Prof. Sarika R.

Koli
[Link](Agri)

Shri. Shamrao Patil (Yadravkar) Educational and Charitable Trusts

SHARAD COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE,

JAINAPUR
(Affiliated to M. P. K. V., Rahuri)
Tal: Shirol Dist: Kolhapur (Maharashtra) India 416 101
E-mail : [Link]@[Link] Web: [Link]

N O T ES
Course No.: SSAC- 353
Credit: 3 (2+1)
Course Title:Manures,Fertilizers &
Soil Fertility Management

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Syllabus

Lesson Topic
Weightage
(%)
1&2 History of soil fertility and plant nutrition.
3
3&4 Soil as a source of plant nutrients, essential and beneficial
5
nutrients and their role. Criteria of essentiality, forms of
nutrients in soil.
5, & 6 Introduction and importance of organic manures. Sources 5
of organic matter, recycling, composition and C:N ratio.
7, 8 & 9 Definition, properties and classification of bulky and 6
concentrated organic manures, their composition and
nutrient availability. Preparation of FYM, composts,
different methods of composting, decomposition process
and nutrient losses during handling and storage.
10 & 11 Vermicomposting, green manuring; types, advantages and 5
disadvantages and nutrient availability.
12 & 13 Sewage and sludge, Biogas plant slurry; their composition 5
and effect on soil and plant growth.
14 & 15 Integrated nutrient management; concept, components and 6
importance.
16 & 17 Fertilizer; Definition and their classification; N fertilizers: 6
classification, manufacturing process and properties their
fate and reaction in soils.
18 & 19 Phosphatic fertilizers, manufacturing process and 5
properties, classification, their fate and reaction in soils.
20& 21 Potassic fertilizers: classification, manufacturing process, 5
properties, their fate and reaction in soils. Complex
fertilizers their fate and reaction in the soil. Nano
fertilizers.
22 & 23 Secondary &micronutrient fertilizers: Types, composition, 5
reaction in soil and effect on crop growth. Soil
amendments.
24 Handling and storage of fertilizers: Fertilizer control order. 3
25 & 26 Mechanism of nutrient transport to plants: Factors 6
affecting nutrient availability to plants. Measures to
overcome deficiencies and toxicities.
27,28 & 29, Chemistry of soil N,P, K, calcium, magnesium, sulphur 6

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Lesson Topic
Weightage
(%)
and micronutrients.
30 & 31 Soil fertility evaluation and different approaches. 6
32 Soil Testing (Available nutrients) :Chemical methods and 6
critical levels of different nutrients in soil.
33 Plant analysis methods : Critical levels of nutrients, DRIS 6
approach, rapid tissue test, indicator plants. Soil test based
fertilizer recommendations to crops.
34 & 35 Methods and scheduling of nutrient applications for 6
different soils and crops grown under rain fed and irrigated
conditions.
36 Factors influencing nutrients use efficiency (NUE) in 5
respect of N, P, K, S, Fe and Zn fertilizers.
Total 100

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Chapter No.1 and 2

History of Soil Fertility and Plant Nutrition

Soil fertility

“Soil fertility is the ability of the soil to supply essential plant nutrients during growth period of
the plants, without toxic concentration of any nutrients”. i.e “The capacity of soil to supply
nutrient in available to crop”.

Soil productivity
“Soil productivity is ability of soil to produce a particular crop or sequence of crops under
a specified mgt system” i.e The crop producing capacity of soil”.
All the productive soils are fertile but all the fertile soils may not be productive
Sometimes even if the soil is fertile, they are subjected to drought or other unsatisfactory growth
factors or management practices.

History of development of soil fertility

Francis Bacon (1591- 1624) suggested that the principle nourishment of plants was water and
the main purpose of the soil was to keep plants erect and to protect from heat and cold.
Jan Baptiste Van Helmont (1577 – 1644) was reported that water was sole nutrient of plants.
Robert Boyle (1627 – 1691) an England scientist confirmed the findings of Van Helmont and
proved that plant synthesis salts, spirits and oil etc from H2O.
Anthur Young (1741 – 1820) an English agriculturist conducted pot experiment using Barley as
a test crop under sand culture condition. He added charcoal, train oil, poultry dung,spirits of
wine, oster shells and numerous other materials and he conduced that some of the materials were
produced higher plant growth.
Priestly (1800) established the essentiality of O2 for the plant growth.
J.B. Boussingault (1802-1882) French chemist conducted field experiment and maintained
balance sheet. He was first scientist to conduct field experiment. He is considered as father of
field experiments.
Justus Von Liebig (1835) Law of Minimum suggested that
a. Most of the carbon in plants comes from the CO2 of the atmosphere.

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b. Hydrogen and O2 comes from H2O.

c. Alkaline metals are needed for neutralization of acids formed by plants as a result of their
metabolic activities.
d. Phosphorus is necessary for seed formation.
e. Plant absorb everything from the soil but excrete from their roots those materials that are not
essential.
The field may contain some nutrient in excess, some in optimum and some in least, but the
limiting factor for growth is the least available nutrient. The law of Mn, stated by Liebig in
1862, is a simple but logical guide for predicting crop response to fertilization. This law states
that, “the level of plant production cannot be greater than that allowed by the most limiting of the
essential plant growth factors”. The contributions made by Liebig to the advancement of
agriculture were monumental and he is recognized as the father of Agricultural chemistry.
J.B. Lawes and J. H. Gilbert (1843) established permanent manurial experiment at
Rothemsted Agricultural experiment station at England. They conducted field experiments for
twelve years and their findings were:
a. Crop requires both P and K, but the composition of the plant ash is no measure of the amounts
of these constituents required by the plant.
b. No legume crop require N. without this element, no growth will be obtained regardless of the
quantities of P and K present. The amount of ammonium contributed by the atmosphere is
insufficient for the needs of the crop.
c. Soil fertility can be maintained for some years by chemical fertilizers.
d. The beneficial effect of fallow lies in the increases in the available N compounds in the soil.
Robert Warrington England showed that the nitrification could be supported by carbon
disulphide and chloroform and that it would be stopped by adding a small amount of unsterilized
soil. He demonstrated that the reaction was two step phenomenon. First NH3 being converted to
nitrites and the nitrites to nitrites.
[Link] coined the term “functional or metabolic nutrient”
M.L Troug- Father of Soi Testing.
Wallance and Wallance –They give the law of maximum this law states “ That the total growth
of the crop is proportional to about 70 growth factors.”
Bray-Concept of nutrient mobility

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Stanley [Link] –Give the term Root Interception

Ramamoorthy –Targeted Yield Concept
Baule –Percent Yield Concept
Cate and Nelson-Critical Soil Test Level Approach
Buckman and Braddy –Soil as a medium for plant growth
Kallog-Soil is a dynamic natural body.

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Chapter No.3& 4

Soil as a source of plant nutrients, Essential and Beneficial Nutrients and their
role. Criteria of essentiality ,Forms of Nutrients in soil
Learning objective :
To understand the importance of soil [Link] study the essential nutrients in plant growth
Crops depend on extrinsic and intrinsic factors for their growth and environment to provide them
with basic necessities for photosynthesis. These essential plant growth factors include:
• light
• heat
• air
• water
• nutrients
• physical support
If any one factor, or combination of factors, is in limited supply, plant growth will be adversely
affected. The importance of each of the plant growth factors and the proper combination of these
factors for normal plant growth is best described by the principle of limiting factors. This
principle states: "The level of crop production can be no greater than that allowed by the most
limiting of the essential plant growth factors." The principle of limiting factors can be compared
to that of a barrel having staves of different lengths with each stage representing a plant growth
factor.
Crop yield and quality depends upon the essential growth factors and the many interrelated soil,
plant, environmental and agronomic factors or variables. Within this system, some of these
factors cannot be controlled; others can be controlled and are manageable. Soil is one of the key
factors affecting plant growth. The major functions of the soil are to provide plants with
nutrients, water and oxygen.

Classification on the basis of essentiality

Essential Element: A mineral element is considered to be essential for plant growth and
development if the element is involved in plant metabolic functions and the plant cannot

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complete its life cycle without the element”. There are seventeen essential elements required for
plant growth viz., C, H, O, N, P, K, Ca, Mg, S, Fe, Mn, Zn, Cu, B, Mo, Cl, Ni,

Beneficial Nutrients/Elements: Beneficial elements are the mineral elements that stimulate the
growth and exhibit beneficial effects at very low concentration or which are essential only for
certain plant species or under specific conditions are called as “beneficial elements”.Eg.
Na,Va,Co,Si

Classification on the basis of quantity required by the plant

Macronutrients: These are the nutrients required in large quantity and their conc in plant is also
more (kg/ha)

e.g.C,H,O,N,P,K,Ca,Mg,S.

1)Primary Nutrients

Nutrients which are of prime importance for plants as compare to secondary nutrients.

e.g. N,P,K

2) Secondary Nutrients

Nutrients require in relatively less or moderate quantity and play secondary role in plant growth.

e.g. Ca,Mg,S

3)Micronutrient

These are the nutrients required in small quantity and their conc. in the plant tissue is also less
i.e. (ppm)

Fe, Mn, Zn, Cu, B, Mo, Cl, Ni

Classification based on the role of element in plant system

(According to TROUG, 1954)

i) Structural Elements : C, H, O
ii) Accessory structural elements : N. P. S

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iii) Regulator & Carriers : K, Ca, Mg

iv) Catalyst & Activators : Fe, Mn, Zn, Cu, Mo, Cl, B

Classification based on mobility of plant nutrient in the plant

Highly Mobile : N, P, K

Moderately Mobile :Zn

Less Mobile: S ,Fe, Mn. Cl, Mo and Cu

Immobile: Ca and B

General Functions of Plant Nutrients

1) Functions as structural component of cell constituents and its metabolically active

compounds
2) In maintainence of cellular organization
3) In enzyme transformation
4) In enzyme action

Role of Essential Nutrients in Soil

Nitrogen (N)

• Necessary for formation of amino acids, the building blocks of protein

• Essential for plant cell division, vital for plant growth
• Directly involved in photosynthesis
• A necessary component of vitamins
• Aids in production and use of carbohydrates
• Affects energy reactions in the plant

Phosphorus (P)

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• Involved in photosynthesis, respiration, energy storage and transfer, cell division, and
enlargement
• Promotes early root formation and growth
• Improves the quality of fruits, vegetables, and grains
• Vital to seed formation
• Helps plants survive harsh winter conditions
• Increases water-use efficiency
• Hastens maturity

Potassium (K)

• Carbohydrate metabolism and the breakdown and translocation of starches

• Increases photosynthesis
• Increases water-use efficiency
• Essential to protein synthesis
• Important in fruit formation
• Activates enzymes and controls their reaction rates
• Improves the quality of seeds and fruit
• Improves winter hardiness
• Increases disease resistance

Secondary Nutrients

Calcium (Ca)

• Utilized for Continuous cell division and formation

• Involved in nitrogen metabolism
• Reduces plant respiration
• Aids translocation of photosynthesis from leaves to fruiting organs
• Increases fruit set
• Essential for nut development in peanuts
• Stimulates microbial activity

Magnesium (Mg)

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• A key element of chlorophyll production

• Improves utilization and mobility of phosphorus
• Activator and component of many plant enzymes
• Directly related to grass tetany
• Increases iron utilization in plants
• Influences earliness and uniformity of maturity

Sulphur (S)

• An integral part of amino acids

• Helps develop enzymes and vitamins
• Promotes nodule formation on legumes
• Aids in seed production
• Necessary for chlorophyll formation (though it isn’t one of the constituents)

