock shape has major impact on the output of the rockfall simulations with RAMMS.
There are already several realistic rock shapes included in the library. Exercise 4.5 demonstrates how
to create a realistic rock shape with the Rock Builder tool. The rock mass and volume for realistic rocks
have to be defined in the Rock Builder and have to be saved in the rock .pts file. You cannot change
the rock volume or mass afterwards.

Exercise 4.5 : How to create a rock with the Rock Builder

• Click to open the Rock Builder.

Figure 4-28: Rock Builder

• Select a predefined rock shape from the rock library (1) or select a .pts-file of a
rock shape from another source (2).

• By pressing the left mouse button and moving the mouse you can move the 3D
visualization of the rock interactively and look at it from any direction (3).

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• The rock has predefined initial rock characteristics (4).

When changing the rock density, the Rock Builder automatically calculates the new mass
of the rock. After changing the mass of the rock, click to adjust the volume and the
dimensions (X/Y/Z) of the rock. Enter a new rock volume and click to adjust the
rock mass as well as the rock dimensions (X/Y/Z).

• Change axes of rock (5)

Click on the button next to the rock dimensions (unlock aspect). Now you are able to
change the rock’s axes. Press ENTER after changing an axis, such that the view of the rock
is updated and volume and mass are calculated accordingly.

• Enter a file name or use the suggested name and click to save the new .pts-file (6).
RAMMS automatically creates a rocks folder in your project directory. It’s strongly
recommended to save your new rocks in this directory.

• Click Close to close the Rock Builder window.

Once a rockfall simulation has been finished

and opened in RAMMS, you can find additional
information on the rock for every trajectory in
the ROCKFALL panel, tab Rock, see Figure 4-29.
Use the left mouse to move the visualization
rock in any direction.

Please consider that you have to be in the

trajectory mode and activate a specific
trajectory to get information about the rock.

Figure 4-29: Rock Information

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4.6 Terrain/Forest Input

After you successfully created a new project and defined the rock input, two more topics have to
be considered before starting a rockfall simulation:

• Terrain Material
• Forest areas

4.6.1 Terrain material

Define a global terrain category and optionally draw or import polygon shapefiles for areas with
differing terrain types (from extra soft to extra hard with several steps between). Choose appropriate
filenames for the different shapefiles while generating them so there is no confusion which shapefile
belongs to which terrain type.

Exercise 4.6a below demonstrates how to draw such a terrain shapefile. Figure 4-33 then explains how
to assign terrain types to selected shapefiles. Each terrain category defines the parameters of the
rockfall slippage friction law as well as a ground drag value. The ground drag value accounts for the
viscoplastic drag due to terrain deformation during ground contact. The terrain classes are described
in detail in Table 3.1. It is important to note, that you also have to consider rock size when choosing
different terrain types, see Table 3.3 for more information about rock size vs. terrain categories.

The friction parameters and drag forces should be defined for every terrain material shapefile. The
list below gives an overview on some possible terrain materials. You can choose between the
categories: Snow, Extra Soft, Soft, Medium Soft, Medium, Medium Hard, Hard and Extra Hard. The
used values have a large impact on the simulation results and therefore it is important to critically
think about the chosen parameters. The Exercise 4.6a shows how to define these terrain material
parameters. Fehler! Verweisquelle konnte nicht gefunden werden. gives an overview on the different
predefined parameters that are used for the categories. Please use these parameters with the
awareness that they are currently based on case studies. It remains an ongoing research task to
reassure these parameters rigorously.

ASCII-files exist for every friction parameter µmin, µmax, κ (average gradient from µmin to µmax after
ground contact of a rock), β (average gradient from µmax to µmin after rock loses contact with ground),
and forest drag, if the shapefiles in the friction tab or forest tab are specified. If only the overall terrain
material is specified (and no friction and forest shapefiles) no ASCII-files will be created and used.

Exercise 4.6a : How to create a shapefile with specific terrain characterization

• Switch to 2D mode by clicking .

• Activate the project by clicking on the map once.
• Click Draw New Polygon Shapefile .
• Click into the project where you want to start drawing the outline of the shapefile.
• Continue drawing the shapefile by moving the cursor and clicking the left mouse
button. Finish the polygon by clicking the right mouse button. The polygon will
be closed automatically.
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CHAPTER 4: SETTING UP A SIMULATION

Figure 4-30: Project with emerging polygon shapefile.

Before the polygon shapefile is created, you have to answer the following questions:
• Add more polygons?
You can either answer with Yes and create a second polygon as explained above or answer
with No and continue with the next step.
• Choose a new polygon file name:
Enter a new name according to the terrain material represented by the polygon(s) (e.g.
bedrock). The ending *.shp is added automatically. The polygon shapefile will now be
created and opened directly.
• Create polygon shapefiles as described above for all the different and important
terrain materials inside the area of interest. These polygons can then be loaded in
the Terrain Tab in the Run Simulation dialogue window (see Figure 4-33).
• Alternatively you can draw the polygon shapfiles in a GIS software and load them
directly in the Run a simulation dialogue.

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4.6.2 Forested area

Forest has a major impact on runout and velocities of rockfalls. To include forested areas into a RAMMS
simulation you need to specify the areas as polygon shapefiles as described in Exercise 4.6a. The same
applies for rivers, lakes and swamps. Choose appropriate filenames for the shapefiles (see Exercise
4.6b below) and specify a forest type for every shapefile. It is possible to consider a gap while
generating really detailed shapefiles on a small scale.

RAMMS::ROCKFALL will apply a linear viscous drag force, which is acting only within the forest areas.
Detailed information about the forest drag forces can be found in Chapter 3.8.

Three different forest types are implemented in RAMMS::ROCKFALL:

• Open Forest → 20 m2/ha

• Medium Forest → 35 m2/ha
• Dense Forest → 50 m2/ha

The difference between the forest types considers the stem wood area per hectare (basal area). The
drag force is calibrated according to the NAIS document (“Nachhaltigkeit und Erfolgskontrolle im
Schutzwald, Frehner et al. 2005). This document describes the silvicultural management of protection
forests for different forest habitats and specific natural hazards. The revised requirement profile of a
rockfall protection forest includes numbers of trees and other information. Please consider that the
rock mass is essential for the protective effect of a forested area.

This simple but efficient forest representation applied in RAMMS::ROCKFALL will be further developed
in the future at SLF/WSL. User feedback or comments are very welcome. Please contact ramms@[Link]
for any ideas or suggestions.

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Exercise 4.6b : How to create a shapefile to represent a specific surface cover

• Switch to 2D mode by clicking .

• Activate the project by clicking on the map once.
• Click .
• Trace the forest, river, lake or swamp outline by creating as many area polygons as
necessary (proceed as in Exercise 4.6a "How to create a shapefile with specific terrain
characterization.") and name your new shapefile according to the surface cover it
represents (e.g. lake). A new shapefile with the ending *.shp is saved.

Figure 4-31: Project with emerging polygon shapefiles which represent forested areas.

• Create polygon shapefiles as described above for all the areas with different and
important surface covers inside the area of interest.

4.7 Running a simulation

To run a simulation you have to complete the steps described in the chapters above. If you wish to
take into account different terrain materials and surface covers the corresponding shapefiles have
to be created in advance as described in Exercise 4.6. Release lines and release shapefiles have to be
generated in advance too as shown in Exercise 4.5. Exercise 4.7 “How to run a simulation” leads you
through the required steps to run a rockfall simulation.

The following tabs have to be completed subsequently:

4.7.1 General
In this tab you specify the name of the output folder and the dump step (time interval between
different dumps saved to disk).

