Grammar Basics

In this unit you will learn the basics about:

●​ Verbs
●​ Nouns
●​ Pronouns
●​ Adjectives
●​ Adverbs
●​ Prepositions
●​ Conjunctions

Grammar is a word that can induce boredom or fear in both

students and teachers alike. This has much to do with the way it is
approached as much as what it represents. Native language learners
often have little experience with explicit grammar instruction.
Therefore, when an EFL teacher is forced to confront the reality of
teaching a given grammar point, it can be problematic. Some
European English learners have a much firmer grasp of English
grammar than many English first language speakers. Fear not - this
introduction to grammar starts slowly.

There is nothing to be anxious about with grammar; these are all

rules that you know implicitly, and this course will allow you to
uncover them explicitly. The key point here is that to make informed
decisions about if and how to teach grammar, you must have the
facts in place. It is not expected that a teacher is a walking
grammar textbook omniscient on all facets of grammatical
knowledge. Still, you are likely to lose your students' confidence
should you reveal a total lack of understanding of the topic. This
course will equip you with the most commonly needed knowledge
that you will likely require in the coming years of your EFL career.

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You will first learn the basic grammar terms, through examples,
before gradually building up to more complex structures. One of the
most critical points to note is that rather than approaching grammar
teaching from the perspective of textbook lessons, you will discover
new perspectives on methodology, primarily based on real-life
contexts.

To cater to all needs, we assume that our learners come to us with a

zero-level of knowledge. This is to ensure that all bases are covered
and to increase your level of confidence. If you already have a firm
grasp of basic grammar, please feel free to navigate this section
faster.

Chomsky calls it 'the computational system,' which allows sound and

meaning to be related together. Those with less knowledge call it
'grammar' (not to be confused with 'glamour'; though the two terms
spawned from the same root since those in the know-how of
grammar were considered glamorous).

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Languages have regular patterns used to convey meaning, and

some of these make up grammar. The ordering of words is
significant in grammar, as are word endings in many languages. You
might not think so, but grammar can be split up into several types:
prescriptive ('prescribing' what people should say), traditional
(labeling parts of speech), and structural grammar (how words are
placed into phrases and phrases into sentences). We will begin by
diving into traditional grammar with a few splashes of structural
grammar. Hopefully, you will recognize that each of these following
terms represents a nightmare for most foreign language students.
Not only must they remember each word as a new vocabulary term,
but they must also understand precisely what it represents. Consider
for a moment something that a native English speaker deems
simple, such as the concept of singular and plural. Now place
yourself in the mind of a native Japanese speaker whose language
has no instances of pluralization. Expecting that person to grasp the
concept of pluralization without hours upon hours of practice is
naive. Then spare a moment to consider how you would attempt to
teach 'be' verbs (is/am/are/was/were/be/being/been) to Korean
students, considering their language has a similar concept but as an
adjective. Welcome to the joy of grammar teaching!

Parts of Speech

A sentence consists of at least a subject and verb (traditionally,

though in colloquial usage the subject noun may be omitted: e.g.
'Like that a lot!', or even the subject and verb: e.g. 'Nice!'), but will
usually feature more words than this. Every word in a sentence may
be classified according to its purpose and the meaning it contains -
its part of speech.

'A small fountain flowed in the park' can be broken down into smaller
parts of speech:

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A – indefinite article
small – adjective
fountain – noun
flowed – verb
in – preposition
the – definite article
park – noun

This is a summary of the parts of speech. Arguments abound

regarding how many parts of speech there actually are; some argue
eight, while others argue ten. We will cover only the essential parts in
this unit.

Part of Function Example Example Sentences

Speech Words
(PoS)

Verb action or (to) be, It is lovely outside. I

state have, do, just made some
like, work, bread. You need to try
sing, can, some.
must

Noun thing or pen, This is my city. It’s

person laptop, smaller than London
work, film, but it has better
city, museums.
museum,

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teacher,
Sam

Adjective describes a good, My dogs are athletic. I

noun giant, am tall.
serious,
athletic,
tall,
creative

Determiner limits or a/an, the, I have so many

"determines" 2, some, students. Some of my
a noun many, students really love
much English.