Micronutrients

Boron (B)

• Essential of germination of pollen grains and growth of pollen tubes

• Essential for seed and cell wall formation
• Promotes maturity
• Necessary for sugar translocation
• Affects nitrogen and carbohydrate

Chlorine (Cl)

• Not much information about its functions

• Interferes with P uptake
• Enhances maturity of small grains on some soils

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Copper (Cu)

• Catalyzes several plant processes

• Plays a major function in photosynthesis
• Plays a major function in reproductive stages
• Indirect role in chlorophyll production
• Increases sugar content
• Intensifies colour
• Improves the flavour of fruits and vegetables

Iron (Fe)

• Promotes the formation of chlorophyll

• Acts as an oxygen carrier
• Reactions involving cell division and growth

Manganese (Mn)

• Functions as a part of certain enzyme systems

• Aids in chlorophyll synthesis
• Increases the availability of P and Ca

Molybdenum (Mo)

• Required to form the enzyme “nitrate reductase” which reduces nitrates to ammonium in
plant
• Aids in the formation of legume nodules
• Needed to convert inorganic phosphates to organic forms in the plant

Zinc (Zn)

• Aids plant growth hormones and enzyme system

• Necessary for chlorophyll production

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• Also necessary for carbohydrate formation

• Necessary for starch formation
• Aids in seed formation

Essentiality of the elements established by

Carbon Priestly (1800)

Nitrogen Theodore De saussure (1804)

Ca, Mg, K, S Carl sprengel (1839)

Phosphorus Von Liebig (1844)

Iron (Fe) [Link] (1844)

Manganese (Mn) J.S. Hargue (1922)

Zinc(Zn) : Sommer and Lipman (1926)

Copper (Cu) Sommer, Lipman and Mc Kenny (1931)

Molybdenum (Mo) Arnon and Stout (1939)

Sodium (Na) Brownell and wood (1957)

Cobalt(Co) : Ahamed and Evans (1959)

Boron(B) : Warring ton (1923)

Chlorine (Cl ) Broyer (1954)

Nickel (Ni) Brown [Link].(1987)

Forms of Nutrients in which they are available to plants

Essential Nutrients Plant Usable forms
Carbon (C) CO2
Hydrogen (H) H2O
Oxygen (O) O2
Nitrogen (N) NH4,NO2 -,NO3 -
Phosphorus (P) H2PO4-,HPO4-,PO4-

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Potassium (K) K+
Calcium (Ca) Ca 2+
Magnesium (Mg) Mg 2+
Sulphur (S) SO4 -,SO3-
Iron (Fe) Fe3+ (ferric) ,Fe2+ (Ferrous),
Mangnese (Mn) Mn2+ (Manganous), Mn4+ (Manganic)
Zinc (Zn) Zn 2+
Copper (Cu) Cu 2+ (Cupric), Cu+ (cuprous)
Boron (B) H3BO3 - (Boric acid) H2 BO 3 - (Borate)
Molybdenum (Mo) MoO4 2-
Chlorine (Cl) Cl-
Nickel (Ni) Ni 2+

Criteria of Essentiality (Arnon and Stout 1939)

1) The plant must be unable to grow normally or complete its life cycle in absence of
the element.
2) The element must be specific and cannot be replace by any other element.
3) The element pay a direct role in plant metabolism.

Nitrogen
Deficiency: Plants will exhibit lack of vigor as older leaves become yellow (chlorotic) from lack
of chlorophyll. Chlorosis will eventually spread throughout the plant. Stems, petioles and lower
leaf surfaces may turn purple.
Toxicity: Leaves are often dark green and in the early stages abundant with foliage. If excess is
severe, leaves will dry and begin to fall off. Root system will remain under developed or
deteriorate after time. Fruit and flower set will be inhibited or deformed.
Phosphorus
Deficiency: Plants are stunted and older leaves often dark dull green in color. Stems and
leafstalk may turn purple. Plant maturity is often delayed.

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Toxicity: This condition is rare and usually buffered by pH limitations. Excess phosphorus can
interfere with the availability of copper and zinc.
Potassium
Deficiency: Older leaves are initially chlorotic but soon develop dark necrotic lesions (dead
tissue). First apparent on the tips and margins of the leaves. Stem and branches may become
weak and easily broken.
Toxicity: Usually not absorbed excessively by plants. Excess potassium can aggravate the
uptake of magnesium, manganese, zinc and iron.
Sulphur
Deficiency: The initial symptoms are the yellowing of the entire leaf including veins usually
starting with the younger leaves. Leaf tips may yellow and curl downward.
Toxicity: Leaf size will be reduced and overall growth will be stunted. Leaves yellowing or
scorched at [Link] Diseasen in Rice
Magnesium
Deficiency: The older leaves will be the first to develop interveinal chlorosis. Starting at leaf
margin or tip and progressing inward between the veins.
Toxicity: Magnesium toxicity are rare and not generally exhibited visibly.
Calcium
Deficiency: Young leaves are affected first and become small and distorted or chlorotic with
irregular margins, spotting or necrotic areas. Bud development is inhibited and roots may be
underdeveloped or die back. Fruit may be stunted or deformed.
Toxicity: Difficult to distinguish visually. May precipitate with sulfur in solution and cause
clouding or residue in tank.
Iron
Deficiency: Pronounced interveinal chlorosis similar to that cased by magnesium deficiency but
on the younger leaves.
Toxicity: Excess accumulation is rare but could cause bronzing or tiny brown spots on leaf
surface.

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Manganese
Deficiency: Interveinal chlorosis on younger or older leaves followed by necrotic lesions or leaf
shedding. Restricted growth and failure to mature normally can also result.
Toxicity: Chlorosis, or blotchy leaf tissue due to insufficient chlorophyll synthesis. Growth rate
will slow and vigor will decline.
Chlorine
Deficiency: Wilted chlorotic leaves become bronze in color. Roots become stunted and
thickened near tips.
Toxicity: Burning of leaf tip or margins. Bronzing, yellowing and leaf splitting. Reduced leaf
size and lower growth rate.
Boron
Deficiency: Stem and root tips often die. Root tips often become swollen and discolored.
Internal tissues may rot and become host to fungal disease. Leaves show various symptoms
which include drying, thickening, distorting, wilting, and chlorotic or necrotic [Link]
Cracking in Pomogranate caused by Boron deficiency.
Toxicity: Yellowing of leaf tip followed by necrosis of the leaves beginning at tips or margins
and progressing inward. Some plants are especially sensitive to boron accumulation.
Zinc
Deficiency: Chlorosis may accompany reduction of leaf size and a shortening between
internodes. Leaf margins are often distorted or wrinkled. Khaira disease in rice is caused by Zn
deficiency
Toxicity: Zinc in excess is extremely toxic and will cause rapid death. Excess zinc interferes
with iron causing chlorosis from iron deficiency.
Copper
Deficiency: Young leaves often become dark green and twisted. They may die back or just
exhibit necrotic spots. Growth and yield will be deficient as [Link] back of citrus is caused
by Cu deficiency
Toxicity: Reduced growth followed by symptoms of iron chlorosis, stunting, reduced
branching, abnormal darkening and thickening of roots. This element is essential but extremely
toxic in excess.

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Molybdenum
Deficiency: Often interveinal chlorosis which occurs first on older leaves, then progressing to
the entire plant. Developing severely twisted younger leaves which eventually [Link] in
cauliflower is caused by Molybdenum deficiency.
Toxicity: Excess may cause discoloration of leaves depending on plant species. This condition
is rare but could occur from accumulation by continuous application. Used by the plant in very
small quantities.

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Chapter No.5 & 6

Introduction and Importance of Organic Manures, Sources and Composition

of organic matter,Recycling and C:N Ratio
Soil Organic Matter
Substances containing carbon are organic matter. Soil organic matter consists of decomposing
plant and animal residues. It also includes substances of organic origin either leaving or dead.

Importance of organic matter

[Link] matter creates a granular condition of soil which maintains favorable condition of
aeration and permeability.
[Link] holding capacity of soil is increased and surface runoff, erosion etc., are reduced as there
is good infiltration due to the addition of organic matter.
[Link] mulching with coarse organic matter lowers wind erosion and lowers soil
temperatures in the summer and keeps the soil warmer in winter.
[Link] matter serves as a source of energy for the microbes and as a reservoir of nutrients that
are essential for plant growth and also hormones, antibiotics.
[Link] Organic matter supplies food for earthworms, ants and rodents and makes soil P readily
available in acid soils.
[Link] acids released from decomposing organic matter help to reduce alkalinity in soils; organic acids
along with released CO2 dissolve minerals and make them more available.
[Link] (a highly decomposed organic matter) provides a storehouse for the exchangeable and available
cations. .It acts as a buffering agent which checks rapid chemical change in pH and soil reaction.
Sources of Soil Organic Matter
[Link] Sources: Higher Plants Tissues
[Link] Sources: Animals and microorganisms-their remains and waste products
Recycling of Organic matter
Organic Recycling: Returning of the plant nutrients removed by the crop from the soil through additions
of organic material of crop after harvesting the crop is refered as organic recycling.

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Carbon Cycle

Transfer of carbon commonly spoken as the carbon cycle

1) Plant assimilate CO2 from atmosphere in to the organic compounds using energy
from the sun.
2) Humans and higher animals obtain energy from the plants and return waste and
residue to the soil.
3) Micro and Macroorganism digest these organic materials releasing nutrients for
plants and leaving CO2 and humus as stable materials.
4) CO3 and HCO3 of Ca,Mg,K etc are removed in leaching.
5) But eventually C is return to the cycle form of CO2
6) The total CO2 is released to atmosphere where it again available for plant
assimilation.

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Composition of organic residues:

Plant residues contain 75% moisture and 25% dry matter.
Elemental Composition of Soil Residues
Carbon 44%
Oxygen 40%
Hydrogen 8%
Ash 8%
Composition of plant tissues:
Carbohydrates 60%
Celluloses 20-50%

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Hemicellulose 10-30%
Starch, Sugar 1-5%
Proteins 1-15%
Fats, waxes, tannins 1-10%
Lignins 10-30%
Decomposition of Soil Organic Matter
The organic matter is also classified on the basis of their rate of decomposition
1. Rapidly decomposed : Sugars, starches, proteins etc.
2. Less rapidly decomposed : Hemicelluloses, celluloses etc.
3. Very slowly decomposed : Fats, waxes, resins, lignins etc

A. Decomposition of soluble substances:

When glucose is decomposed under aerobic conditions the reaction is as under:
Sugar + Oxygen →CO2 + H2O
Under partially oxidized conditions,
Sugar + Oxygen → Aliphatic acids (Acetic, formic etc.) or Hydroxy acids
(Citric, lactic etc.) or Alcohols (ethyl alcohol etc.)
Some of the reactions involved may be represented as under:
C6H12O6 + 2O2 → [Link] + 2CO2 + 2H2O
2C6H12O6 + 3O2 → C6H8O7 + 4H2O
C6H12O6 + 2O2 → 2C2H5OH + 2CO2
Ammonification –organic N - Polypeptides – Peptides – aminoacids – NH3 or NH4
i) Ammonification: The transformation of organic nitrogenous compounds (amino acids,
amides, ammonium compounds, nitrates etc.) into ammonia is called ammonification. This
process occurs as a result of hydrolytic and oxidative enzymatic reaction under aerobic
conditions by heterotrophic microbes.
ii)Nitrification: The process of conversion of ammonia to nitrites (NO2) and then to nitrate
(NO3-) is known as nitrification. It is an aerobic process by autotrophic bacteria.
Nitrosomonas Nitrobacter
NH3 − ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯→ NO2 - ⎯⎯⎯⎯→ NO3-
Ammonia Nitrite Nitrate