4.7.2 Terrain
Here you specify the overall terrain type and load the additional terrain shapefiles, specify their
terrain type and load them to the list. The available terrain types are:

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• Extra soft
• Soft
• Medium soft
• Medium
• Medium hard
• Hard
• Extra hard
• Snow

A detailed description of the terrain types is given in Table 3.1. Please make sure that the selected
shapes are depicted in the list otherwise they will not be considered in the simulation.

4.7.3 Forest
Here you load the forest shapfiles and specify the forest type and/or the type Lake/River/Moor to
stop rocks immediately. The available types are:

• Open Forest → 20 m2/ha

• Medium Forest → 35 m2/ha
• Dense Forest → 50 m2/ha
• Lake/River/Moor

A detailed description of the terrain types is given in Table 3.1. Please make sure that the selected
shapes are depicted in the list otherwise they will not be considered in the simulation.

4.7.4 Release

Here you specify the random start orientations of the rocks and the release type.

To introduce variability into the rockfall simulation you have to specify the number of random initial
orientations of the rocks. This number multiplied with the number of rocks to calculate equals the
number of total simulations to perform. This number is automatically updated and displayed in the
Run ‘XXX’ Simulations button.

Load the release type shapefile(s):

• Point
• Line/Multipoint
• Area

In the number of points field you can choose how many individual release points are nestled along
the line or polygon.

You can optionally set the rocks initial velocities and initial rotation velocities along all three axis (x,
y, z).

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To set the rock offset (initial fall height of the rocks measured from the center of mass) you have two
options. RAMMS can automatically calculate the minimal offset that is necessary to start the rock
(Automatic). Alternatively, you can set the rock offset manually. This offset should be high enough such
that the rock is not sticking in the terrain and cannot start.

4.7.5 Rock
In the Rock tab you can choose between three different types of rocks:

• Artificial sphere (defined by the radius)

• Artificial cuboid (defined by the x, y and z dimension)

• Real rocks (defined in the Rock Builder)

You can also choose a folder containing different rocks. You have to fill the folder with rocks generated
with the Rock Builder in advance. All rocks in the specified folder will be calculated.

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4.7.6 Exercise how to run a simulation

Exercise 4.7 : How to run a simulation

• To run a simulation choose Run → Run Rockfall Simulation or click

• The RAMMS|Run Simulation window opens. Before clicking Run Simulation, you should
check the input parameters.

General Tab:

(1) Select a specific output filename. If

more than one trajectory is simulated,
this filename corresponds to the basic
scenario name. RAMMS automatically
adds the different parameter
variations to this name.

(2) Dump step(s) is preset by RAMMS to a 1

default value of 0.02. This value is twice
the time step. This means the data of 2
every second time step is saved in the
output. If you want the data of every
time step you need to set the dump
step to 0.01. If you want to save storage 3
capacity you can set the dump step
higher.

(3) The Stop criterion is set automatically 4

and depends on rock mass and rock
stop velocity. The rock stop velocity 5
ROCK_STOP_VEL may be set in RAMMS
via Help → Advanced... → Additional 6
Preferences... → Edit. Additionally
you may choose an End time (s) to stop
your simulation after a given time. The Figure 4-32: Tab General
simulation stops at the first stop
criterion to reach.

(4) Digital Elevation Model Information shows you which DEM is used for the simulation.

(5) Calculation Domain (optional): Narrow down your calculation area by using a polygon
shapefile.

(6) Activate the box Stop at first contact only if you wish to stop your simulation as soon as
the rock reaches the terrain for the first time.

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Terrain Tab

(1) Choose the category of the overall

terrain material of your simulation
area.
1
(2) Click into the field to select a terrain
material shapefile and choose the
corresponding category of the specific 2 3
terrain material.

(3) Click for each selected shapefile to

add it to the list (only shapefiles in the
list are considered in the calculation!). 4

(4) All defined shapefiles are listed. You

can delete single shapefiles from the
list.

Figure 4-33: Tab Terrain

Forest Tab

(1) Click into the field to select a terrain

material shapefile and choose the
corresponding category of the specific
terrain material.
1 2
(2) Click for each selected shapefile.

(3) All defined shapefiles are listed. You

can delete single shapefiles from the
list. 3

Please note: When loading multiple shapefiles

for different terrain materials and surface
covers be aware that the order of specification
matters: the last shapefile dominates the
others.

Figure 4-34: Tab Forest

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Rock Tab → Rock

(1) You can directly go back to the Rock

Builder to change your rocks
1
(2) Choose rock type: Click Rock to run a
simulation with a real rock shape 2
which you produced before in the Rock
Builder (Exercise 4.5). 3

(3) Select the .pts file of the rock you wish

to simulate. A visualization of the
selected rock is then shown in the rock
window. Use your mouse to move the
rock in any direction. The rock’s
characteristics and dimensions are
shown on the right side.

(4) You can select the rocks folder in your

scenario folder. The number of .pts 4
files in the folder will be shown. On the
right side you can check which rocks
the folder includes. Select a file from
the list to look at the rock in the
window.

Figure 4-35: Rock Tab → Rock

1
Rock Tab → Cuboid / Sphere
2
(1) Choose rock type: Click Cuboid /
Sphere to run a RAMMS simulation
with a cuboid / sphere.

(2) Specify the volume of the cuboid by

defining the length of the three axes X,
Y and Z (m). Specify the Rock Radius of
your rock sphere. Use your mouse to Figure 4-36: Rock Tab → Cuboid
move the cuboid / sphere interactively
in any direction. You find the rock 1
characteristics and dimensions on the 2
right side of the Rock tab.

Figure 4-37: Rock Tab → Sphere

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Release Tab for Point release

(1) Enter the number of random

orientation per release point.

(2) Choose release type: For a calculation

with a release point, click Point. Rock
position: The coordinates of your
release point are shown
automatically. If not, or if you want to
change them, simply type in the
correct values manually. 1

(3) Define the Initial Velocity (m/s) and

2
the Initial Rotational Velocity
(rad/s) of the rock-body at release
time. This can be useful for cases
where the values are known or
specific situations should be
simulated.

(4) Select Rock Z-Offset Automatic:

3
RAMMS defines the Z-offset so that
the starting of the rock is guaranteed.
4
Select Rock Z-Offset Manual: Type in a
value (m) to define the release height
of a rock above the terrain. Select Use
Multi to release several rocks at the
same point but different release 5
heights. Delta specifies the heights
(m) and Steps defines how often Delta
is applied. Figure 4-38: Tab Release

(5) RUN “XXX” SIMULATIONS shows how

many rocks will be simulated in the
defined scenario. Click on the button
and the simulations will start.

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Release Tab for Line / Area release

(1) Choose release type: For a

calculation with a release line, click
Line. For a calculation with a release
area, click Area.

(2) Select a release polyline or release

area file you created before. For the Figure 4-39: Line Release Tab
rock starting points within a line,
RAMMS uses the line points specified
during the creation of the release line
(see Exercise 4.4c). Within the release
area, the starting points (Grid Points)
are automatically calculated by
RAMMS.

(3) The Nr of Grid Points show how many Figure 4-40: Area Release Tab
rocks will be simulated in minimum
(within one orientation). You can vary
the number of used grid points and
with it the number of simulated rocks
in minimum. How to select the
number of random orientations is
described in the Release tab for Point
release section.