Adverb describes a swiftly, My dog snores noisily.

verb, noisily, When he is really
adjective or well, fast, tired, he falls asleep
adverb very, quickly.
really

Pronoun replaces a I, you, he, Tamil is Indian. She

noun she, they looks beautiful.

Preposition links a noun to, at, We went to the movies

to another after, on, on Sunday.
word above

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Conjunctio joins clauses and, but, I like dogs and I like

n or sentences when, cats. I like dogs but I
or words which don't like cats.

Interjectio very short ah!, ow!, Ouch! That hurts! Hi!

n exclamation, hey!, well, How are you? Well, I
sometimes okay don't know.
inserted into
a sentence

Some people argue that a distinction should be made between two

different types of verbs (lexical versus auxiliary), while others class
determiners as types of adjectives. For simplicity, this unit counts
determiners as adjectives.

Verbs
Along with a subject, verbs are the crucial part of almost all
meaningful sentences. The standard description of verbs is 'doing
words,' though this oversimplifies them, omitting states and mental
processes.

Verbs may either be transitive or intransitive. To further this

explanation, we must first establish what an object of a sentence is.
'I admire her' includes the subject (I), the verb (admire), and the
object (her). This is a standard format. The object is whatever is
'acted upon' in the sentence. There may be a direct object or both
direct and indirect object in a sentence or clause. There cannot be an

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indirect object unless a direct object is present. For example, Danny

gave the letter to her already.

Transitive verbs are followed directly by an object (direct object). A

transitive verb such as 'enjoy' must be followed by the thing or
activity that the sentence's subject enjoys. Example: Luke enjoys
ice-cream.

'Love' is another example of a transitive verb, as an object must

always follow it. You can't just "love" – you always need to love
someone or something!

Intransitive verbs are not followed immediately by a direct object.

They are instead followed by another part of speech, such as a
preposition. 'Cry' is an intransitive verb. You can't say I cried it, for
example. Instead, you may say: I cried about it. Another intransitive
verb would be sleep. You can't "sleep" + noun except for describing it
further with an adverb (including potentially adding a preposition
first).

Some verbs can be either transitive or intransitive.

Examples:
The choir sings carols well. [transitive]
Pete always sings in the bath. [intransitive]
She left Paris on July 10th. [transitive]
I left early today. [intransitive]

We can make two other main distinctions of verbs:

Action verbs: e.g., go, watch, play, eat, walk, etc. (mostly transitive)
and
State verbs: e.g., be, seem, appear, feel, etc. (usually intransitive)

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Verbs in English have four principal forms. These will be further

explained in much more detail later in the course.

➤ base form ➤ simple past ➤ past participle ➤ present participle

This list could go on and on, but there are also irregular verbs.
Unfortunately, many common verbs are irregular, meaning that
students must learn each one through exhaustive practice. Here are
just a few examples: beat, become, buy, come, do, drink, eat, fly, get,
have, keep, lie, make, read, say, sit, stand, swim, etc.

Auxiliary Verbs

Auxiliary verbs help form a specific tense or expression through their

combination with present or past participles or different verbs'
infinitives. Auxiliary verbs do not carry the primary meaning of the
sentence but help with its structure. For example, I had asked about
the breakfast deal. The auxiliary verb (had) indicates the specific
tense, while the main verb (asked) carries the meaning.

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The principal auxiliary verbs are, do, and have. We will look at this
group of verbs in much more detail later on in the course (including
modal verbs, such as must, can, could, etc.).

Gerunds

A verb ending with -ing is either a present participle or a gerund. The

two look identical, but gerunds work like nouns, while present
participles use the –ing form functionally like verbs. Gerunds can be
used as a subject or an object.