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iii) Denitrification: The process, which involves conversion of soil nitrate into gaseous nitrogen
or nitrous oxide, is called Denitrification. Water logging and high pH will increase N loss by
Denitrification.
Pseudomonas/Bacillus
Nitrate N2 gas

2. Under anaerobic conditions:

C6H12 O6 (Glucose) - Lactic acid, butyric acid Ethyl alcohol are formed
Protein and other N compounds are converted into elemental N.
B. Decomposition of Insoluble Substances
i) Breakdown of Protein: During the course of decomposition of plant materials,the proteins are
first hydrolyzed to a number of intermediate products
Protein Proteoses Peptides Amino Acid Amides Ammonia
Aminization: The process of conversion of proteins to amino acids.
Ammonification: The process of conversion of amino acids and amides to ammonia.
ii) Breakdown of cellulose:
Cellulose  Cellbiose  Glucose Organic acids  CO2 + H2O
(cellulase) (cellobiase
This reaction proceeds more slowly in acid soils than in neutral and alkaline soils. It is quite
rapid in well aerated soils and comparatively slow in poorly aerated soils.
iii) Breakdown of Hemicellulose: Decompose faster than cellulose and are first hydrolyzed to
their components sugars and uronic acids. Sugars are attacked by microbes and are converted to
organic acids, alcohols, carbon dioxide and water. The uronic acids are broken down to pentose
and CO2. The newly synthesized hemicelluloses thus form a part of the humus.
Hemicellulose Sugar + Uronic Acid Pentose Sugar+CO2

Organic Acid+Alcohol+CO2+H2O

iv) Breakdown of Starch: It is chemically a glucose polymer and is first hydrolyzed to maltose
by the action of amylases. Maltose is next converted to glucose by maltase. The process is
represented as under:

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Starch Maltose Glucose

Amylases Maltase

(C6H10O5)n +nH2O  n (C6H12O6)

C. Decomposition of ether soluble substances:

Fats →glycerol + fatty acids

Glycerol →CO2 + Water

D. Decomposition of lignin: Lignin decomposes slowly, much slower than cellulose. Complete
oxidation gives rise to CO2 and H2O.
Sulphur containing organic compounds:
Converted to SO4 -2 + H+ + energy by sulphur oxidizing bacteria.

P containing organic compounds:

Various micro organisms mineralize phospholipids and other organic P compounds
in the presence of phosphates enzymes H2PO4 and HPO4-2 depending on soil PH.
Mineralisation: The biological conversion of organic forms of C, N, P and S to inorganic or
mineral forms is called mineralization.
Immobilization: The conversion of inorganic forms of C, N, P and S by the soil organism into
organic forms is called Immobilization
C: N ratio
The ratio of weight of organic carbon to the weight of total nitrogen in soil is called C:N
Ratio.
When fresh plant residues are added to the soil they are rich in carbon and poor in N. This
results in wider C: N ratio (400:1) decomposition of the organic matter in the soil changes to
humus resulting in a narrow C: N ratio (10:1). When materials high in carbon are added to the
soil the microbial population increase due to the plentiful supply of food material. A lot of CO2 is
released. During this process the micro organisms utilize the soil N for their body build up and
there is a temporary block of N. When the decomposition of fresh organic residues reaches to the
stage where the C: N ratio is 20:1 there is an increase in the availability of N.

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The C: N ratio of:

Cultivated soils ranges from 8:1 to 15:1.
Average Normal Soil : 10:1 to 12:1.
Legumes and Farm manure: 20:1 – 30:1.
Straw : 100:1
Saw Dust : 400:1
In micro organisms : 4:1 to 9:1
Significance of C:N Ratio
1)Effects on soil colour:Black colour of humus tends to distinguish soil from other colours more
partially decomposed organic matter contributes brown colour to soil.
2) Influence on the physical properties of soil
a) Granulation encouraged :It help for maintenance of favourable conditions of aeration and
permeability ,infilteration and percolation also.
b) Plasticity and Cohesion is reduced.
c) Water holding capacity increased.
3) High cation exchange capacity : If C:N ratio is low the CEC of organic matter is 2- 30 times
greater than mineral colloids.
4) Supply and availabilityof nutrients: If C:N ratio is low the release of nutrients from
minerals is more.

Sharad College of Agriculture, Jainapur

 Prof. Sarika R. Koli
[Link](Agri)

Chapter No.7, 8 &9

Definition, Properties, and Classification of Bulky and Concentrated Organic
Manures ,their manures their composition and nutrient availability
.Preparation of,FYM,Compost,Different Method of composting,
Decomposition process and nutrient losses during handling and storage.
Manures:
Manures are substances which are organic in origin ,bulky and concentrated in nature and
capable of supplying plant nutrients in available from having high analytical value and no
definite composition and most of them are obtained from animal and plant waste products.
Classification of Manures
Bulky Organic Manures: Organic material of natural origin having greater volume per unit
nutrient content called as bulky organic manures.
C:N Ratio of bulky organic manures is 20:1
[Link],Compost and Green Manuring
Concentrated Organic Manures: Organic material of natural origin having smaller volume per
unit nutrient content .
C:N Ratio of concentrated organic manures is 10 :1
e.g. Oil Cakes,Blood Meal,Meat Meal,Fish Meal and Bone Meal.
Concentrated Organic Manures
Plant Origin: Oil cakes are the plant origin organic manures.
When oil is extracted from the oil seeds the remaining solid portion is dried as cake which can be
used as manures. They are byproducts of oil seed crops .Oil cakes are the important and quick
acting organic nitrogenous manures. It also contain amount of phosphorus and potassium and
richest source of plant nutrient among all organic manures.
There are two types:
Edible Oil Cakes: Which are used to feeding for cattle in form of concentrates.
e.g. Musturd Oil Cakes, Groundnut Cake, Sesamum Cake and Coconut Cake.
Non Edible Oil Cakes: This type of oil cake is not used for feeding to cattle and mainly used for
manuring crops because it contain a harmful toxic substances e.g. Castor Cake,Neem Cake.

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 Prof. Sarika R. Koli
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Oil cakes are need to be well powdered before application for even distribution ,quicker
[Link] like C:N ratio ,oil content ,presence and absence of nitrification retardents
affects manurial value and decomposition of oil cakes.
Nutrient Content : N 0.4-7.9%,P2O5 1.4-2.9 %K2O 0.3-1.9%
Animal Origin
Bone meal ,Fish Meal, Blood Meal and Horn Meal are the examples of animal origin
concentrated organic manures. Blood meal when dried and powdered can be used as a manures.
The meat of dead animals is dried and converted into meat meal which is as good source of
nitrogen.
Farm Yard Manure (FYM)
• The term farm yard manure refers to the decomposed manures of dung and urine of farm
animals along with the litter (bedding material ) and left over material from roughages or
fodder fed to cattle.
• In constituents the excreta of farm animals with or without a admixture of bedding
materials or litter, fresh or at various stages of further decomposition.
On complete decomposition of FYM contains 0.5%N, 0.2% P2O5 0.5 %K2O .
Sources
Dung- It is a solid excreta of farm animals valuable plant nutrients in it comes from the foods
eaten by the animals, fresh dung contains 70-80% moisture and consists of insoluble and
undigested residues of the food.
Urine- it is a liquid excreta containing chemical compounds derived from digested food and
farm waste products obtained by muscular and other tissues.
Litter- it is plant refuse used to provide bedding for farm animals. It absorbs the dung and urine,
straw, hay, leaves of plants and saw dust is used as litter.
Improved methods of preparation of FYM
1) Trench method
2) Gobar gas plant and slurry
3) Enriched FYM
4) NADEP Method
Trench Method: This method has been recommended by C. N. Acharya for preparing good
quality of FYM and to avoid high nutrient losses.

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 Prof. Sarika R. Koli
[Link](Agri)

Nutrient content of FYM

0.5 % N 0.2 % P2O5 0.5 %
• FYM prepared in trench of 6.5m long, 1.5m broad and 1.0m deep.
• Farm waste mixed with earth should be spread under each animal in the evening for
absorption of urine.
• The litter should be localized in the areas where urine generally drops and soaks into the
ground.
• Each morning the section of soaked litter and dung should be well mixed and fill in the
trench.
• During filling the section of 0.91 m length of trench from one end should be taken for
filling with daily collection of refuse from the cattle shed.
• When the trench is filled above the ground level up to 0.5m from ground level.
• The top of the heap is made dome shaped and plastered with cow dung with soil.
• After it, next 0.91m length of trench is taken up for filling in the same way.
• In this manner fill up the complete trench.
• The manure becomes ready in about three months.
• Generally two trenches would be needed for 3-4 heads of cattle. It is possible to prepare
by this method 5-6 tonns of manure/year/ head of cattle.
• The farm yard manure should be reinforced by addition of superphospate@30-40 kg per
trench before application to lands.
Use of superphosphate as chemical preservative will have three advantages:
1) It reduces the loss of ammonia (nitrogen) from FYM.
2) It increases the percentage of phosphorous in manure, thus making it a balance one.
3) Application of superphosphate to the FYM is in organic form which is readily
available to plants; it will increase the efficiency of phosphorus utilization.
NADEP method
• This method of making compost involves the construction of a simple, rectangular
brick with enough space maintained between the bricks for necessary aeration.
• Dimension 10mX6mX3m.
• After 2 layers of bricks in the third layer leave some space for aeration and the base
should be make hard by hammering

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• Before filling the tank it is plastered by dilute cattle dung slurry to facilitate bacterial
activity from all four sides.
• A 4-6 cm thick layer of fine sticks ,stems(to facilitate aeration) followed by 4-6 cm
layer of dry and green biomass.
• Mixture of cow dung slurry (100 litr +4-5 kg cow dung ) is prepared.
• 60kg of well sieved is spread uniformly over the soaked biomass for moisture
retention and act as buffer during biodegradation.
• In this way approximately 10-12 layers are fill in each tank and after sealing the
tank,biomass is covered with 3 cm thick layer of soil and sealed with
cowdung+mudplaster.
• In this way whole pit is filled up and give watering twice or thrice to maintain in
50-60 % moisture.
• To improve the amount of P with each layering 10-15 kg SSP should be given
which enhances the rate of decomposition ,prevent the nutrient loss and increases
the quality of manure.
Loss during Handling and Storage of FYM.
There are two types of losses
a) Losses during handling: The FYM consist of two original components such as
dung (solid portion) and urine (liquid portion) which are subjected to losses in
different ways.
 Losses of Dung: Dung is a valueable as manure.A still larger portion of dung
is dried in dung cakes and burnt as fuel .Besides this, a large portion of cattle
excrement is dropped outside the cattle shed when the animals and grazing on
the uncultivated [Link] can be used for preparation of farm yard manures.
 Losses of Urine: Urine contains nitrogen and potassium in good [Link]
there is no good method of preserving the urine in our [Link] our country
most of the cattle shed have uncemented or kaccha floor and the urine gets
soaked in the soil of kaccha floor of the cattle shed and large quantity of
nitrogen are lost through the formation of gaseous ammonia as follow
CO(NH2)2+ H2O (NH4)2CO3
Urea in Urine Ammonium Carbonate

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(NH4)2CO3+2 H2O 2 NH4OH+ H2CO3

NH4OH NH3 + H2 O
Ammonium Hydroxide Gaseous Ammonia.
Control of losses :
1) Use of pakka floor.
2)Addition of gypsum and bedding material to absorb urine.
3)Use of rock phosphate
4)Mainatin optimum temperature.
5)Minimum Tillage.