Output Tab

(1) Use reduced output: In case of large

hazard analysis simulations, it’s possible
to reduce the saved output values, such
that the simulations run faster and less
memory is used. Beware: These
simulations cannot be opened in
Trajectory-Mode! It’s also not possible to
open scenarios with “normal” output-
values and “reduced” output-values
together. Reduced output-results are:
Jump height, kin. energy, nr. of rocks, nr.
of deposited rocks and reach
probabilities (total and source)
(2) Use output altitude threshold: Only
output values below this altitude
threshold are saved. Again, this saves
calculation time and disk memory. The
default value is "9999" (all values are
saved). Use a realistic altitude value to
make use of this feature.
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Nr Simulations - Nr Random Orientations

In order to achieve statistical relevant results at the object of interest (e.g. village, road, endangered
object), after a first test with low numbers of released rocks and short calculation times, some main
model runs should be undertaken. The first main model runs should start with

• 10-15 Nr Random Orientations

• Release Locations: There should be a release location every 10-20m within your release
polygon or line.
• Create a polygon shapefile at the object of interest, and then do a barrier plot for this shapefile
(e.g. kin. Energy)

Then do a next model run, with

• 20-25 Nr Random Orientations

and compare the new barrier plot for above polygon shapefile with the one from the first model run
with 10-15 Nr Random Orientations.

If the statistical results differ significantly, then increase your Nr Random Orientation and/or
Release Locations, until the statistical results for the barrier plot do not differ significantly anymore.

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4.7.7 Scenario Preparation and Simulation Process

If the scenario already exists, RAMMS will ask you if you want to overwrite the scenario:

Figure 4-41: Scenario already exists dialogue.

If you click No or Cancel, you will be able to rename your scenario in the General tab. Click Yes, and the
old scenario is deleted (all the files and subdirectories within the scenario folder).

Scenario Preparation

If you specified terrain and/or forest shapefiles, RAMMS will gather the data and saving the
appropriate friction parameters ASCII files, showing messages like the one below in the lower left
status bar:

Figure 4-42: Saving friction parameter ascii files.

After that, RAMMS creates all the input files for this scenario…

Figure 4-43: Preparing scenario input files.

…and then RAMMS starts the simulation process:

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CHAPTER 4: SETTING UP A SIMULATION

Figure 4-44: Rockfall simulation information window.

This window (Simulation Progress) shows important information concerning your scenario-simulation:

• Scenario name: the scenario name.

• Nr of CPU used: the number of rockfall simulations running in parallel (10). This dropdown
field can be used to change this number dynamically, according to the CPU’s that your PC
offers. The more you specify, the faster your scenario will be calculated. It is best practice to
specify one less than the number of CPU’s available.
• Progress: Started simulations (60) vs. the total number of planned rockfall simulations
(400 in this example) and percentage of simulation progress (15%).
• Status: Running, cancelled or finished, depending on the simulation status.
• Estimated end time: Showing estimated end time ([Link]) as well as the duration
(0h0min47sec).
• Cancel button: Click the Cancel button to cancel the scenario. All the simulations calculated
up to now are then opened in Scenario-Mode.

For every rock trajectory, RAMMS generates an output file (.rts). After the completion of all simulations
or if the user clicks Cancel, RAMMS will open the simulation files in Statistic Mode, see next chapter,
and present the Scenario Logfile:

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CHAPTER 4: SETTING UP A SIMULATION

Figure 4-45: RAMMS Scenario Logfile

Additionally, a trajectory shapefile is created for every scenario, containing all the trajectories as
polyline shapefiles. Attributes of these polyline shapefiles are corresponding trajectory filename as
well as the rock name. The name of this shapefile is <scenario_name>_Trajectories.shp.

If some of the rocks could not release, because the specified Z-offset was not big enough, RAMMS will
show a message like this:

Figure 4-46: Message about rocks that could not release.

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5 Results
RAMMS offers a variety of tools and visualizations to interpret the simulation results. There are two
different modes to open simulation results: a) Statistic Mode to visualize a large number of simulations
(> 100) and b) Trajectory Mode to analyze single trajectories in detail. The two modes are described in
this chapter.

5.1 Statistic Mode

In Statistic Mode, we try to answer the following questions:

• Which cells are affected by which trajectories?

• How many trajectories fly over a given cell?
• What are velocity, kinetic energy, jump height and rotational velocity values in a given cell?
• What is the probability that a rock reaches a given cell?
RAMMS analyses every trajectory and then saves jump height, velocity, kinetic energy and rotational
velocity values in the cells affected by the trajectories.

Example:
We assume that RAMMS has saved 63 values (63 values of jump height, 63 values of velocity, etc.) in
a given cell, see figure below (showing only part of the 63 values):

Figure 5-1: Trajectory values in a given cell

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CHAPTER 5: RESULTS

RAMMS then calculates the following statistic values for this given cell out of the 63 values (e.g. Jump
Height):

• Mean value (mean) → 3.54 m

• Median value (50%) → 3.49 m
• 90% Quantile value (90%) → 5.17 m
• 95% Quantile value (95%) → 6.26 m
• 99% Quantile value (99%) → 6.72 m
• Maximum value (max) → 6.72 m

Figure 5-2: Statistic values of a given cell

5.1.1 Quantile Values

The default quantile values in RAMMS::ROCKFALL are 90%, 95% and 99%. These three values can be
changed by the user, see details below. The Mean, Median and Max values are fixed and cannot be
changed.

How to change the Quantile Values

Use Help → Advanced… → Additional Preferences… → Edit or use the button (Additional
Preferences) in the lower left toolbar.

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……….

Figure 5-3: Additional Preferences: Quantile Values

Find the keyword QUANTILE_VALUES, change the values accordingly and press the Save button.
Changing these values results in adjusted statistical analyses and dropdown menus, according to the
values the user entered (and saved!).

Figure 5-4: Adjusted quantile values in Statistic Mode; Left: Statistic Summary Plot, Right: Quantile
dropdown menu in upper right toolbar of GUI.

5.1.2 Statistic Vocabulary

Probability Density Function (PDF):

Wikipedia: “The probability density function (PDF), or density of a continuous random variable, is a
function that describes the relative likelihood for this random variable to take on a given value. The
probability of the random variable falling within a particular range of values is given by the integral of
this variable’s density over that range—that is, it is given by the area under the density function but
above the horizontal axis and between the lowest and greatest values of the range. The probability
density function is non-negative everywhere, and its integral over the entire space is equal to one.”

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Cumulative Distribution Function (CDF):

Wikipedia: “In probability theory and statistics, the cumulative distribution function (CDF), or just
distribution function, describes the probability that a real-valued random variable X with a given
probability distribution will be found to have a value less than or equal to x.”

Empirical Distribution Function (EDF):

Wikipedia: “In statistics, the empirical distribution function is the distribution function associated with
the empirical measure of the sample. This cumulative distribution function is a step function that jumps
up by 1/n at each of the n data points. The empirical distribution function estimates the cumulative
distribution function underlying of the points in the sample and converges with probability 1 according
to the Glivenko–Cantelli theorem.”

Boxplot:

Wikipedia: “In descriptive statistics, a box plot or boxplot is a convenient way of graphically depicting
groups of numerical data through their quartiles. Box plots are non-parametric: they display variation
in samples of a statistical population without making any assumptions of the underlying statistical
distribution. The spacings between the different parts of the box indicate the degree of dispersion
(spread) and skewness in the data, and show outliers.”

Minimum Value Maximum Value

Figure 5-5: Boxplot Explanations (Q1: lower quartile = 25 %, Q3: upper quartile = 75 %, IQR:
interquartile range).

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5.1.3 Open a Scenario

Open a simulation scenario with Track → Open… → Rockfall Scenario or click in the toolbar and
then choose a scenario in a project’s output folder.

Figure 5-6: Browse for Scenario Folder.

Click OK to choose the selected scenario.

Figure 5-7: The file name filter shows information about the scenario that you are opening.
You can enter a file string or click OK to open all files.

Enter a file name filter for the specific results or click OK, if you are interested in all the simulations
in the scenario folder. Click OK to proceed.