Example: Swimming is a great exercise!

Swimming is a gerund. It is used as the subject of the sentence
(subject, verb, adjective, object)

Example: I find swimming amazing!

I is now the subject, and swimming is the object of the verb 'find'
(subject, verb, object, adverb).

Example: She is ecstatic about swimming today.

Swimming is used as the object of the preposition 'about' (Note - you
have not learned some of these terms yet: subject, linking verb,
predicate adjective, preposition, object of the preposition, adverb)

➤ Some verbs, such as admit, consider, delay, remember, like, etc.,

are often followed by a gerund when another verb is used.

Example: He admitted being in the building at the time of her death.

➤ A gerund sometimes follows prepositions if action is indicated.

Example: Colin always goes to the bathroom before attending the

staff meeting.

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Infinitives

Infinitives are the simplest form of a verb with to placed directly in

front.

Examples: to eat, to know, to go, to play, to encourage, to unravel,

to learn

It is common for verbs to be followed immediately by an infinitive.

Examples:
I promised to make fresh pasta if I had the time.
I promise to make fresh pasta if I have the time.

Notice that the infinitive remains the same regardless of tense?

The negative form requires attention to be paid to which part needs

to be negated: the main verb or the infinitive. When forming the
negative of the main verb, we generally use don't or didn't.

Example: I didn't promise to make fresh pasta if I had the time.

However, if making the gerund negative, simply place not before the
infinitive.

Example: I promised not to make fresh pasta even if I had the time
(even has been inserted to allow the sentence to carry meaning).

'Splitting the infinitive' refers to inserting a word (not or an adverb)

between the to and verb of the infinitive. Many people, especially
older teachers, despise it.

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Example: I promised to not make fresh pasta even if I had the time.
As with prepositions and many other archaic rules, this rule that
infinitives must not be split comes from Latin comparisons. The most
apparent reason for splitting an infinitive is for emphasis purposes,
but it may also sound clumsy to not split the to and verb.

It is common to see verbs followed by a pronoun or noun and then

an infinitive.

Example: Mary told Brian to meet her at eleven in the morning.

Verbs such as ask, expect, demand, want, and need are frequently
followed by a noun, pronoun, or object:
●​ I demand to be freed immediately.
●​ I demand Mike to answer my question!

Nouns

A noun refers to people, places, things, qualities, and states (e.g., of

mind).

Main Types
➤ Common nouns (mainly physical, touchable things)
- color, house, dog (no capital letter)

➤ Proper
- Mary, London, Asia, Amazon
(Always with a capital letter)

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➤ Compound
- headmaster, raincoat, tracksuit, bookcase, dishwasher
(two nouns joined together to make a new noun)

➤ Abstract
- Happiness, democracy, rights, thoughts
(An idea, concept, or experience that cannot be touched)

➤ Collective
- Children, pack, herd, band, troop
(Individuals of one type united into one group)

Plurals

Plurals are usually created by adding -s directly to the end. However,

if the noun ends in x, s, ch, or sh, we typically add -es to pluralize.
Example: dog > dogs, house > houses, watch > watches, patch >
patches, fox > foxes, bus > buses

When a noun ends with a consonant plus y, the y usually changes to

i, followed by -es.
Example: ferry – ferries.

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When a noun ends with an f, the f is usually replaced by v followed

by -es.
Example: grief – grieves. *Exceptions exist: brief – briefs.

Exceptions: (English is an old language with many contributors -

exceptions abound)

➤ Tooth – Teeth
➤ Child – Children
➤ Woman – Women
➤ Cactus - Cacti (if using traditional Latin like some choose to -
others use regular grammar rules, calling the plural of cactus,
cactuses. Both forms are valid.)

Some nouns, such as sheep or fish (except in some English speaking

countries where they say 'fishes'), do not change from singular to
plural form.