Losses during Handling and Storage of FYM.

The cow dung and other farm wastage are collected daily and these are accumulated in
Manure pit in open spaces for months [Link] manure remains exposed to sun,and these
nutrients are lost in following ways.
❖ By Leaching : The nutrients of manures are water soluble and these are liable to get washed
off by rain [Link] leaching losses of nutrients will vary with the surface exposed,the
intensity of rainfall and the slope of surface on which manure is heaped .The leaching losses
may be prevented by erecting a roof over the pit.
❖ By Volatilization:During decomposition and storage ,the urine and dung are decomposed
and considerable amount of ammonia is produced .The ammonia combines with carbonic acid
to form ammonium carbonate and bicarbonate which are rather unstable and [Link]
may be readily liberated and passes in to the atmosphere as indicated in the following
equation.
CO(NH2)2+ H2O (NH4)2CO3
Urea in Urine Ammonium Carbonate
(NH4)2CO3+2 H2O 2 NH4OH+ H2CO3

NH4OH NH3 + H2O

Ammonium Gaseous
Hydroxide Ammonia

Sharad College of Agriculture, Jainapur

 Prof. Sarika R. Koli
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Factors influencing the composition of manure:

1) Kind of Animal: The composition of manure varies with kind of animal producing it.
2)Kind of food of the animal: The rich and nutritious food feed to the animal produces richer
manure,because the major portion of the nutrient fed to the animal comes out in their dung and
urine
3)Manner of Storage:Losses of plant nutrients depends on the manner of [Link] of
nitrogen occurs under ordinary condition of storage of [Link] nutrients are lost ,the
economic value of manure is decreased and that is why proper handling of manure is no vital.
4) Nature of litter:The amount and characters of material used as litter for animals also affect
the composition of manures because the materials used as litter are of different composition.
5) Function of Animals:Animals producing milk and wool ,absorb more nutrients from their
food,compared to animal that are working i.e. bullock .Thus the manure from bullock will be
richer in nutrients than that from cow producing milk.
6)Age and condition of animals: The young and growing animals require more nutrients for
their growth and body building ,so they retain for their growth a much larger percentage of
nutrients from the food they eat.
Methods of Composting

Compost:Compost is a bulky oranic manure artificially prepared from plant residues and animal
waste products by the decomoosition through the action of microorganism.

It is well rotted plant and animal [Link] contain high organic matter and high percentage of
major nutrients compared to FYM and hence it is valueable for improving and maintaining soil
fertility.

Types of Compost

1) Farm Compost/Rural Compost/Village Compost

This type of compost is prepared from the town refuse like night soil,street sweepings etc.

Nutrient Content:1-2 %N,1% P2O5 1.5 % K2O

Methods of Compost Preparation

Two methods are recommended for composting

1) Heap Method (Indore Method/Aerobic Decomposition)

2)Pit Method (Bangalore Method/Anaerobic Method)

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Pit Method(Bangalore Method)

• It is an anaerobic process .Anaerobic microorganism break down organic material in absence

of oxygen.
• In pit method a pit of 183cm wide,91 cm deep and 915 cm long.
• Pit should be dug in high lying areas where there is less chance of percolation of water or
overflow from the adjoining water channels.
• A 15 cm of thick layer of waste material (wheat straw,paddy straw, glyricidia, banana leaves,
parthenium weed, sunhemp and all waste from agriculture)can be used as a substrate for
composting.
• Material should be well chopped (5-6 cm in size).
• Each layer can be used as a substrate for composting
• Each layer can be made by using mixed substrate of different types of residues.
• After uniform distribution of layer it should be applied slurry of dung with urine of water and
20-30kg fine soil and then apply well decomposed FYM or compost as a starter material or
as a inoculants Trichoderma virdi(species of bacteria which help to fast decomposition of
wide C:N ratio materials.)
• In each layer 2.5 kg urea and 3 kg of superphosphate is added to enriched the phosphorus in
compost making.
• Like this manner fill the whole pit till it rises 75 cm above the ground level.’
• At the end dome shaped heap is plastered with wet mud.
• Under this process maintain 40-60 % moisture till two and half month of filling of pit and
stop addition of water.
• After 4-5 months the compost is ready for manuring to crop.

Reactions are as follows

1)C6H12 O6+CO2 2CH3COOH+CO2+H2O

Acetic Acid

CH3COOH CH4 + CO2

Methane

2) Organic N NH3

Protein Proteoses Amino Acid Ammonia

Peptones
Peptide
3) Organic Phosphorus Reduced Phosphorus

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 Prof. Sarika R. Koli
[Link](Agri)

Advantages of Bangalore Method

1) This method effectively control foul smell.

2) This method not need turning and therefore the labour changes are cut short considerably.
3) Trenches are used for composting and it reduces the loss of moisture and nitrogen.
4) Minimise the fly nuisance by destroying fly larvae and also kill the pathogenic organism.
5) Compost prepared by this method, contain more amount of nitrogen and phosphorus. So, it
is a good organic manures.
6) It is suitable manure for vegetable cultivation in urban areas.
Disadvantages of Bangalore Method
1) Disease organism remains in the manures. So, it should be sterilized before use.
2)Night soil are used as catalyst .So most of the farmers do not want to use this manures.

Heap Method (Indore Method)

• It is an aerobic decomposition of organic matter.
• A high lying portion of land near some water channel is selected for the compost heaps
,the ground is levelled.
• The compost heap should be 180-240 cm wide ,107-122cm high and of convenient length
according to the material available for composting.
• The materials of composting is heaped in layers, as started in pit method.
• Four to five layers of trash are put over the other till the heap is 76-122 cm high.
• The top is covered or plastered with mud.
• After one and half to two months when heap sniks appreciable, it is given the first turning
• Starting from end of the heap, it is made into a fresh heap, thus mixing outside material
with that from inside.
• Generally two to three turnings are required for a complete decomposition of the trash.
• The whole process requires 4-5 month ,after which the compost is ready for applicaton to
the field. This method is suitable for use in rainy season as well as winter.

Sharad College of Agriculture, Jainapur

 Prof. Sarika R. Koli
[Link](Agri)

Disadvantages of Indore Method

1) Two to three turnings are required till compost is ready.

2)It may not be possible to get time and helper for this extra work at proper time.

Reactions are as follows:

During aerobic decomposition of organic matter ,energy is released during the oxidation of
carbon to the carbondioxide raising the [Link] 65-700C.
1) C6H12 O6+CO2 6CO2 +H2O+Energy
During decomposition proteins are hydrolysed to a number of intermediate products e.g.
Proteoses,Peptides.
2) Protein Proteoses Amino Acid Ammonia
Peptones
Peptide
Heterotrophic bacteria simplify the complex organic compounds , then autotrophic
bacteria oxidizes it into sulphate and phosphate form
3) Organic P+ O2 H3PO4
4) S+ O2 SO2

Sharad College of Agriculture, Jainapur

 Prof. Sarika R. Koli
[Link](Agri)

Chapter No.10 & 11

Vermicomposting, Green Manuring :Types, Advantages ,Disadvantages and
Nutrient Availability
Vermicompost
Defination: The compost which is produced by earthworm having higher grade and containing
greater amount of available nutrient and high percentage of casting.
Types of Earthworms
1)Red Worm: Lumbricus rubellus
2) Branding Worm: Eisenia foetida
3) Field Worm: Allophobora caliginosa

Method of Composting (In Pit)

• Pit should be under shed.
• Selection of Eartworm :Use exotic derivorus species like Eisenia foetida.
• Land:Any type of land can be used except waterlogged.
• Size of Pit: Any convenient dimension such as 2mx1mx1m may be prepared .This can
hold 10-40 thousand worms
• Preparation of Vermibed: A layer of 15-20cm thick goog loamy soil above a thin layer
(5cm)of broken bricks and sand should made.
• Inoculation of Worms:About 2000 earthworms /m2are introduced at an optimum density
into compost pit of 2mx1mx1m.
• Organic Layering:It is done on the vermibed with fresh cattledung .The compost pit is
then layered to about 5 cm with shredded organic litter of dry leaves or [Link]
level is maintained (without flooding) by addition of water.
• Wet Organic Layering: It is done after four weeks with moist /green organic waste and
can be spread over it to a thickness of 5cm .Practice is repeated every 3-4 days
tillcompost pit is nearly fill.
• Harvesting :At maturation ,moisture content is brought down and castings are collected
after 3rd week .This ensure the compost and migration of worms in to the
[Link] compost is removed,sieved ,dried and packed.

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 Prof. Sarika R. Koli
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• Nutrient content :1-1.5 N,0.6-0.8% P2O5 ,1-1.5 % K

Advantages of Vermicompost:
➢ Vermicompost is rich in several microflora like Azospirillium,Actinomycetes,Bacillus.
➢ It provides ideal temperature pH,oxygen for enhanced growth of aerobic bacteria.
➢ The microbial activity is about 1000 times more than surrounding soils this result in
quicker decomposition.
➢ Earthworms improves the water infilteration ,moisture retention.
➢ The soil pH is neutralized by buffering action.
➢ Vermicompost helps in multiplication of eaethworms which reduces the indices of
nematodes.
➢ Due to buffer action on mineral ,trace mineral and trace elements becomes available more
easily to the crop.
➢ Nutrient leaching of the fertilizers is reduced specially of the nitrogenous fertilizers.
➢ Reduce soil erosion and leaching through irrigation and rainfall.
➢ Prevent soil degradation and enhances soil fertility status.
➢ Enhances quality, shelf life and nutritive value of crop production.

Green Manuring : Its Types ,Advantage and Disadvantage and Nutrient Availability

Green manuring can be defined as practice of ploughing or turning green plant tissue into the soil
for the purpose of improving physical structure and fertility of the soil.

Characteristics of the Green Manuring Crop

The green manuring crops should posses the following desirable characteristics

• The green manuring crop should have profuse leaves and rapid growth in its life cycle.
• The green manuring crop should have abundant and succulent leaves.
• It should be capable of making good stand on poor and exhausted soil.
• It should have a deep root system which can open the subsoil and tap lower region for
plant nutrient .
• It should be a legume with good nodular growth habit indicative of rapid nitrogen
fixation under even unfavourable soil condition.

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• It should contain large quantity of non fibrous tissues of rapid decomposability

containing fair percentage of moisture and nitrogen.

Types of Green Manuring:

a) Green Manuring In Situ: In this system green manuring crops are grown and buried in the
same field which is to be green manured either as a pure crop or as a intercrop with the main
crop.

The most common green manuring crop under this system is Sunhemp (Crotoloaria
juncea),Dhaincha ( Sesbania rostrata)and Guar (Cyamopsis tetragonoloba)

b) Green Leaf Manuring: Green leaf manuring refers to turning in to the soil green leaves and
tender green twigs collected from shrubs and tress grown on bunds. Waste land and nearby forest
areas.

The common shrubs and tress are –Sesbania,Karanj( Pongamia pinnata) and Glyricidia
(Glyricida maculate)

Advantages of Green Manuring

1) Green manuring adds organic matter to the soil.

2) It increases the microbial activity

3) It improves the structure of soil and physical properties.

4) Increases the availability of plant nutrients.

5) The green manure crops holds crop nutrients that would otherwise be lost by leaching.

6) The green manure crops returns return to the upper top soil plant nutrient taken up by the crop
from deeper layer.

7) It facilitate penetration of the rain water ,thus decreasing run off and erosion.

8) When leguminous plants like Sunhemp and Dhaincha are use to green manure crops they add
nitrogen into the soil for the succeeding crop.