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Figure 5-8: Open more Scenarios?

If you would like to open several scenarios, click Yes to choose another scenario from the output
folder. It is important that the scenarios are saved in the same project folder. Click No if you want
to analyze only the results from one scenario.

RAMMS will open the scenario and show the 95%-Quantile of the kinetic Rock Energy (kJ). The 95%-
Quantile is the default selection of the quantile dropdown menu in the upper right toolbar. You can
change the default selection in the Additional Preferences (Keyword: QUANTILE, values between 0 - 5
correspond to the position of the quantile in the dropdown menu, see Figure 5-4).

The ROCKFALL tab on the right shows useful Statistic Mode information. The trajectory mode should
be OFF – you are in the statistic mode. You find general information about the selected scenario:

• Nr of Trajectories and Average Slope (=Pauschalgefälle: min, mean, max)

• 8-Point
Figure 5-9: Statistic Mode information
Statistic is shown in the of
information right ROCKFALL
the panel. (Min, Q1, Mean,
selected parameter
Median, Q3, Max, IQR, StdDev).

In Statistic Mode, only Jump Height (H), Rock Velocity (V), Resultant Rotational Rock Velocity and

Kinetic Rock Energy (E) results are available ( ).

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Figure 5-10: Statistics Mode: Dropdown menu Results

All other results are available in Trajectory Mode only. For the visualization of the parameters you can
choose between the values Mean, Median, 90%, 95%, 99% or Max values. The dropdown is located in

the upper toolbar .

The menu Statistics offers the following functions:

Figure 5-11: Statistics Mode: Menu Statistics.

• Summary Plot (statistics summary of the selected parameter)

• Barrier Plot (statistics of line profile or polygon area of selected parameter)

• Nr of Rocks
• Nr of Deposited Rocks

• Reach Probability (Source)

• Reach Probability (Total)
• Reach Probability from Shapefile

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In the horizontal toolbar you can find the following functions:

• Barrier Plot

• Line Profile

• Cell Info File

• Quantile dropdown
menu

5.1.4 Summary Plot

Choose the result parameter that you are interested in (e.g. Jump Height, Rock Velocity, Kinetic Rock
Energy or Resultant Rotational Rock Velocity). The results appear in the main window. Exercise 5.1
shows how to produce and analyze a Summary Plot.

Exercise 5.1 : How to analyze the Statistics Summary Plot.

• Switch to 2D mode by clicking .

• Activate the project by clicking on it once. Be sure that you are in the Statistics Mode
(Trajectory Mode = OFF in the right toolbar).
• Go to Statistics → Summary Plot.
• A window opens, displaying the Statistics Summary Plot. You can save, print or edit the plot

by clicking one of the buttons on the lower left corner. .

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Figure 5-12: Statistics Summary Plot.

(1) Data information

(2) Probability Density Function PDF
(3) Boxplot
(4) Cumulative Distribution Function CDF

5.1.5 Barrier Plot

If you need to analyze special areas (region of a planned dam or realized rockfall nets, etc.) then the
Barrier Plot is a good choice. Use a line profile (polyline shapefile) or a polygon region (polygon
shapefile) to create a Barrier Plot.

A Barrier Plot contains the same statistical information as a Summary Plot, but for a certain region of
interest (line or polygon). Additionally, for smaller datasets (< 10000 data values), an empirical
distribution function plot (EDF) is added to the CDF plot. For small datasets, the EDF plot (red line in
lower plot, see Figure 5-14) can deviate from the CDF plot. For large datasets, the EDF plot is not
shown, as the two plots are then identical.

It is important to note, that the analysis and interpretation of the barrier plot should be carefully
undertaken. The number of trajectories passing through certain grid cells (from a polyline or polygon
region) is crucial to establish a confidential statistic with reliable results. For this, a third axis has been
added to the line profile plot, the axis “Data Values”. This parameter indicates how the data values are
distributed along the line profile. For a rule of thumb, if data values drop far below numbers of 100,
then the statistical analysis becomes strongly dependent on the peaks (trajectories with very high

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kinetic energies and jumping heights). Deriving for example the Q95-value out of such strongly
asymmetrical distribution might result in an overrated, non-representative Q95 value. In the following
Figure 5-13, the line profile plot along a 87m long section is shown. The peak regions with jumping
heights of ~3m coincide to very low data values of 10 and less (right red circles). In contrast, where
data values exceed 200 or more (left red circles), the jumping heights are lower and are more
representative for this scenario.

Barrier plots are only possible for Jump Height, Velocity, Kin. Energy and Rot. Velocity results.

Barrier Plot from new Line Profile

Draw a line profile by clicking (e.g. a dam or places that you are specifically interested in e.g. a place
where several trajectories pass through). RAMMS opens both a Line Profile Plot and the Barrier Plot
for the line:

Figure 5-13: Line Profile Plot depicting the Topography (green line, right y-axis), the jump height
(rock position) on top of the topography (red dots, Rocks), the Data Values distribution (blue
dashed line, left outer y-axis) and the Jump Height values (red line, left inner y-axis).

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Figure 5-14: Barrier Plot of a line profile. Scenario and line profile name are marked in the upper
right corner (red box). An empirical distribution plot (EDF, red line) is added to the CDF plot for
smaller datasets.

Barrier Plot from file

Use Statistics → Barrier Plot or the horizontal toolbar button to select a polyline or polygon
shapefile you wish to create a Barrier Plot for.

A window opens, displaying the Statistics Barrier Plot (see figure above). In the Data information part
of the Barrier Plot you find the information about the selected scenario and the name of either the
polyline or the polygon shapefile. Additionally you will find a statistical summary with the most
important statistic values, as well as information about the total number of trajectories passing the
region (3134) and stopping in the region (1), see Figure below (Traj./Stopped: 3134/1).

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Figure 5-15: Data information part of Barrier Plot

5.1.6 Number of Rocks

Number of rocks that passed through a given cell.

5.1.7 Number of Deposited Rocks

Number of rocks that stopped in a given cell.

5.1.8 Reach probability

Source:

The probability that a rock arrives in a given cell. The release cells (source) feeding a given cell are
taken into account when calculating the Source reach probability.

Menu Statistics → Reach Probability (Source)

Total:

Same as above, but release cells are not considered; Total reach probability is calculated from total
released rocks.

Menu Statistics → Reach Probability (Total)

Reach Probability from Shapefile:

Normal reach probabilities (Total and Source Reach Probability) are calculated on a grid cell basis. This
can lead to lower values than expected. With this feature it is possible to calculate a “Source Reach
Probability” for a polygon region.

Menu Statistics → Reach Probability from Shapefile)

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5.1.9 Trajectory Impact-Analysis from Shapefile

This feature can be used to analyze rock impacts on polygon areas, e.g. galleries, roads, dams, etc.

• Open a scenario in Statistics-Mode

• draw a polygon shapefile where you want to analyze trajectory impacts
• Choose “Extras → Trajectory Impact-Analysis from Shapefile” and select above shapefile

The following plot will then show impact angles in degrees:

Figure 5-16: Impact-Analysis

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Impact angles (alpha ) are calculated according to the following sketch:

Figure 5-17: Impact angles

Additionally, two txt-files are saved in your scenario-directory:

• impact_data.txt and
• impact_trajectories.txt

impact_data.txt:
This file contains details of every trajectory impact (impact time and location, kin. Energy, velocities
and impact angle). The first entry “i” is the index-value into “impact_trajectories.txt”.

Figure 5-18: impact_data.txt file containing impact-analysis data

impact_trajectories.txt:
This file shows all trajectories passing your shapefile, even if they do not impact.