Example: There is one sheep over there. No, actually, there are two
sheep over there.

Countable nouns
➤ Things that can be counted
They can be preceded by articles a/an/the and used in the plural
- a sofa, an emu, an orange, the birds

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Uncountable nouns
➤ Things that cannot be counted
They do not have a or an in front of them and may not be used in the
plural form (usually abstract ideas, liquids, and other things that
must be quantified to be correctly understood).
- happiness, information, water, milk, air

Interestingly, and annoyingly for the EFL teacher, as it turns out,

some nouns can be countable and uncountable depending on the
context of use.

Example: There's a chicken in the oven (whole), so we will have

chicken for dinner tonight (we cannot say exactly how much chicken,
so it is uncountable and requires quantifiers to dictate precisely how
much will be offered or consumed).

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Whether a noun is countable or uncountable can affect other parts

of the sentence.

Example: "I don't have much money in my wallet" is perfectly fine,

but "I don't have many money" is poor grammar. This is because
'much' should be used with uncountable nouns while 'many' indicates
countable noun usage. Other similar expressions include 'a little' and
'a few.'

Being English, there are exceptions. In modern language, certain

non-count words are associated with their frequent literal form.
Rather than wasting time saying 'a can of Coke', it is more efficient
to simply say 'Coke' and allow the listener to infer you are a person
and you would like a person-sized portion, as opposed to a tanker
full. This is confused in circumstances when there is more than one
option available (perhaps glass bottles, small plastic bottles, and
large plastic bottles of Coca Cola). In this case, it is better to specify
the quantity and bottle type. It is wise to teach students to be more
detailed with language use than being ambiguous and work out
context rules through real-life exposure.

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Pronouns
Pronouns are used instead of previously named nouns or
corresponding noun phrases.

Types
➤ Personal pronouns: I, me, you, he, him, she, her, we, it, us, they,
them
- As a subject: I, he, she, it, we, you, they
- As an object: me, him, her, it, us, you, them
Example: Jill and I love healthy food. We love it so much that we sell
it! If you want some, then place an order with Jill and me.

➤ Possessive pronouns: mine, yours, his, hers, ours, theirs, its (does
not contain an apostrophe except when meaning 'it is')

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- They have no article and are not followed by a noun

Example: That dog is yours?
.
➤ Reflexive pronouns: myself, yourself, himself, herself, itself,
ourselves, yourselves, themselves (when the subject and object
nouns are the same)
Example: I burned myself with the hot glue gun.

➤ Relative pronouns: who, which, that, whose

-Used to insert a relative clause into a sentence
Example: The woman who is standing over there is famous.

Students worldwide tend to confuse subject pronouns with object

pronouns and find possessive pronouns tough to master (e.g., saying
'mine ball' instead of 'my ball' or 'mine'). The use of my, our, your,
their, its, his, or her requires the noun to be placed soon after it (with
the exceptions of its and his, which can both be used as possessive
pronouns or possessive adjectives without error). The latter are
known as 'possessive adjectives' since they add more detail about
the noun in terms of who or what possesses it. Possessive pronouns,
of course, replace the noun.

In English, it is not uncommon to use the personal pronouns he and

she to refer to an animal. This is unusual in some other languages.
This is more likely with pets, who/which become familiar (as a family
member). Ships, countries, and other inanimate objects often take
the personal pronoun 'she.'

Relative pronouns are more complicated and are dealt with in a later
grammar unit. Let's not get too ahead of ourselves so early into the
course!

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Adjectives
Adjectives describe nouns. Why they're not called 'adnouns' is a fair
question you will probably hear as an EFL teacher - the answer is
Latin-rooted again (sorry!). It is important to note that some nouns
can be used as adjectives, primarily to determine the purpose (e.g.,
metal saw).

An adjective may describe people, places, ideas, and things. It adds

detail pertaining to quality and purpose: e.g., how a thing is, looks,
seems, tastes, feels, sounds, looks, and smells.