9)It increases the availability of the certain plant nutrients like phosphorus ,calcium, potassium
and iron.

10) Green manuring increases the yield of the succeeding crop.

Sharad College of Agriculture, Jainapur

 Prof. Sarika R. Koli
[Link](Agri)

Disadvantages of Green Manuring

1) Under rainfed condition it is not possible to bury the Green manure crop at proper time and
Green manure crop does not decomposed readily due to lack of sufficient moisture in the soil
.Due to improper decomposition it affects the germination of the succeeding crop.

2) Loss of one season.

3) The green manure adds nitrogen to the soi if it is leguminous [Link] the crop of Green
manuring is more than the cost of commercial nitrogenous fertilizers.

4) The insect,pest,disease and nematodes may be come up due to improper decomposition of

green manuring crops.

5) If Green manuring crops not buried at proper time becomes hard and takes more time for
decomposition ,as a result sowing of the main crop may be delayed.

6) There is no scope of green manuring in the land under intensive agriculture.

7) A risk involved in obtaining a satisfactory stand and growth of the green manuring crop is
sufficient rainfall is not available.

Nutrient Content of Some Green Manuring Crops:

N% P2O5 % K2O%

Glyricidia 2.76 0.28 4.60

Karanj 3.31 0.44 2.39

Neem 2.83 0.28 0.35

Sunhemp 2.30 0.50 1.80

Dhaincha 3.50 0.62 1.20

Sesbania 2.71 0.53 2.21

Sharad College of Agriculture, Jainapur

 Prof. Sarika R. Koli
[Link](Agri)

Chapter No.12 & 13

Sewage and Sludge,Biogas plant slurry ,their composition and effect on soil
and plant growth.
Sewage has two components

[Link] Portion –Technically known as Sludge

2) Liquid Portion- Commonly known as Sewage water.

Both the components of Sewage are used in increasing crop productivity as the contains plant
nutrients .But due to high bacterial contamination ,untreated Sewage and sludge should be used
for growing plants. So both the components of sewage are separated and given preliminary
treatment i.e. fermentation and oxidation to reduce the bacterial contamination ,offensive smell
and to narrow the C:N ratio of the solid portion.

Sludge: Sludge are prepared from sewage water by allowing it to stand in a settling tank to
relieve it of fix heavier mutation and oxidation of the organic matter in fresh [Link]
oxidized sludge is also called activated sludge.

Nutrient Content-1.5-3.5 % N,0.75 to 4 % P2O5 and 0.03-0.06 % K2O

Sewage water :Liquid collected from the close drains usually contain urine and washings,the
night soil and other solid ingredient .When raw sewage is treated to remove the solid portion or
sludge the water is technically called as Sewage water which can be used for irrigation purpose
.This irrigated water contains [Link] activated sludge and sewage water can be used safely for
manuring and irrigation of all field crops except vegetable which are eaten uncooked.

Nutrient Content-6-10 % N,3 to 4 % P2O5 and 3-4 % K2O

Biogas Plant Slurry

Gobar gas plant and slurry: Gobar gas plant is a system comprising of a gas holder
(container) and digestion chamber.
In which Gobar (Cow dung) can be treated anaerobically to produce two important and useful
items, namely fuel gas (Methane) and organic manure (Slurry). India was the first country in the
world to have develop a bio-gas plant on experimental basis.

Sharad College of Agriculture, Jainapur

 Prof. Sarika R. Koli
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Construction of Gobar gas plant:

• It has two parts 1) Digestor 2) Gas Container
• The gas digestor is a type of well which is dug and built below the ground level having a
depth and diameter depending upon the capacity.
• The digestor has a portion wall in the centre dividing it into two semicircular
compartments.
• It has two slanting cement pipes serving as inlet and outlet pipes.
• Fresh dung mixed with water flows in to the digestor through the inlet pipe and after
decomposing for nearly a month, it comes out in the form of slurry through outlet pipe
and stored in the manure pit.
• After drying, the slurry could be used to manure in the farm.
• During the decomposition, methane which is a produced is stored in the gas container, in
which a drum constructed of mild steel sheets.
• There is a supply pipe fitted on the top of drum, which carries methane gas for cooking.

Products from biogas plant:

1) Biogas

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2) Slurry
Nutrient content of cattle dung slurry
Dry matter- 5.0-8.0 %.
Organic matter- 60-70%.
Carbon- 35-42%.
Total Nitrogen- 1.8-2.2%.
C:N ratio- 17-22.

Sharad College of Agriculture, Jainapur

 Prof. Sarika R. Koli
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Chapter No.14-15

Integrated nutrient management; concept, components and importance.

Integrated Nutrient Management

It refers to maintainence of soil fertility and of plant nutrient supply at an optimum level for
sustaining the desired productivity through optimization of the benefits from all possible sources
of organic, inorganic and biological components in an integrated manner.
Concepts
1) Regulated nutrient supply for optimum crop growth and higher productivity
2) Improvement and maintainence of soil fertility
3) zero-adverse effect on agro-ecosystem quality by balanced fertilization of organic manures,
inorganic fertilizers and bio-inculant.

Components :
Non- conventional Gypsum, Pyrite, Phosphogypsum

Fertilizers

Organic Crop Residues Manures

INM

Non-Conventional Green Manures.

Sources
Biofertilizers
IPNS (Integrated Plant Nutrient system)
It is a systematic approach give equal emphasis to use of chemical fertilizers, biological
resources and system of nutrient enhancing soil fertility.
Importance
1) Increase organic matter through its application
2) Efficiently recycle the nutrients and solubilize - available nutrient fix up atmospheric nitrogen.
3) Improves Physiochemical and biological condition of soil
4). Increase number of favourable beneficial organism
5) Reduce erosion hazards

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6) Helps to improve problematic soils.

7) Reduces leaching losses of nutrients.

Components
1) Use of Chemical fertilizers and Mineral fertilizer
2) Nitrogenous fertilizers.
2) Phosphatic fertilizers
3) Potássic fertilizers
4) Complex Fertilizers
5) Gypsum, Dolomite
Manures
Manures are substances which are organ in origin and capable of supplying plant
nutrients in available form. Obtain from animal and plant waste product

Classification -
Bulky Organic Manures
Organic material of natural origin having greater volume per unit nutrient content. (C:N ratio
20:1)

a) Compost :- 1) Heap Method 2) Pit Method

1) Farm / village Compost - Prepare from waste products eg. straw, crop stubbles, crop residues
groundnut husk, s'cane strash, leaves, weeds lurine soak earth, litter etc.
2) Town compost - Prepare from the town refuse like night soil, street sweepings etc.
3) Vermicompost - The compost prepare from earthworm higher nutrients have highest grade
and high percentage of - casting ( excreta of earthroom)
1) Red worm - Lumbricus rubellus
2) Brandling worm - Eisenia toetida
3) Field Worm - Allobophora caliginosa.

b) FYM
1) Cattle Manure 2) Sheep Penning 3) Poultry Manure
Methods of Preparing of FYM
1) Trench Method 2)Gobar gas plant method 3) NADEP

C) Sewage and Sludge :-

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Sewage - Liquid collected from close drains usually contains urine and washings the night soil
and soil ingredients
Sludge - Settle sewage solids combine with varying amounts of water and dissolve material
removed from sewage by screening sedimentation.

D) Green Manuring
* Practice of ploughing or turning green plant tissue into the soil for the propose of improving
physical stolucture as fertility of soil.

Types
1) Green leaf manuring 2) Greenmanuring in-situ.
eg Glyricidia eg Sunhemp
Karanj Dhaincha
Sesabania speciosa Guar

Concentrated Organic Manure

Organic material of natural origin having small vol. per nutrient content C:N (10:1)
Concentrated Organic Manures
Organic material of natural origin having smaller volume per unit nutrient content
1) a) Edible oil cake (Use for cattle feeding)
1) Mustard Cake 2) Groundnut cake
3) Sesame bake 4) Linseed Cake .
b) Non-Edible oil cake (Use for manuring)
1) Cotton seed Cake 2) Karanj Cake 3) Neem lake
4) Mahua Cake 5) Castor Cake

2) Product from Slaughter House

1) Blood Meal - Manures preparing by using blood clots are collected from
slaughter house
2) Meat Mealy -
3) Bone Meals -
4) Fish Meal - Non edible fish carcasses (dead body) and offal ( waste
Material) are used to preparé fish meal
5) Poultry Manure - Excreta of birds - ferment quick

3) Guano -

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Material obtain from the excreta and a dead bodies of sea birds.

Fertilizers :-
These are beneficial microorganism which fixes atmospheric nitrogen and phosphate
solubilisation and used for application to seed or soil which increase nutrient availability in a
form which is easily available to plants
A) Nitrogen Fixers
1) a) symbiotic - found in intimate association with legume.
1) Rhizobiung.
b) Non-symbiotic found in association with cereal millets and vegetables
2) Azotobactor
2) Blue-Green Algae - They are also called cyanobacteria For atmospheri
help of nitrogen in wat land condition with the specilised cell called heterocyst
eg Anabaena, Nostac etc.
B) a) Phosphatic solubilising Bacteria - solubilize the inorganic p into soluble form by enzyme
action or by secreting organic auds
eg Bacteria - Bacillus rathonia
Bacillus putide
Fungi - Azospirillium niger
Azospirillium lavas
Pencillium - Pencillium oxysporium
Pencillium digitatum

VAM - Vesicular - Arbuscular Mycorrhyza Phosphorystron

* Helps in mobilisation of root to the plants
* Observe in crops like citrus, papaya etc. c

C) sulphur oxidising Bacteria a sulphur

Convert the organic form to inorganic form for plant nutrition, which is called sulphur
Mineralisation.

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Difference
Green Manure Compost
1) Prepare by cultivation of some crops and 1) Prepare from plant residue or animal
afterward ploughing or taurning waste product in a particular place of farm
them into the soil
2) Becomes ready within a short time 2) Require 4-5 months for short field
application
3) Prepare in field itself hence no cost of of 3) Prepare in farm and for application in field it
transportation involver required transportation hence cost of
transportation involve

4) It should be timely ploughed in soil 4) No such limitation exist in case of compost

otherwise decomposition of green manure may
be delayed.
5) feasible in area of assured irrigation Facility 5) No such limitation exist
6) The crob is to be transplanted in 4-5 week 6)The crop is to be transplanted just
of burial of green manuring crob. afterapplication of composto

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Chapter No. 16 & 17

Fertilizer; Definition and their classification; N fertilizers: classification,

manufacturing process and properties their fate and reaction in soils. N
fertilizers - classification manufacturing process and Properties their fate and
reaction in soils.
Plants needs air, water and food for their adequate growth. The elements required
in greatest quantity of nitrogen, phosphorus, Potassium and calcium. Plants absorbs them from
the soil by means of their fine roots hairs in a state of solution or liquid condition. A fertilizer
refers to a material added to the soil in order to supply chemical elements needed for plant
nutrition and to improve soil fertility.
Defination- Fertilizers are inorganic materials which can supply plant nutrient is
available form, having, high analytical value and having a definite composition and mostly are
industrial products.
Classification of Fertilizers :
Fertilizers are classified according to the major nutrient content of individual fertilizer
such as -
1) Nitrogenous fertilizers
2) Phosphatic fertilizers
3) Potassic fertilizers
1) Nitrogenous fertilizers
a) Nitrate fertilizers -
Nitrogen is combined as NO3 or nitrate with other elements such fertilizers are
Sodium nitrate (NaNO3) - 16%N
calcium nitrate [Ca(NO3) – 15.5% N

b) Ammonium fertilizers
In these fertilizers nitrogen is combined in ammonium (NH4) form with other elements,
Ammoinum Sulphate [(NH4)2 SO4] - 20% N
Ammonium phosphate ( NH4 H2PO4) - 20% N + 20% P2O5
or 16% N + 20% P2O5
Ammonium chloride (NH4Cl)) 24 to 26% N
Anhydrous ammonia 82%N
Ammonia solution 20 to 25% N

c) Nitrate and ammonium fertilizers :-

Fertilizers contain nitrogen in the form of both nitrate and ammonium

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Ammonium Nitrate - (NH4NO3) - 33 to 34 %N