5.1.10 Open Trajectories from Shapefile

Use Extras → Open Trajectories from Shapefile to select a shapefile (polygon or polyline), and open all
the trajectories passing or stopping in the specified shapefile.

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5.2 Trajectory Mode

To analyze simulation results in more detail, the rocks can be opened in Trajectory Mode. This mode
enables a detailed analysis of single trajectories of specific rocks. No statistic is available in Trajectory
Mode.

Figure 5-19: Rockfall trajectories; different colors depict different kinetic rock energies (KJ).

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5.2.1 Open results in Trajectory Mode

Open trajectories with the button , the keyboard combination Ctrl+T or go to Track → Open →
Rockfall Trajectories. Choose the trajectories that you are interested in from the output scenario
folder and click Open.

Figure 5-20: Open trajectories dialog window

In Figure 5-21 you could also filter your selected trajectories. Otherwise click OK.

Figure 5-21 Filter options for selected trajectories

It is also possible to add trajectories from other scenarios (but within the same project). Click Yes in
Figure 5-22 to select more trajectories, click No otherwise.

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Figure 5-22 Possibility to add trajectories from another scenarios.

It is suggested to open only up to 100 single trajectories at one time (e.g. from a specific scenario).
Although it is possible to open more trajectories, it is not recommended, because the memory usage
will increase strongly and the handling of your visualization will get very slow. Control if the trajectory
mode is ON (in the general tab of the right field) and the toolbar shows the number of trajectories.

The buttons provide quick access to Jump Height, Velocity and Kinetic Rock Energy of the
simulation.

5.2.2 Visualize different parameters

The drop-do wn menu Results offers the following functions in the trajectory mode:

Figure 5-23: Trajectory Mode: Dropdown menu Results

• Jump Height (m)

• Rock Velocity (m/s)
• Rotational Rock Velocity → X, Y, Z, Resultant (rad/s, deg/s or rot/s)
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(the unit of rotation can be adjusted in Additional Preferences, ROT_UNIT, default rotation
unit is rot/s)
• Total Rock Energy (kin + pot) (kJ)
• Kinetic Rock Energy (kJ)
• Kinetic Rock Energy (translational) (kJ)
• Kinetic Rock Energy (rotational) (kJ)

• Tangential Contact Force (kN)

• Perpendicular Contact Force (kN)

• Slippage (m)
• Friction Value ()

Exercise 5.2a: Displaying calculation values.

Figure 5-24: Results Velocity Figure 5-25: Results Jump Figure 5-26: Results Kinetic
Height Rock Energy

The values of Jump Height, Rock Velocity and Kinetic Rock Energy give a good overview of the
dimension of the rockfall event in the trajectory mode. You can choose the parameters in the
horizontal toolbar under Results.

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5.2.3 Working with trajectories

Select a trajectory with the mouse:

Select with mouse

Information is refreshed

Figure 5-27: Trajectory information – General tab. The information (filename, start position of
trajectory, etc.) is refreshed in the General tab on the right side. Additionally, the Rock tab indicates
the rock used for the selected trajectory (see next figure).

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Select with mouse

Rock Viewer

Figure 5-28: Trajectory information – Rock tab.

The menu Trajectory offers the following functions:

Figure 5-29: Trajectory Mode: Menu Trajectory.

• View Trajectory XY Plot

• View Trajectory Data Log File
• View Trajectory Standard Output Log File
• View Input File (xml)

In the horizontal toolbar you can find the following functions:

• Rock Trajectory XY Plot

• Line Profile
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5.2.4 Rock Trajectory XY Plot

Click on a rock trajectory. You can find the function View Trajectory XY Plot in the horizontal toolbar
(button ) or in the menu Trajectory → View Trajectory XY Plot. If you want to analyze a trajectory
in detail, the XY plot of a trajectory is the way to go. The graph shows the currently active parameter

(you can change it by clicking one of the buttons in the upper horizontal toolbar or by
selecting another result parameter via the Results menu). You can keep the Trajectory XY Plot by
saving it, see Exercise 5.2b below ”How to create a Trajectory XY Plot”.

Exercise 5.2b : How to create a Trajectory XY Plot

• Switch to 2D mode by clicking .

• Activate the project by clicking on it once. Then click on the specific rock trajectory you want
to plot.

• Go to Trajectory → View Trajectory XY Plot or click .

Figure 5-30: Trajectory XY Plot.

• A window opens, displaying the Trajectory XY Plot.

• You can save, print and modify the plot with the tools in the upper toolbar or open another plot.
Plot explanations:
▪ Brown line: terrain surface (scale on the left side).
▪ Black line: rock trajectory added to the terrain surface (altitude in m a.s.l., scale on the
left side).
▪ Green line: active parameter (scale on the right side).
▪ Blue dot: actual rock position(according to the dump step shown in your simulation).

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▪ Red dots: points of contact (consider the time step of your simulation – missing contact
points are possible if time steps are too large).
▪ Bottom scale: projected profile distance (m).

5.2.5 Line profile

Go to Extras → Profile... → Draw Line Profile or click to draw a line profile. The line profile
function provides a graph of the currently active parameter along a specific line through the rockfall
area. This is helpful when it is of interest to know the values and maximum values at these places
(e.g. close to a road or dam). Line profiles are saved in the file [Link] in the project directory. If
you want to keep a line profile, you have to save it, see Exercise 5.2c ”How to draw a line profile”.

Exercise 5.2c : How to draw a line profile

(1) Draw a new line profile:

• Switch to 2D mode by clicking .

• Activate the project by clicking on it once, then click or choose Extras → Profile…
→ Draw New Line Profile.
• Define the line profile in the same way you specify a new release line (see Exercise 4.4c
“How to create a new release line”). Finish the line profile with a right-click on the mouse
button.

Figure 5-31: Line Profile Plot

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• A window opens, displaying the Line Profile.

Plot explanations:
▪ Green line: track profile (altitude, y-axis on the right side).
▪ Red dots: active parameter (rock position) on top of the topography (altitude,
y-axis on the right side).
▪ Red line: active parameter (inner y-axis on the left side).
▪ Blue dashed line: the Data Values distribution.
▪ Bottom x-axis: projected profile distance (m).

If you change the active parameter or the Min and Max values in the Display tab
in RAMMS, the plot will be directly updated.

• To save the coordinates of the points belonging to the line profile, select Extras →
Profile… → Save Line Profile Points and enter a file name.
• To save the line profile parameter’s data (distance (m) and the active parameter,
e.g. the jump height (m)) at the current dump step, select Extras → Profile… → Export
Line Profile Plot Data and enter a file name.

(2) Load an existing line profile:

• Switch to 2D mode by clicking .

• Activate the project by clicking on it once, then click or choose Extras → Profile…
→ Draw New Line Profile.
• Click the middle mouse button once.
• A window pops up and you can browse for the line profile you wish to open.

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5.2.6 Trajectory Data Log File

To see the exact values of the simulation results, check the Trajectory Data Log File which shows
the results for every dump step of a single trajectory. After running a simulation click on a rock
trajectory in the trajectory mode and go to Trajectory → View Trajectory Data Log File to open it.

Figure 5-32: Trajectory Data Log File.

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5.2.7 Trajectory Standard Output Log File

Further information of a simulation run is available under Trajectory → Standard Output Log File
and

Figure 5-33: Trajectory Standard Output Log File.

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5.2.8 Trajectory Input File

The input file is a simple xml file and can be viewed from within RAMMS. Use Trajectory → View Input
File (xml) to open a selected trajectory’s input file.

Figure 5-34: Trajectory Input File.

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5.2.9 Rock trajectory animation

It is possible to start an animation of all trajectories. Switch to 3D mode by clicking (2D mode is
working as well).