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Words such as big/small, clean/dirty, new/old, strong/fragile are all

adjectives as they describe a quality (they are also antonyms or
opposites in less educational jargon)
.
Adjectives are often confused with adverbs (which describe 'how'
things are done or happen). One of the easiest ways to create an
adverb is to add -ly to the end of an adjective (e.g., sad > sadly, cold
> coldly, warm > warmly, smug > smugly).

Examples:
She looked warm next to the fire. ('looked warm' refers to how she
feels: temperature)
She looked warmly at me next to the fire. ('looked warmly' gives
detail about the action of looking; how her look was positive rather
than negative.

An adjective describes appearance, feeling, and other physical

characteristics, but not how the action itself was done.

Adjectives are often used in groups, with the last one separated from
the others by 'and.' It is unnecessary to use the 'Oxford comma'
before 'and.' Still, some regions are strict concerning its inclusion.
Example: "The teacher is clever, charismatic, and humorous." A
variation of this includes gender information: "She is a clever,
charismatic, and humorous teacher" still consists of the be verb 'is,'
but it is possible to use adjectives without a be verb, of course
(directly before the noun). "The clever, charismatic, and humorous
teacher astounded the class" is just one example of a variation,
while a less common phenomenon is using parenthesis: "The teacher,
clever, charismatic, and humorous as always, astounded the class."

Whether you are aware of it or not, adjectives in English abide by a

fairly regular set order, one that you would notice when someone

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misplaces this order. Consider the sentence, 'The fence is white,

garden, metal, and old.' Firstly, 'garden' may describe the fence, but
it is a noun and must modify the main noun, 'fence,' by going before
it. Secondly, something still sounds strange with 'The garden fence is
white, metal, and old.' Can you see what is wrong with the word
'metal'? We have two choices: either place it at the front before the
noun (metal garden fence) or alter it to add the suffix -lic to turn it
into its adjective form. 'The garden fence is white, metallic, and old'
sounds better, but it needs to be re-ordered to pedantic English ears.

There is a basic rule for adjectives (and a more complex one!):

➤ Age, color, material, purpose + noun

To further exasperate matters, we may also wish to highlight or

indicate the most important feature by placing that first.

Let's practice
Place the following adjectives in order:
1.​ Green, new, block, wooden
2.​ Cat, furry, entertaining, black and white
3.​ Huge, tank, modern, incredible, orange

The third one likely presented no problem for you, except that it
evaded the previous rule's parameters. The following is a much more
detailed (and complicated) account of traditional adjective ordering:
➤ Opinion, size, age, shape, color, material, purpose + noun

Keep in mind, though, that English is full of exceptions and literary

styles that subtly vary worldwide. One example of this is, "Who's
afraid of the big, bad wolf?" Shouldn't it be 'bad, big wolf' (bad being
the opinion)?

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We suggest you teach the basics first and do not overcomplicate or

confuse your students with ordering until they are comfortable with
adjective positioning before a noun or following a 'be' verb. You
could then move on to teach adjectives for physical descriptions of
people, animals, and objects such as clothing (size, shape, build,
material, etc.), before moving on to more complex qualities like
personality. Ordering is mostly a matter of fluency perception rather
than function, except for placing the strongest adjective first. That is,
erroneous sequencing will still be understood, but it will draw
attention to a speaker's non-native grammar.

Comparison Adjectives

Comparatives
The following example may not be suitable in some cultures, just as
comparing student height is not advised in countries like Korea,
where some are size conscious. It is generally better not to
physically compare characteristics of genetically determined
students (e.g., height) or lead to self-consciousness (e.g.,
body-shape). For these, perhaps consider using cartoons or famous
people, among other options.