Calcium ammonium nitrate - 26% N
Ammonium sulphate nitrate - 26% N
d) Amide Fechilies :-
Fertilizers contains nitrogen in amide form
Urea [CO (NH2) 2] - 46%N.
Calcium Cynamide - CaNCN - 21% N

General Characteristics of Nitrate fertilizers -

• Nitrate fertilizers are obtained as natural products from Salt deposists and as
manufactured products from Synthetic ammonia
• Nitrogen present in nitrate fertilizers is in nitrate form (NO3-) which are rapidly
dissociated in the soil solutions to release NO3- ions and it is readily absorbed by plants
• Nitrate group are soluble in water and hygroscopic. (hygroscopic fertilizers absorb
moisture from atomsphere to becomes Sticky)
• Nitrate ions being highly reactive and mobile are susceptible to losses due to leaching
and under water logged conditions by nitrification
• On dry oils, nitrate fertilizers are superior to the other forms of nitrogeneous fertilizers
• Nitrate fertilizers are generally basic in there residual effect on the soils
• Nitrate fertilizers are generally applied as basal dressing and are very often used as top or
side dressing. They have an advantage that nitrogen reaches the root zone quickly even
by broad casting the fertilizers on the surface of soil
* General Properties of Ammonical fertilizers -
• Ammonia in these fertilizers is obtained either as a by- product from the destructive
distillation of coal or from synthetic ammonia plants. Where it is produced by combining
hydrogen with nitrogen taken from the air.
• Ammonium fertilizers are readily soluble in water and as such absorbed on the soil and
thus protected from being washed away by runoff or by leaching.
• Ammonium fertilizers are not hydroscopic but they are Acidic in their residual effect on
the soil.
• Ammonium fertilizers are less readily available to plant than nitrate fertilizers
• The ammonical nitrogen has to be nitrite to nitrate in the soil before it can be absorbed by
the plants except Paddy
• Paddy Prefers ammonium form of nitrogen in early stage
• The ammonium fertilizers may be used as basal and top- dressing
• All ammonium fertilizers are acidic in there residual effect on the soils.

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* General Properties of Nitrate of Ammonium fertilizers

• The fertilizers of this group contaiń nitrogen in both nitrate and ammonium form. The
fertilizers of this group are soluble in water & suitable for most of the crops & soils
• The fertilizers of this group are hydroscopic
• The nitrate nitrogen is readily available to plant for growth and the ammonium nitrogen
resist leaching loss and provides a steady source of nitrogen
• -The fertilizers are of this group ace acidic in their residual effect on the soil except
Calcium Ammonium Nitrate (CAN) which is neutral in reaction.
• The fertilizers of this group may be used as basal ant top dressing.
* Amide fertilizers -
Amide fertilizers (eg. urea, calcium cynamide) are Synthetic organic fertilizers. These
materials basically contains carbon and hence technically classified as organic compound
• Amide fertilizers are readily soluble in water and hydroscopic in nature and easily
decomposed by micro organism the soil
• When amide fertilizers applied is (soil, they are not directly available to plant but quickly
converted to ammonical nitrogen and then nitrate due to action f soil micro organism.
The conversion of amide into ammonical and nitrate form takes about 6-7days.
• Leaching loss is very less because once amide is converted to ammonical form, it is
absorbed by soil colloids and slowly released from ammonia into nitrites and then to
nitrates
• The amide forms (mostly area) is being used for foliar spraying over the crop canopy
with greater promise and success.
Manufacture of urea -
Urea is manufactured by reacting pure ammonia with pure carbon dioxide under
condition of high temperature (175 - 210°C) and pressure (170-400 atmospheric pressure). The
reactions involved are as follows:
2NH3 + CO2 NH2COONH4
ammonium carbamate

dehydration
NH2COONH4 NH2COONH4+ H2O

urea unchanged
NH3 NH3

urea unchanged
CO2 CO2

urea unchanged

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NH2COONH4 NH2COONH4

Amníonia reacts with carbon dioxide to form ammonium carbamate. A substantial fraction
of ammonium carbamate dehydrates to yield urea and water. Portions of ammonia, carbon
dioxide and ammonium carbamate remain unchanged. Thus, the reaction products consist of
urea, water, ammonia carbon dioxide and ammonium carbamate. Here, ammonia and carbon
dioxide are called off gases.
Though the above set of reactions is widely accepted, another set of reaction has
also been suggested to show the formation of urea. Here, compressed carbon dioxide gas and
heated liquid ammonia are reacted at 190-270 atmospheric pressure and 180-195°C temperature
to yield urea and ammonium carbonate (not carbamate) :
4NH3 + 2CO2 CO(NH2)2 + (NH2)2CO3
The ammonium carbonate is dehydrated to form urea and water
dehydration
(NH4)2 CO3 CO (NH2)2 + H2O

Fractions of ammonia, carbon dioxide and ammonium carbonate remain unchanged

unchanged
NH3 NH3

unchanged
CO2 CO2

unchanged
(NH4)2 CO3 (NH4)2 CO3

Manufacture and Properties of Nitrogen Fertilizers

The off gases (NH3 and CO2) and unchanged ammonium carbamate are next separated,
recovered and recycled by several processes as follows :
(i) Once-through process.
(ii) Total recycle process.
(iii) Partial recycle process.
Once-through process
Excess ammonia and carbon dioxide are reacted in a reactor (autoclave). The reaction
products, such as urea, water, ammonia, carbon dioxide and ammonium carbamate are passed
through stripper where ammonium carbamate is separated. Off gases, such as ammonia and
carbon dioxide are escaped from the stripper. The separated ammonium carbamate and escaped

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off gases (NH3 and CO2) are not recycled in the reactor for their further reaction to form urea.
The urea and water in the form of urea solution come out from the stripper. The urea solution
(80-82 per cent) is either used directly in nitrogen solution or solidified by crystallization or
prilling. In this process, about 70-75% carbon dioxide and 32% ammonia are converted to urea.

Total recycle process

In this process, the off gases (NH3 and CO2) and unchanged ammonium carbamate are totally
reused for further reaction to form urea. Here, ammonium carbamate is reused by two ways as
follows :

1. After separation from urea solution, the ammonium carbamate, as such, is returned together
with the off gases (NH3 and CO2) to the reactor where urea is formed.

2. After separation from urea solution, the ammonium carbamate is decomposed (in
decomposers) to form ammonia and carbon dioxide:

NH4COONH4 + 2NH3 + CO2

These ammonia and carbon dioxide together with the off gases (NH3 + CO2) are returned
to the reactor where urea is formed. The conversion of ammonia and carbon dioxide to urea
approaches 100%.

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Partial recycle process -

In this process, usually ammonia of the off gases is returned to the reactor for its further
reaction to form urea. Carbon dioxide, the other off gas, is not similarly reused for production of
urea. In some plants, the unchanged ammonium carbamate, after its separation from urea
solution, is returned to the reactor for its further reaction to form urea. In process where only
ammonia is reused the conversion of ammonia to urea increases from 32% in once-through
process upto about 56%.

In process where ammonia and ammonium carbamate are reused the conversion of
ammonia increases further upto about 80%. Here, the conversion of carbon dioxide to urea
increases from 75% in once-through process upto 95%.

Solidification of Urea Solution

The urea solution (80-82%) obtained from the above mentioned process is solidified by
two processes as follows :
1. Crystallization
2. Prilling
Crystallization -

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The urea solution obtained from the production plant is concentrated and filtered to remove the
solid impurities followed by further concentration to form crystals. The crystals are separated
from mother liquor by centrifugal force. The mother liquor is returned to the first concentrator
for further crystallization. The crystals are dried to reduce the moisture content to less than 0.3%
by a stream of hot air and then packed in moisture-proof bags. Sometimes, the crystals are coated
with moisture repellent material, such as clay.

Prilling

The dry crystals are melted in a steam heated melter fitted at the top of the prilling tower.
The molten urea is sprayed downward inside the tower to form prills (or pellets or shots). Air is
circulated upward through the tower to cool the prills. The prills are accumulated at the base of
the tower. The pellets are collected, screened and bagged.

Properties of Urea-
1) Urea is an Organic fertilizer and is a cheapest source of nitrogen
2) It contains about 46%, Nitrogen, an amount is not found in any other commercial solid
fertilizers soluble in water.
3) Urea is a crystalline salt

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4) Urea having hygroscopic nature hence absorb moisture from the air.
5) It is neither explosive nor a fire hazardous.
6) There is least pollution with urea.
7) It is less acidic in residual effect, compared to Ammonium Sulphate.
8) It is also suitable for foliar application, without any harmful effect.

2) Sodium Nitrate (NaNo3)

Sodium nitrate occurs in natural impure deposits also known as caliche. It has impurities
like common salt,gypsum,borates & earth. The mined products are dissolved in warm water and
solution obtained is then seperated and cooled at almost freezing point. This gives crystals of
sodium nitrates

N2 + 3H2 2NH3

Catalyst
4NH3 + 5O2 NO+6O2
4NO +2O2 4NO2

4NO2 + 2O2 + 3H2O + 2Na2CO3 4NaNO3+ 2H2O+2CO2

Properties of sodium nitrate-

1) Sodium nitrate is a white salt, highly soluble in water.
2) It is highly hygroscopic in nature results in difficulty in storing. It should be stored in dry ware
house.
3) It causes fire hazard.
4) It contains about 16.0% nitrogen in nitrate form and 27.0 % sodium
5) It is a basic fertilizer it reduces the avidity. Hence it is particularly useful for acidic soils.

Uses
It is a good fertilizer for wheat, maize, barley, cotton and sugarcane. It is also good for
top and side dressing It is not suitable fertilizer for water logged condition. Because under this
condition, large portion of fertilizer is lost by leaching. It can be used very efficiently in acid and
semi acid zones. Sodium Nitrate may damage the Structure of soil by reducing flocculation, it

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applied in large quantities Sodium nitrate, it applied in alkali soil, will aggravate make worse the
alkalinity.

3) Ammonium sulphate -
Ammonium sulphate is well known nitrogenous fertilizer. It is widely used fertilizer in
our country. Ammonium sulphate is a quick acting fertilizer, it is manufactured by the following
two processes.

1) Gypsum process.
2) By product process.