Start the animation (Alternative: F8)

Pause the animation (Alternative: F8)

Stop/Restart the animation (Alternative: F9)

Change the speed of the animation in the Display tab on the right side (speed slider from fast to slow).

Figure 5-35: Animation speed control slider.

5.2.10 Creating an image or a GIF animation

Image

It is possible to export your results as an image in different formats (e.g. .png, .jpg, .gif, .tif etc.). Click
or choose Track → Export… → Image File and define a file name with the corresponding extension.
An image of the visible part in the viewer will then be exported.

GIF animation

Creating a GIF animation is only possible in output mode. Click or choose Track → Export... → GIF
Animation. Enter a file name and location and wait until the simulation stopped. As soon as the
simulation finished, the GIF animation file is saved. In the Preferences you can define the interval for
the GIF animation (GIF animation interval (s)) in the Rockfall tab.

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6 References and further reading
6.1 References
Maps and aerial images

➔ All topographic base maps and aerial images from Source: Swiss Federal Office of Topography

Manual Literature

Acary, V. and Brogliato, B., 2008: Numerical Methods for nonsmooth Dynamical Systems;
Applications in Mechanics and Electronics. In: Dynamics of Non-Smooth Systems. Lecture
Notes in Applied and Computational Mechanics, 35, Springer, Berlin.

Bourrier, F., Dorren, L., Nicot, F., Berger, F., and Darve, F., (2009): Toward objective rockfall
trajectory simulation using a stochastic impact model. Geomorphology, 110(3-4): 68-79.

Bourrier, F., Berger, F., Tardif, P., Dorren, L., and Hungr, O., 2012: Rockfall rebound: comparison
of detailed field experiments and alternative modeling approaches. Earth Surface Processes
and Landforms, 37(6): 656-665.

Cross, R., (1999): The bounce of a ball. American Journal of Physics, 67(3):222–227. [8] Fityus,
S., Giacomini, A., and Buzzi, O., (2013): The significance of geology for the morphology of
potentially unstable rocks. Engineering Geology, 162(0): 43-52.

Dorren, L., 2003: A review of rockfall mechanics and modeling approaches. Progress in Physical
Geography, 27(1):6987.

Dorren, L. K. A. and Seijmonsbergen, A. C. 2003: Comparison of three GIS-based models for

predicting rockfall runout zones at a regional scale. Geomorphology, 56(1-2):49 - 64.

Fityus, S., Giacomini, A., and Buzzi, O. 2013: The significance of geology for the morphology of
potentially unstable rocks. Engineering Geology, 162:43 - 52.

Frehner, M., Wasser, B., Schwitter, R. 2005: Nachhaltigkeit und Erfolgskontrolle im Schutzwald.
Wegleitung für Pflegemassnahmen in Wäldern mit Schutzfunktion. Bern: Bundesamt für
Umwelt. 564p.

Glocker, Ch., 2001: Set-Valued Forces Laws. In: Dynamics of Non-Smooth Systems. Lecture
Notes in Applied and Computational Mechanics, 1, Springer, Berlin.

Glover, J., (2015): Rock-shape and its role in rockfall dynamics. Doctoral thesis, Durham
University.

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 Latham, J.-P.; Munjiza, A.; Garcia, X.; Xiang, J. and Guises, R., 2008: Three-dimensional particle
shape acquisition and use of shape library for DEM and FEM/DEM simulation. In: Minerals
Engineerings, Elsevier, 797-805.

Leine, R. I.; Schweizer, A.; Christen, M.; Glover, J.; Bartelt, P. and Gerber, W., 2014: Simulation
of rockfall trajectories with consideration of rock shape. Multibody System Dynamics 32,
2: 241 - 271.

Moreau, J.J., 1988: Unilateral contact and dry friction in finite freedom dynamics. In: Non-
Smooth Mechanics and Applications, Springer, Berlin, 1-82.

Jaboyedoff, M., (2011): Slope tectonics. Geological Society London.

Schweizer, A. 2015: Ein nichtglattes mechanisches Modell für Steinschlag. Dissertation ETH
Zürich Nr. 22559.

Volkwein, A., Schellenberg, K., Labiouse, V., Agliardi, F., Berger, F., Bourrier, F., Dorren, L. K. A.,
Gerber, W., and Jaboyedoff, M. 2011: Rockfall characterization and structural protection - a
review. Natural Hazards and Earth System Science, 11(9):2617 - 2651.

6.2 Publications
The development of RAMMS::ROCKFALL is based on scientific findings published in international
scientific journals. A list of the most important scientific publications about RAMMS::ROCKFALL
and its applications is given below (chronological order). This publication-list is also available on
our webpage: [Link]

Key ROCKFALL Publications

Leine, R.I.; Capobianco, G.; Bartelt, P.; Christen, M.; Caviezel, A., 2021: Stability of rigid body
motion through an extended intermediate axis theorem: application to rockfall simulation.
Multibody System Dynamics, 52: 431-455. doi: 10.1007/s11044-021-09792-y

Caviezel, A.; Ringenbach, A.; Demmel, S.E.; Dinneen, C.E.; Krebs, N.; Bühler, Y.; Christen, M.;
Meyrat, G.; Stoffel, A.; Hafner, E.; Eberhard, L.A.; Von Rickenbach, D.; Simmler, K.; Mayer, P.;
Niklaus, P.S.; Birchler, T.; Aebi, T.; Cavigelli, L.; Schaffner, M.; ... Bartelt, P., 2021: The relevance of
rock shape over mass - implications for rockfall hazard assessments. Nature Communications, 12:
5546 (9 pp.). doi: 10.1038/s41467-021-25794-y

Lu, G.; Ringenbach, A.; Caviezel, A.; Sanchez, M.; Christen, M.; Bartelt, P., 2021: Mitigation effects
of trees on rockfall hazards: does rock shape matter?. Landslides, 18: 59-77. doi: 10.1007/s10346-
020-01418-2

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Lu, G.; Caviezel, A.; Christen, M.; Demmel, S.E.; Ringenbach, A.; Bühler, Y.; Dinneen, C.E.; Gerber,
W.; Bartelt, P., 2019: Modelling rockfall impact with scarring in compactable soils. Landslides, 16:
2353-2367. doi: 10.1007/s10346-019-01238-z

Caviezel, A.; Demmel, S.E.; Ringenbach, A.; Bühler, Y.; Lu, G.; Christen, M.; Dinneen, C.E.;
Eberhard, L.A.; Von Rickenbach, D.; Bartelt, P., 2019: Reconstruction of four-dimensional rockfall
trajectories using remote sensing and rock-based accelerometers and gyroscopes. Earth Surface
Dynamics, 7, 1: 199-210. doi: 10.5194/esurf-7-199-2019

Caviezel, A.; Schaffner, M.; Cavigelli, L.; Niklaus, P.; Bühler, Y.; Bartelt, P.; Magno, M.; Benini, L.,
2018: Design and evaluation of a low-power sensor device for induced rockfall experiments. IEEE
Transactions on Instrumentation and Measurement, 67, 4: 767-779. doi:
10.1109/TIM.2017.2770799

Leine, R.I.; Schweizer, A.; Christen, M.; Glover, J.; Bartelt, P.; Gerber, W., 2014: Simulation of
rockfall trajectories with consideration of rock shape. Multibody System Dynamics, 32, 2: 241-
271. doi: 10.1007/s11044-013-9393-4

ROCKFALL Publication List

Leine, R.I.; Capobianco, G.; Bartelt, P.; Christen, M.; Caviezel, A., 2021: Stability of rigid body
motion through an extended intermediate axis theorem: application to rockfall simulation.
Multibody System Dynamics, 52: 431-455. doi: 10.1007/s11044-021-09792-y

Caviezel, A.; Ringenbach, A.; Demmel, S.E.; Dinneen, C.E.; Krebs, N.; Bühler, Y.; Christen, M.;
Meyrat, G.; Stoffel, A.; Hafner, E.; Eberhard, L.A.; Von Rickenbach, D.; Simmler, K.; Mayer, P.;
Niklaus, P.S.; Birchler, T.; Aebi, T.; Cavigelli, L.; Schaffner, M.; ... Bartelt, P., 2021: The relevance of
rock shape over mass - implications for rockfall hazard assessments. Nature Communications, 12:
5546 (9 pp.). doi: 10.1038/s41467-021-25794-y

Lu, G.; Ringenbach, A.; Caviezel, A.; Sanchez, M.; Christen, M.; Bartelt, P., 2021: Mitigation effects
of trees on rockfall hazards: does rock shape matter?. Landslides, 18: 59-77. doi: 10.1007/s10346-
020-01418-2

Sanchez, M.A.; Caviezel, A., 2020: Full-scale testing of rockfall nets in real terrain. Results of tests
at Chant Sura: 13th September and 4th October, 2019. WSL Berichte, 97. 81 p.