When teaching younger students, teaching comparatives and

superlatives can be cleverly paired with some kind of sequence of
activities (similar to the Olympics), such as running (fast/slow),
jumping (bouncy), throwing (accurate), yoga (flexible), etc. These
activities not only increase adrenaline and alleviate boredom, but
they also produce several new vocabulary words and allow the
exploration of both -er and 'more' forms of comparison. It can also
be paired with the teaching of months to enable students to state
who is older or younger in the class.

➤ David is faster than Peter.

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➤ Julia is younger than Mike.

➤ Amy is older than Susan.

These regular comparisons follow the rule:

➤noun 1 + be verb + adjective - er + than + noun 2

You are probably aware that special rules govern the use of -er
instead of placing more in front of the adjective. Let's take a closer
look.

-Mono-syllable adjectives usually make comparatives ending with

-er.
Example: slow – slower, kind – kinder, long – longer, rich - richer.
*Some exceptions exist (e.g., good, bad), and more may be used for
emphasis rather than -er.
Example: 'But my dog is more lazy.'

-If a mono-syllable adjective finishes with a single vowel followed by

a single consonant, the consonant is doubled.
Example: thin - thinner, fat - fatter.
(* Usually' fun' becomes 'more fun,' though 'funner' is occasionally
used.)

-If an adjective finishes with -e, this is removed before adding -er,
e.g., wide - wider. For adjectives ending in a consonant followed by
-y, replace the -y with -i and add -er.
Example: dry - drier.

-Two-syllable adjectives that end in -y usually form the comparative

by adding -er (note the change of -y to-i in the comparative), e.g.,
pretty - prettier, lucky - luckier.

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-Two-syllable adjectives ending in -ed, -ing, -ful, or -less always form

the comparative with more.

As a general rule, most other two-syllable adjectives also form

comparatives with more, apart from those ending in -y (see above).
However, a few two-syllable adjectives can take either -er or more,
e.g., clever, clear, etc.

-Adjectives with three or more syllables always form the

comparative with more.
The only exceptions are some three-syllable adjectives that have
been formed by adding the prefix un- to another adjective,
especially those formed from an adjective ending in -y. These
adjectives can form comparatives by using more or adding -er.

-The following adjectives have irregular comparative forms:

good - better, bad - worse, far - farther/further.

-Ill and well - describing bad and good health - have irregular
comparative forms. Ill becomes worse, and the comparative of well
is better.
Example: She's feeling much better/worse today.

-Some compound adjectives (cold-blooded, big-boned, heavy-set,

etc.) have a first part consisting of an adjective which would
typically form a comparative in one word, either by adding -er or by
an irregular form. These compound adjectives form a comparative
by making these changes to the first adjective only, rather than
adding more to the front.

-Some adjectives already possessing a comparative meaning do not

frequently occur with -er or more, unless particular emphasis is
intended, often for humorous effect.

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Example: Brussel sprouts really are my most favorite food.

Common examples of adjectives such as those latterly mentioned

are: complete, equal, favorite, and perfect.

Superlatives
When comparing three or more people or things, the good news is
that the same rules apply, except -er is substituted for -est, and
more is changed to most.

-These adjectives likewise have irregular superlative forms:

good - better - best, bad - worse - worst, far - farther/further -
furthest/farthest.

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-The adjectives ill and well, describing bad and good health, have
irregular superlative forms. The superlative of ill is worst, and the
superlative of well is best, e.g., She's feeling the best/worst she has
felt in days.

Adverbs

Generally, adverbs add meaning or detailed information to the

movement, quality, or state denoted by a verb.

Adverbs of degree can alter a different adverb or even an adjective.