1) Gypsum Process -
The main raw materials required in the gypsum process are ammonia, Pulverised
Calcium Sulphate, carbons dioxide and water. Briefly, the process consist of making

1) Ammonia by the synthesis of nitrogen and hydrogen &

2) Ammonium carbonate by reacting ammonia with carbondioxide gas (C02). Finally ground
gypsum is reached with a solution of ammonium carbonate to produce ammonium sulphate &
calcium carbonate the reactions are

3H2 + H2 2NH3
( Hydrogen) ( Hydrogen ) ( Ammonia )

2NH3 + 2H2O + CO2 (NH4) 2 CO2 + H2O

(Ammonia) (water) (carbon dioxide) (Ammonium Carbonate) (water)

(NH4) 2 CO2 + CaSO4 (NH4) 2 SO4 + CaCO3

(Ammonium (Gypsum) (Ammonium Sulphate) Calcium Carbonate
Carbonate)

2) By - Product Process - (By-product of Coal Steel Industry)

Coal contains, on an average, about one percent of nitrogen. Ammonium
sulphate has been for years, a by product of coal [Link] coal is distilled in closed retorts
or ovens, a portion of nitrogen is volatilized. volatilised ammonia and ammonium salt are
retained in the 'wash-water' slaked lime is added to this so called ammonical liquor which is then

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distilled & the ammonia so produced is absorbed is sulphuric acid. Ammonia and sulphuric acid,
combine to give ammonium sulphate:

(NH4)2 CO3 + Ca (OH)2 2NH3 + 2H20 + CaCO3

Ammonium Slaked lime Ammonia Calcium
Carbonate Carbonate

Ammonia Liquior
2NH3 + H2SO4 (NH4)2SO4
Ammonia Sulphuric acid Ammonium Sulphate

*Properties -
1) Ammonium Sulphate is a white crystalline salt

2) It is to some extent hygroscopic in nature. It absorbs some moisture which help to form hard
lump known as caking during rainy season. It stores well - under dry condition.
3) It contains 20.6 – 21.0 % Ammonical nitrogen and 24 % sulphur, having good storage quality

4) It is most suitable for Paddy as this converted quickly to nitrate by nitrifying bacteria.

5) It is very soluble in water and it becomes readily available to the crop after it is applied to
crop.

(NH4) 2S04 2NH4+ + SO4-

6) It is a quick acting fertilizer and absorbed on clay & humus colloid replacing calcium .

7) Ammonia gas is evolved when ammonium Sulphate is used together in the Soil, ammonia gas
is produced.

8) Ammonium sulphate is physiologically acidic in nature.

* Uses -
Ammonium Sulphate is a useful fertilizer for all crops and for a wide variety of soil. It
can be applied either at sowing time or as top dressing ie. during the growing period of the crop.
It can also be applied prior to sowing. But it should not be applied with seed at a time.

It is advisable to close this fertilizer in conjugation with bulky organic manure.

Ammonium sulphate supply sulphur also to soil. Paddy takes up nitrogen in ammonical form in

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early stage and nitrate form in later stage. So, ammonium sulphate is best suited for basal
dressing and top dressing of paddy field.

4) Ammonium Chloride (NH2Cl ) -

Ammonium chloride is white crystalline compound. It contains 25% N and possess good
physical condition This fertilizer contains nitrogen in ammonical form as such it is a good
fertilizer food for paddy.

a) Ammonium chloride is manufactured by sodium chloride is treated with ammonia and carbon
dioxide to form ammonium chloride and sodium bicarbonate. The resulting ammonium chloride
is then precipitated from the solution.

NaCl + CO2 + NH3 + H2O NH4 Cl + NaHCO3

(Sodium (Ammonium (Sodium
chloride) chloride) bicarbonate)

b) Ammonium chloride is obtained by double decomposition between ammonium sulphate &

sodium chloride at 1030 C.
(NH4) 2SO4 + 2 NaCl 2NH4Cl + Na2SO4
(Ammonium Ammonium Chloride) (Sodium chloride)
sulphate)
The solubility of sodium sulphate is less than ammonium chloride. So ammonium
chloride can separated by the process of crystallization

Properties of ammonium chloride -

1) Ammonium Chloride is white crystalline compound & it possesses a good physical condition

2) It contains 25%, ammonical nitrogen

3) It is very much soluble in water than ammonium & sulphate and in water it is dissociated into
ammonium and hydrogen chloride.

4) It is resistant to leaching and it has to be nitrified to nitrate before it can be taken up by the
growing plants.

5)Ammonia gas is evolved when mixed with any alkali substances like sodium hydroxide,
calcium hydroxide etc.

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6) It contain chlorine and as such acts a decalcifying fertilizer. In the presence of calcium
carbonate in soil, it gives rise to soluble calcium chloride which leaches down beyond the root
zone. Thus m applications & NH4Cl the soil loses calcium from the soil.

7) It is more acidic fertilizer compared to ammonium

sulphate

Uses-
Ammonium chloride is suitable for fertilization of paddy. It may be applied either at
sowing top dressing. It is usually not recommended for tomatoes, tobacco and such other crop as
they may be injured by chloride

5) Ammonium Nitrate (NH4NO3 ) -

Ammonium nitrate is also a nitrogenous. fertilizer. But it is not manufactured in India and
its imported on a limited scale.

Ammonium nitrate is manufactured by neutralization of ammonia with nitric acid under

controlled condition. Nitric acid the manufacture of which possible, from oxidised ammonia.

NH3 + 2O2 + H2O HNO3

Ammonia Nitric acid

HNO3+NH3 NH4NO3
Ammonium Nitrate
Reactions NH3
N + H NH3
catalyst -H2O
NH3 + O2 HNO3

NH3 + HNO3 NH4NO3

Mixing of Ammonium nitrate liqiuor with limestone into 4:6 Ratio
NH4NO3 + CaCO3 CaCO3 NH4NO3
limestone CAN
Properties of Ammonium nitrate -
1) Ammonium nitrate is white crystalline salt.

2) It is very soluble in water highly hygroscopic in nature.

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3) It contains 62.0 - 35.0 % N, half in ammonium form & half in nitrate form & the former is
resistant to leaching

4) It is quick acting fertilizer, highly explosive and required careful handling and storage.

5) It is acidic in reaction

* Uses -

It is Suitable fertilizer for all crops and for a wide variety of soil. It may be applied either at
sowing time or as top dressing. It is an excellent fertilizer material for direct application to the
soil.

Calcium Ammonium nitrate -

Calcium Ammonium nitrate (CAN) is a mixture of calcium carbonate and Ammonium

nitrate

Manufacture of calcium Ammonium nitrate

Water is eleectrolysed in an electrolysis plant, to give hydrogen and oxygen. Air is

liquified in an air liquefaction plant to give nitrogen and oxygen.

Nitrogen and Hydrogen are then compressed and passed over ammonium catalyst. in
ammonia plant to obtain ammonia. A part of the ammonia is oxidised with oxygen enriched air
in the nitric acid plant & and absorbed in water to give nitric acid. The rest of ammonia is reacted
with nitric acid to give ammonium nitrate liquor. This liquor concentrated & mixed with lime
stone so as to form nitro-lime stone for calcium ammonium nitrate granules. These granules are
dried, cooled and coated with a suitable material to give the final finished fertilizer.

* Properties of CAN

1) Calcium ammonium nitrate is a fine free flowing light brown or grey granular fertilizer.

2) It contains 25 % nitrogen, 50% of which is in ammonical form and remaining 50% in nitrate
form.

3) It is readily soluble in water, but it is resistant to leaching

4) It is very hygroscopic, so it needs special care during handling.

5) It is almost neutral and can be safely applied even to acid soil.

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Uses –

Calcium ammonium nitrate is suitable fertilizer for al all crops and for wide variety of soil. It
may be applied as basal dressing and top dressing,

Reactions of nitrogenous fertilizers in soil-

1) Ammonium sulphate - (Ammonium Fertilizers)-

Ammonium sulphate is specially suitable for soil deficient to sulphur and for salt affected
soils. It is a quick acting fertilizer, absorbed on the soil colloids (clay & humus), replacing
calcium. Thus it is resistance to leaching and because of this may be more suitable than nitrates
for use of at planting time. It is also suitable for wet land rice as leaching losses of NH4-N are
very less. The absorption of NH4+ by soil colloids can be represented as follows

NH4

(NH4)2SO4 + Ca- soil Soil + CaSO4

NH4 Leaching(calcium sulphate)
Calcium sulphate so formed, may be leached and lost in drainage water
particularly in a humid climate. In this way the loss of soil calcium takes places due to
application of ammonium sulphate.
The adsorbed portion is slowly released and is subjected to various fates -

- It may be directly absorbed by higher plants specially by rice and potato.

- It may be trapped in to lattice of expending type of clay minerals like illite and fixed in to
biologically unavailable form.

- It may be utilised by hetertotropic organisms in further decomposition of organic carbon

residues.

-It may be converted in to nitrites and nitrates by nitrification process which takes nearly 7-10
days time.

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Sharad College of Agriculture, Jainapur

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Shri. Shamrao Patil (Yadravkar) Educational and Charitable Trusts

SHARAD COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE,

JAINAPUR
(Affiliated to M. P. K. V., Rahuri)
Tal: Shirol Dist: Kolhapur (Maharashtra) India 416 101
E-mail : [Link]@[Link] Web: [Link]

NOTES
Course No.: SSAC- 353
Credit: 3 (2+1)
Course Title:Manures,Fertilizers &
Soil Fertility Management

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Syllabus

Lesson Topic
Weightage
(%)
1&2 History of soil fertility and plant nutrition.
3
3&4 Soil as a source of plant nutrients, essential and beneficial
5
nutrients and their role. Criteria of essentiality, forms of
nutrients in soil.
5, & 6 Introduction and importance of organic manures. Sources 5
of organic matter, recycling, composition and C:N ratio.
7, 8 & 9 Definition, properties and classification of bulky and 6
concentrated organic manures, their composition and
nutrient availability. Preparation of FYM, composts,
different methods of composting, decomposition process
and nutrient losses during handling and storage.
10 & 11 Vermicomposting, green manuring; types, advantages and 5
disadvantages and nutrient availability.
12 & 13 Sewage and sludge, Biogas plant slurry; their composition 5
and effect on soil and plant growth.
14 & 15 Integrated nutrient management; concept, components and 6
importance.
16 & 17 Fertilizer; Definition and their classification; N fertilizers: 6
classification, manufacturing process and properties their
fate and reaction in soils.
18 & 19 Phosphatic fertilizers, manufacturing process and 5
properties, classification, their fate and reaction in soils.
20& 21 Potassic fertilizers: classification, manufacturing process, 5
properties, their fate and reaction in soils. Complex
fertilizers their fate and reaction in the soil. Nano
fertilizers.
22 & 23 Secondary &micronutrient fertilizers: Types, composition, 5
reaction in soil and effect on crop growth. Soil
amendments.
24 Handling and storage of fertilizers: Fertilizer control order. 3
25 & 26 Mechanism of nutrient transport to plants: Factors 6
affecting nutrient availability to plants. Measures to
overcome deficiencies and toxicities.
27,28 & 29, Chemistry of soil N,P, K, calcium, magnesium, sulphur 6

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Lesson Topic
Weightage
(%)
and micronutrients.
30 & 31 Soil fertility evaluation and different approaches. 6
32 Soil Testing (Available nutrients) :Chemical methods and 6
critical levels of different nutrients in soil.
33 Plant analysis methods : Critical levels of nutrients, DRIS 6
approach, rapid tissue test, indicator plants. Soil test based
fertilizer recommendations to crops.
34 & 35 Methods and scheduling of nutrient applications for 6
different soils and crops grown under rain fed and irrigated
conditions.
36 Factors influencing nutrients use efficiency (NUE) in 5
respect of N, P, K, S, Fe and Zn fertilizers.
Total 100

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Chapter -18-19
Phosphatic fertilizers, manufacturing process and properties, classification,
their fate and reaction in soils.
The main phosphatic fertilizers at the present time is superphosphate, all phosphatic
fertilizers is esperersed in forms of percentages g phosphorus pentaoxide (P 2O5). Phosphorus
nutrient is commonly expressed by the P2O5. The correct name of P2O5is phosphorus pentaoxide,
the form 'phosphoric acids' should have becomes universal in the fertilizer trade & in agriculture
practice, while the phosphatic fertilizers is guaranteed to contain certain percentage of P 2O5.