Ringenbach, A.; Caviezel, A.; Demmel, S.E.; Lu, G.; Bühler, Y.; Christen, M.; Bartelt, P.; Meier, L.,
2020: Three-dimensional trajectory reconstruction of induced single block rockfall experiments.
In: Da Fontoura, S.A.B.; Rocca, R.J.; Pavón Mendoza, J.F. (eds), 2020: Rock Mechanics for Natural
Resources and Infrastructure Development - Full Papers. Proceedings. 14th international concress
on rock mechanics and rock engineering (ISRM 2019), Foz do Iguassu, Brazil. 2887-2894.

Wendeler, C.; Lanter, A.; Lu, G.; Caviezel, A.; Ringenbach, A.; Bartelt, P., 2020: New rockfall testing
method of flexible rockfall barriers. In: Da Fontoura, S.A.B.; Rocca, R.J.; Pavón Mendoza, J.F. (eds),
2020: Rock Mechanics for Natural Resources and Infrastructure Development - Full Papers.
Proceedings. 14th international concress on rock mechanics and rock engineering (ISRM 2019),
Foz do Iguassu, Brazil. 3416-3423.

Caviezel, A.; Lu, G.; Demmel, S.E.; Ringenbach, A.; Bühler, Y.; Christen, M.; Bartelt, P., 2019:
RAMMS::ROCKFALL - a modern 3-dimensional simulation tool calibrated on real world data. In:
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2019: 53rd US rock mechanics/geomechanics symposium. 53rd US rock mechanics/geomechanics
symposium, New York, USA. ARMA 19-223 (8 pp.).

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List of Figures

FIGURE 2-1: INSTALLATION - WELCOME DIALOG WINDOW. ................................................................................ 10

FIGURE 2-2: INSTALLATION - README DIALOG WINDOW. ................................................................................. 10
FIGURE 2-3: INSTALLATION - LICENSE AGREEMENT DIALOG WINDOW. ............................................................. 11
FIGURE 2-4: INSTALLATION - DESTINATION DIRECTORY DIALOG WINDOW. ...................................................... 11
FIGURE 2-5: INSTALLATION - INSTALLING FILES DIALOG WINDOW. .................................................................... 12
FIGURE 2-6 : INSTALLATION - FINISHED INSTALLING FILES DIALOG WINDOW. ................................................... 12
FIGURE 2-7: INSTALLATION - FINISHED INSTALLATION DIALOG WINDOW. ........................................................ 13
FIGURE 2-8: IDL VISUAL STUDIO MERGE MODULES - WELCOME DIALOG WINDOW. ......................................... 13
FIGURE 2-9: IDL VISUAL STUDIO MERGE MODULES - READY TO INSTALL THE PROGRAM. ............................... 14
FIGURE 2-10: IDL VISUAL STUDIO MERGE MODULES - INSTALLING... ................................................................. 14
FIGURE 2-11: INSTALLATION - DESTINATION DIRECTORY DIALOG WINDOW. .................................................... 15
FIGURE 2-12: RAMMS ICON. ................................................................................................................................. 15
FIGURE 2-13: RAMMS PROGRAM GROUP ............................................................................................................ 15
FIGURE 2-14: RAMMS START WINDOW. ............................................................................................................... 16
FIGURE 2-15: RAMMS LICENSING WINDOW ......................................................................................................... 16
FIGURE 2-16: ENTER USER NAME AND COMPANY NAME. ................................................................................... 17
FIGURE 2-17: PERSONAL LICENSE REQUEST FILE RAMMS_ROCK_REQUEST_MUSTER.TXT.................................. 17
FIGURE 2-18: PERSONAL LICENSE KEY FILE RAMMS_LICENSE_MUSTER [Link] ............................................ 18
FIGURE 3-1: PHOTOGRAPHS OF ROCK MASSES AND THEIR AGGREGATE FORMS. ............................................... 20
FIGURE 3-2: LASER SCANS OF REAL ROCKS ARE CAPTURED IN THE FIELD. ......................................................... 22
FIGURE 3-3: ROCK IS GENERATED FROM A POINT CLOUD AND CONVERTED. .................................................. 22
FIGURE 3-4: CONTACT DETECTION. DEFINITION OF GAP LENGTH, GN. ................................................................ 24
FIGURE 3-5: CONTACT FRAME C AT POINT Q DETECTED WITH THE GAP FUNCTION GN. .................................... 25
FIGURE 3-6: FRICTION FORCES AT THE CONTACT POINT. ..................................................................................... 26
FIGURE 3-7: ROCK IMPACT SCAR ON SOFT SOIL................................................................................................... 27
FIGURE 3-8: SLIDING FRICTION IN RAMMS IS GOVERNED BY A SLIP-DEPENDENT MATERIAL LAW. .................... 28

FIGURE 3-9: FOREST DRAG Fdf ........................................................................................................................... 31