There are five main types of adverbs:

➤ Degree (modifier): e.g., highly, so, really, quite
➤ Frequency (how often): e.g., once, usually, frequently, always

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➤ Manner (how): e.g., easily, hard, softly, quickly

➤ Place (where): e.g., along, up, down, there
➤ Time/Sequence (when): e.g., now, before, soon, recently,
yesterday, last year, then, next, first

Other noteworthy types of adverb:

➤ Viewpoint: e.g., emotionally, morally, reasonably
➤ Adding/Limiting: e.g., also, either, else, only, too
➤ Comment/Attitude: e.g., certainly, maybe, wisely
➤ Linking: e.g., lastly, furthermore

Depending on the type of adverb, it can be placed in several

different locations. Adverbs of sequence and time are commonly
placed at either the start or end of the clause, while adverbs of
manner usually find themselves located on either side of the verb
that they detail.

As stated before, most adverbs are simply formed by adding -ly to

an adjective: slow – slowly, brave – bravely, free – freely.

But, there are some exceptions when describing how an action was
done, e.g., tidy – tidily, fast – fast (no change), good - well. There are
numerous examples when describing how often, when, where, and
how much.

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Prepositions

Prepositions are used frequently, with many featuring in the top 100
common words. They show the relationship between a given noun or
pronoun and another word in the clause or overall sentence.

You probably learned ending a sentence with a preposition is a

severe breach of grammar rules. However, this is not something you
should worry yourself about. Latin is once again the foe of those
keen on ending sentences with prepositions. Many years ago,
scholars took it upon themselves to decide that English should follow
Latin and its strict rule previously mentioned. Almost 300 years on,
you may still hear murmurs and groans: "Oh no, you can't end a
sentence with a preposition!" I like to point out that firstly, they
literally just did end with 'a preposition'. Secondly, unless they wish
to continue the conversation in Latin (Non vis colloqui Latin?), where
I choose to place my prepositions is something they really should
not be concerned with.

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Should one wish to harangue like an 18th-century lord, or if your

vernacular simply does not permit prepositions at the end of
sentences, it is often easy to remedy the offending preposition.
Sometimes it isn't, and efforts to repair result in a clumsy sentence.
"Specify the book you are quoting from" is not vastly improved with
the rearrangement, "Specify from which book you are quoting" - in
fact, it sounds plain odd!

"That is nonsense up with which I shall not put." (Winston Churchill)

"What did you bring that book that I don't like to be read to out of
up for?" (Random child)

It is often said that the use of prepositions gives away a speaker's

level of English fluency. This is because preposition use is one of the
most challenging grammatical points since there is no uniformity
regarding their placement. There are three main categories of
prepositions: place, time, and movement. Some prepositions belong
in all categories, while others fit in none of them. Welcome to the
world of English!

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Main types
➤ Place/position
- in, at, beside, between, near, next to, behind, in front of, on, by,
above, over, under, below, beneath

Some common prepositions don't fit neatly into any of these

categories, such as of and with.

➤ Time/date
- in, from, since, for, before, to, during, at, on, by, until, after, about,
around

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➤ Movement
- off, out, from, to, by, through, over, in, into, on, onto, around

Conjunctions

Conjunctions join words or groups in a sentence.

They can do two things:

➤ Join the same class words, such as pairs of nouns, adjectives,

adverbs, verbs, or phrases.
- and, but, or, nor, yet
- both, either, or, neither, nor, not only, but also
Example: He likes golf and darts. However, I neither like golf nor
darts.

➤ Join clauses of sentences

- before, because, although, since, until, when, as, as soon as, unless,
so, in order that
Example: Although she was gleeful, she didn't smile until she was
alone.

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Articles
English employs two forms of articles: definite (the) and indefinite (a
and an). Usage depends mainly on whether any particular group
member is being referred to or if it is a specific member of a group.

This is a pen. The pen is red. Pens are several different colors.
Why do we use a in the first sentence, the in the second, but plural
form in the final example? In the first two examples, we were
referring to the same pen.

Indefinite Articles: a and an

These indicate that the noun being modified is indefinite, meaning

that no particular group member is referred. Indefinite articles are
only paired with general, singular nouns. Initially, the pen may be
one pen of many available.