FIGURE 3-10: HIGH RESOLUTION THREE DIMENSIONAL TERRAIN MODEL ...................................................... 37

FIGURE 4-1: EXAMPLE ESRI ASCII GRID. ................................................................................................................ 38
FIGURE 4-2: EXAMPLE ASCII X, Y, Z SINGLE SPACE DATA. ..................................................................................... 38
FIGURE 4-3: CALCULATE DIFFERENT SCENARIOS WITH DIFFERENT INPUT PARAMETERS. ................................ 39
FIGURE 4-4: GENERAL TAB OF RAMMS PREFERENCES. ........................................................................................ 39
FIGURE 4-5: ROCKFALL TAB OF RAMMS PREFERENCES. ....................................................................................... 39
FIGURE 4-6: RAMMS PREFERENCES ...................................................................................................................... 41
FIGURE 4-7: BROWSE FOR THE CORRECT FOLDER. ............................................................................................... 41
FIGURE 4-8: RAMMS ROCKFALL PROJECT WIZARD STEP 1 OF 4 ........................................................................... 42
105
FIGURE 4-9: STEP 1 OF THE RAMMS PROJECT WIZARD PROJECT INFORMATION. ............................................... 43
FIGURE 4-10: WINDOW TO BROWSE FOR A NEW PROJECT LOCATION. ............................................................... 43
FIGURE 4-11: STEP 2 OF THE RAMMS PROJECT WIZARD: GIS INFORMATION. ..................................................... 43
FIGURE 4-12: PROJECT COORDINATES: LOWER LEFT AND UPPER RIGHT CORNER OF PROJECT AREA................. 44
FIGURE 4-13: STEP 3 OF THE RAMMS PROJECT WIZARD: PROJECT BOUNDARY COORDINATES. ......................... 44
FIGURE 4-14: STEP 4 OF THE RAMMS PROJECT WIZARD: PROJECT SUMMARY. .................................................. 44
FIGURE 4-15: FILES AND DIRECTORIES CREATED WITH A NEW RAMMS::ROCKFALL PROJECT. ............................ 45
FIGURE 4-16: ACTIVE PROJECT WITH LINES AND CORNERS FOR RESIZING. ......................................................... 46
FIGURE 4-17: ACTIVE PROJECT WITH ROTATION AXES. ........................................................................................ 47
FIGURE 4-18: 3D VIEW OF EXAMPLE MODEL. ....................................................................................................... 47
FIGURE 4-19: 2D VIEW OF EXAMPLE MODEL. ....................................................................................................... 47
FIGURE 4-20: THE DISPLAY TAB............................................................................................................................. 48
FIGURE 4-21: THE COLORBAR PROPERTIES WINDOW. ......................................................................................... 48
FIGURE 4-22: WINDOW TO CHOOSE MAP IMAGE. ............................................................................................... 49
FIGURE 4-23: ABOUT RAMMS::ROCKFALL ............................................................................................................ 51
FIGURE 4-24: FILE-TREE AT THE BOTTOM OF THE RIGHT TAB. ............................................................................. 52
FIGURE 4-25: DEFINE A RELEASE POINT AND FIND ITS COORDINATES. ................................................................ 53
FIGURE 4-26: PROJECT WITH EMERGING RELEASE LINES. .................................................................................... 54
FIGURE 4-27: FILE TREE. ........................................................................................................................................ 55
FIGURE 4-28: ROCK BUILDER................................................................................................................................. 56
FIGURE 4-29: ROCK INFORMATION....................................................................................................................... 57
FIGURE 4-30: PROJECT WITH EMERGING POLYGON SHAPEFILE. .......................................................................... 59
FIGURE 4-31: PROJECT WITH EMERGING POLYGON SHAPEFILES WHICH REPRESENT FORESTED AREAS. ........... 61
FIGURE 4-32: TAB GENERAL .................................................................................................................................. 64
FIGURE 4-33: TAB TERRAIN ................................................................................................................................... 65
FIGURE 4-34: TAB FOREST ..................................................................................................................................... 65
FIGURE 4-35: ROCK TAB → ROCK .......................................................................................................................... 66
FIGURE 4-36: ROCK TAB → CUBOID ...................................................................................................................... 66
FIGURE 4-37: ROCK TAB → SPHERE ...................................................................................................................... 66
FIGURE 4-38: TAB RELEASE ................................................................................................................................... 67
FIGURE 4-39: LINE RELEASE TAB ........................................................................................................................... 68
FIGURE 4-40: AREA RELEASE TAB .......................................................................................................................... 68
FIGURE 4-41: SCENARIO ALREADY EXISTS DIALOGUE. .......................................................................................... 70
FIGURE 4-42: SAVING FRICTION PARAMETER ASCII FILES. ................................................................................... 70
FIGURE 4-43: PREPARING SCENARIO INPUT FILES. ............................................................................................... 70
FIGURE 4-44: ROCKFALL SIMULATION INFORMATION WINDOW. ........................................................................ 71
FIGURE 4-45: RAMMS SCENARIO LOGFILE ............................................................................................................ 72
FIGURE 4-46: MESSAGE ABOUT ROCKS THAT COULD NOT RELEASE. ................................................................... 72
106
FIGURE 5-1: TRAJECTORY VALUES IN A GIVEN CELL.............................................................................................. 73
FIGURE 5-2: STATISTIC VALUES OF A GIVEN CELL ................................................................................................. 74
FIGURE 5-3: ADDITIONAL PREFERENCES: QUANTILE VALUES ............................................................................... 75
FIGURE 5-4: ADJUSTED QUANTILE VALUES IN STATISTIC MODE .......................................................................... 75
FIGURE 5-5: BOXPLOT EXPLANATIONS.................................................................................................................. 76
FIGURE 5-6: BROWSE FOR SCENARIO FOLDER. ..................................................................................................... 77
FIGURE 5-7: INFORMATION ABOUT THE SCENARIO ............................................................................................. 77
FIGURE 5-8: OPEN MORE SCENARIOS? ................................................................................................................. 78
FIGURE 5-9: STATISTIC MODE INFORMATION ...................................................................................................... 78
FIGURE 5-10: STATISTICS MODE: DROPDOWN MENU RESULTS ........................................................................... 79
FIGURE 5-11: STATISTICS MODE: MENU STATISTICS............................................................................................. 79
FIGURE 5-12: STATISTICS SUMMARY PLOT. .......................................................................................................... 81
FIGURE 5-14: LINE PROFILE PLOT .......................................................................................................................... 82
FIGURE 5-15: BARRIER PLOT OF A LINE PROFILE................................................................................................... 83
FIGURE 5-16: DATA INFORMATION PART OF BARRIER PLOT ................................................................................ 84
FIGURE 5-17: IMPACT-ANALYSIS ........................................................................................................................... 85
FIGURE 5-18: IMPACT ANGLES .............................................................................................................................. 86
FIGURE 5-19: IMPACT_DATA.TXT FILE CONTAINING IMPACT-ANALYSIS DATA .................................................... 86
FIGURE 5-20: ROCKFALL TRAJECTORIES ................................................................................................................ 87
FIGURE 5-21: OPEN TRAJECTORIES DIALOG WINDOW ......................................................................................... 88
FIGURE 5-22 FILTER OPTIONS FOR SELECTED TRAJECTORIES ............................................................................... 88
FIGURE 5-23 POSSIBILITY TO ADD TRAJECTORIES FROM ANOTHER SCENARIOS. ................................................. 89
FIGURE 5-24: TRAJECTORY MODE: DROPDOWN MENU RESULTS ........................................................................ 89
FIGURE 5-25: RESULTS VELOCITY .......................................................................................................................... 90
FIGURE 5-26: RESULTS JUMP HEIGHT ................................................................................................................... 90
FIGURE 5-27: RESULTS KINETIC ROCK ENERGY ..................................................................................................... 90
FIGURE 5-28: TRAJECTORY INFORMATION – GENERAL TAB. ................................................................................ 91
FIGURE 5-29: TRAJECTORY INFORMATION – ROCK TAB. ...................................................................................... 92
FIGURE 5-30: TRAJECTORY MODE: MENU TRAJECTORY. ...................................................................................... 92
FIGURE 5-31: TRAJECTORY XY PLOT. ..................................................................................................................... 93
FIGURE 5-32: LINE PROFILE PLOT .......................................................................................................................... 94
FIGURE 5-33: TRAJECTORY DATA LOG FILE. .......................................................................................................... 96
FIGURE 5-34: TRAJECTORY STANDARD OUTPUT LOG FILE. ................................................................................... 97
FIGURE 5-35: TRAJECTORY INPUT FILE. ................................................................................................................. 98
FIGURE 5-36: ANIMATION SPEED CONTROL SLIDER. ............................................................................................ 99

107
List of tables

TABLE 3.1: TERRAIN CATEGORIES IN RAMMS::ROCKFALL .................................................................................... 32

TABLE 3.2: TERRAIN PARAMETERS DEFAULT VALUES. .......................................................................................... 34
TABLE 3.3: SUGGESTIONS OF TERRAIN CATEGORIES ............................................................................................ 35
TABLE 3.4: RAMMS::ROCKFALL OUTPUT PARAMETERS........................................................................................ 35
TABLE 4.1: LISTING OF FILES AND DIRECTORIES CREATED WITH A NEW RAMMS::ROCKFALL PROJECT. ............. 45

108