(*For indefinite quantity, the determining adjective some is used for

plural general nouns)

The rules are as follows:

- a + singular noun beginning with a consonant sound: a pen, a
uniform (y sound)
- an + singular noun beginning with a vowel sound: an elephant, an
honor (silent h)
- (some + plural noun: some balls, some elephants)

If an adjective modifies the noun, the choice between a and an

depends on the initial sound of the adjective that immediately
follows the article, rather than the noun itself:
- a blue egg
- an understandable mistake
- an hourly wage (silent h, so follow the sound of the next letter)

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- a horrible attitude

The two indefinite articles are used to indicate membership of a

category or group, as in a nation, profession, type of tree, or
religion, etc.
- Tao is a Buddhist.
- Dougall is an Irishman.
- Josh is a professional jockey.
- An oak is a tree.

Definite Article: the

The definite article, the, is used before singular and plural nouns
when the noun is particular, specific, or unique. The signals that the
noun is definite; it refers to a particular - known or prominent -
member of a group. The can be used once we have mentioned
something previously, and therefore it is known, or when it is
blatantly clear to which thing or person we refer. Example: The one
over there!

The is frequently used when a noun refers to something unique:

- the White House
- the theory of gravity
- the industrial revolution
- the earth ('Earth' when referring to it scientifically)

There are numerous specific rules regarding the geographical use of

the:

Do not use the before:

- names of countries (except a select few, such as the Netherlands,
the Gambia, etc.)
- names of cities, towns, villages, provinces, or states

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- names of streets, roads, drives, or groves (but some highways do

take the, reflecting their unique status: e.g., the Pamir Highway, the
Great Ocean Road, etc.)
- names of lakes, billabongs, ponds, and bays (except with groups of
lakes, such as the Finger Lakes, the Great Lakes, etc.)
- names of mountains (except ranges of mountains like the Andes or
the Himalaya, or unusual names such as the Matterhorn; though this
does not apply to Everest or K2, oddly!)
- names of continents (except grouping together the Americas)
- names of islands (except island chains such as the Canaries, the
British Isles, or the Falkland Islands, or in the case of The Island of
Vancouver or The Isle of Man, etc.)

Do use the before:

- names of rivers, oceans, and seas (e.g., the Amazon, the Atlantic)
- specific points on the globe (the Equator, the South Pole)
- geographical areas (the Middle East, the Northern Hemisphere)
- deserts, forests, gulfs, and peninsulas (the Gobi, the Mexican Gulf,
the Korean Peninsula, etc.)

We use the to make uncountable nouns specific:

- The coffee in my cup is too hot to drink.
- The music that Trini Lopez produced is unbearable.
- The intelligence of animals is variable but undeniable.

The use of a limiting modifying phrase or clause can be seen from

the examples above (coffee is uncountable, but it has been modified
into a specific, definite quantity through the phrase occurring
directly after it).

When we refer to something in a general sense, as in: 'Pens can be

many colors,' there is a 'zero article,' represented by the symbol 'Ø.'

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With uncountable nouns, there should be an absence of the when

speaking generally.

Examples:
- [Ø] Tea is very popular in the United Kingdom.
- [Ø] Nature is more noticeable in springtime.
- [Ø] Knowledge is the nearest humans can get to the actual truth.

With countable nouns that are pluralized, there should also be an

absence of the, when speaking in general terms about all of those
members.

Examples:
- I don't like birds.
- Children are information sponges.
- Grapes are juicy.

As if English wasn't convoluted enough, several countable nouns are

treated as uncountable nouns; taking a preposition rather than an
article.

Examples:
- at/in college
- in/into/out of bed
- in/into/out of/from hospital
- at/from work
- into/from town

I'm sure you'll agree that English is an incredibly confusing language

that presents EFL teachers with many challenges. Please keep in
mind that this lesson covered only the basics of English grammar.
Further units delve deeper into the tenses.

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