Classification of Phosphatic Fertilizer-

Phosphatic fertilizer are classified in to three groups depending upon the form in which
orothophosphoric acid / phosphoric acid is combined with calcium
I) Monocalcium / water soluble phosphate.
II) Dicalcium/ Citric acid soluble phosphate
III) Tricalcium / Insoluble phosphate

I) Monocalcium / Water Soluble Phosphate

1) single super phosphate - 16% P2O5
2) Double super phosphate - 32% P2O5
3) Triple super phosphate - 48% P2O5
4) Ammonium phosphate - 20%N 20% P2O5
16%N 20% P2O5
II) Dicalcium/ Citric acid soluble phosphate
1) Basic slag - 14-18% P2O5
2) Di-calcium phosphate - 34 – 39% P 2O5.
3) Rhenania phosphate - 23 - 26 % P2O5
4) Raw and steamed bone meal - (part of P2O5)

III) Tricalcium / Insoluble phosphate-

1) Rock phosphate - 20- 40% P2O5
2) Raw bone meal - 20 - 25% P2O5
3) Steamed bone meal - 22% P2O5.

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General characterstics of phosphatic fertilizers

1) Water soluble / Monocalcium phosphate →
-This is readily soluble in water and is the most important compound in phosphorus as H 2PO4
ion, fertilizers containing monocalcium phosphate supply the nutrient in an available form.
-They contain water-soluble phosphatic fertilizer which can be absorbed quickly, Plants absorbs
phosphorus as H2PO4ions.
Thus the nutrient in these fertilizer is available to plants is the young stage when root system is
not fully developed
- Water Soluble Phosphatic phosphoric acid is rapidly transformed in the soil into water
insoluble form, there is little danger of loss of nutrient by leaching with soluble phosphatic
fertilizers.
- These fertilizers should be used on neutral to alkaline soil but not an acidic acid soils under
acidic conditions, water soluble phosphatic acid soils in to unavailable iron and aluminium
phosphate.

Characteristics of different forms of Phosphatic fertilizers.

Characteristics Water Soluble phosphatic Citrate soluble Water & Citrate insoluble
fertilizers Phosphatic fertilizers Phosphatic fertilizers

Percentage of P2O5 SSP - 16-20% Double Basic slag: 3- Rock phosphate - 20-
super phosphate - 30- 8%Dicalcium Phosphate 40%
35% 35-40% Bone meal 20-30%

solubility Soluble Soluble in citric acid Insoluble

water
Availability of nutrient Quickly available Slowly available Very Slowly available

Hydroscopic Non hygroscopic Non hygroscopic Non hygroscopic

Losses of Nutrient by Leaching loss is very No leaching loss No leaching loss

Leaching slow

Method and time of Broad casting one to Broad casting 15 -30 day 60 days before sowing or
application in soil. seven days before sowing before sowing or planting planting of crops.
or planting of the crop of crops

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2) Citric acid soluble / Dicalcium phosphate -

- This is not soluble in water, but dissolves readily in weak dilute acid such as 2% citric acid.
This is commonly expressed as citric and soluble phosphate, since plants utilised Phosphorus as
HPO4 these salts contains available plant nutrient.

-Fertilizers of this group are particularly suitable to acidic soils , because with low pH, citrate
Soluble phosphoric acid get converted in to monocalcium phosphate or water soluble phosphate,
and there are less chance of phosphate getting fixed as iron and aluminium phosphate.

- As a result of the basic reaction and calcium content, they act particularly well on acidic soils.
As such, this group of fertilizers is well suited for laterite & acidic soils.

3) Insoluble / Tricalcium phosphate -

- It is neither readily soluble in water nor in weak acids but dissolved in strong minerals acids.

- These fertilizers are well suited for strongly acidic soils or organic soil which require large
quantity of phosphatic fertilizers to raise the soil fertility.

- The availability of such fertilizers is also increased if these are ploughed under with green
manuring crop other organic materials.

Reactions of single super-phosphate in soils -

Neutral soils-

In slightly acid, neutral and alkaline (calcareous) soils, mono calcium phosphate present io
superperphosphate is converted in dicalcium & trialcium phosphate as indicated below

Ca(H2PO4)2 + Ca(HCO3)2 2CaHPO4 + 2H2CO3

Monocalcium Calcium Dicalcium Carbonic acid

phosphate bicarbonate Phosphate

2) Alkaline soils :

Ca(H2PO4)2 + 2CaHPO4 Ca3(PO4)2 + H3PO4

Monocalcium Dicalcium Iron Carbonic
phosphate phosphate phosphate acid

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Thus monocalcium phosphate present in superphosphate converted into dicalcium

phosphate and tricalcium phosphate, Dicalcium Phosphate is slowly dissolved in water
containing carbonic acid and becomes available to growing plants, while tricalcium phosphate
being insoluble, remains in the soil as fixed phosphate.

3) Acidic soils-

In case of acidic soils, the dissolved monocalcium phosphate combines with iron
and aluminium to form iron and aluminium phosphates. In this case, many complex reactions
take place one possible reaction is given below.

Ca ( H2PO4)2 + Fe 2 O3 2 Fe PO4 + CaHPO4 + 3H2O

Monocalcium Iron Oxide Iron Dicalcium Water

Phosphate Phosphate Phosphate
In a short time, water soluble phosphate becomes insoluble that plants can utilise
very little of it Thus in acidic soil's super phosphate is immediately converted in to insoluble
forms.

Manufacturing Processes and Properties of Phosphatic fertilizers -

A short description of the method of manufacture and physical and chemical properties of
each fertilizers is given below -
Single Super Phosphate
This is the oldest artificially produced fertilizers and it's manufacture dates back to 1842
when Lawes prepared in England from rock phosphate of sulphuric acid.

Super phosphate is manufactured by approximately equal(70%) amount of

rock phosphate and concentrated sulphuric acid (H2SO4) are weighted seperately and mixed for
about one minute in mechanical rotators. The warm mixture then falls through a flat in to a huge
den, where chemical reactions continue. The mixture is left in the den for twelve hours to harden
and cool down. Thereafter, it is removed by a travelling crane or conveyar & deposited in a large
shed to manage. After some weeks, it becomes ready for use. The following chemical reactions
take place. The main reaction involved is as follow :

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Ca3(PO4)2 + 2 H2SO4 Ca (H2 PO4)2 + CaSO4 + impurities

(Rock (sulphuric (Mono calcium (Gypsum)
phosphate) acid)) phosphate)

Above reaction takes place in two steps: -

-In first step, phosphoric acid and Gypsum is formed.
-In second step this phosphoric acid reacts with rock phosphate and give mono calcium
phosphate.

1) 2Ca3(PO4)2 + 6 H2SO4 4H3 PO4 + 6CaSO4

2) 4H3 PO4 + Ca3(PO4)2 3Ca (H3 PO4)2

3) Ca3 (PO4)2 + 2 H2SO4 + 5 H2O Ca (H3 PO4)2 2 H2O + 2CaSO4

Thus Super phosphate has two ingredient - monocalcium phosphate and gypsum.
Two processes are used for the manufacturing of singe super phosphate

1) Batch process
2) Continuous process.

1) Batch Process - It is old process

Explained as above.

2) Continuous process - This process is an improved form of batch process in which convey or
belt is used in place of den. Fine powder of rock phosphate and conc. sulphuric acid regularly
fall in a conc. mixture mixer f then collected in continuous den where mixture stands for 30
minutes. After that material goes to Storage pile for maturity. This procedure is being used in
modern plants.

Ca3 (PO4)2 + 2 H2SO4 2Ca (H2PO4)2 + CaSo4 + impurities

Ca3 (PO4)2 + 4H2PO4 3Ca (H2PO4)2 + impurities

* Properties-

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1) Super phosphate (single) is a grayish fertilizer contains 16% P2O5 with good keeping quality
or storage quality.

2) Sometimes, it is slightly moist with an acid odour, but generally it is dry and contains no
lumps

3) It should be stored in moisture proof godown to prevent conversion of monocalcium

phosphate to dicalcium and tricalcium phosphate

4) It has a residual effect as 10-20 percent of applied phosphate is utilized by the crop, the
availability of phosphorus depends on soil pH

5) When super phosphate is applied to a moist soil or to a dry soil before rainfall or irrigation the
monocalcium phosphate gets dissolved in the soil [Link] roots of growing plants easily
takes this form of phosphoric acid

Enriched Superphosphate-

Single Superphosphate containing 16 to 18% P2O5 is becoming costlier due to nutrient

content an high cost of production. Mahalingam(1974) after conducting series of experiments.
has worked out the process for manufacturing of enriched Superphosphate containing 32% P 2O5
utilising phosphoric acid and sulphuric acid as raw material, in the conventional super phosphate
mixer & den. The term enriched superphosphate applies to a product obtained by the acidulation
of rock phosphate with a mixture of sulphuric acids, it is essential that the rock Phosphate is
ground to about 45 per cent passing through a 200 mesh screen. The phosphoric acid and
Sulphuric acid should be properly diluted and added to the conventional cone of single super
Phosphate plants. To reduce the power consumptions in the mixer, it is preferable to add Surface
active agents. The mixed super phosphate is send form the mixer to conventional dens and then
cured & bagged.

Ammonium phosphate →

Ammonium phosphates are 1) highly concentrated sources of water soluble nutrients

2)which may be easily mixed with any fertilizer and the mixture remains 3) granular for easy
handling, How and [Link] material may be manufactured by granulation techniques
which utilizes wet process phosphoric acid without excessive purification.

There are two popular types of ammonium Phosphate -

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1 Monoammonium phosphate (NH4H2PO4) MAP

2) Di ammonium phosphate (NH4)2HPO4 DAP

Of these two the diammonium phosphate is four times more soluble in water than
monoammonium phosphate. In India 36.1% of the total phosphatic Fertilizers produced in the
country during 1996-97 was diammonium phosphate. Both the DAP ( Diammonium phosphate)
grades ie. [Link] and [Link]. where manufactured by Wet Process Phosphoric acid. Wet
process Phosphoric acid of about (40 - 42%). P2O5 equivalent partially neutralised to about 89%
by anhydrous ammonia at a pH 5.6.

The chemical equation involved in the manufacturing of ammonium phosphates are mentioned
below:

NH3 + H3PO4 NH4 H2PO4 ( Monoammonium phosphate)

(phosphoric
acid)
2NH3 + H3PO4 (NH4 )2H2PO4 (Diammonium phosphate)

Ammonium (Polyphosphate)

Ammonium polyphosphate are usually fluid Sources of Phosphorus prepared by reacting

super phosphoric acid with anhydrous ammonia. The solutions of phosphoric acid in 32 -54%
concentration range contain most of the acid in the ortho form but higher concentration of P2O5
induce the formation of non-ortho components, polymers and condensation products.
Superphosphoric acid is highly concentrated acid and hence has ortho (H 3PO4 ), Pyro( H4P207)
and tripoly Phosphoric acid (H5 P3 O9).

Water Soluble chain polymer phosphates have been made by boiling potassium.
Phosphate with ammonium chloride the resulting Solution is filtered & cooled, on an adding
acetone to it, the polyphosphates are precipitated which can be seperated out through two phase
action. Ammonium polyphosphate is usually equal or slightly to mono amino phosphate as a
source of phosphorus.

Management of Phosphaticfertilizers -

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1) Water Soluble Phosphatic fertilizers are suitable for Slightly acidic, neutral or alkaline soils.

2) Water soluble Phosphatic fertilizers are applied to soils when crop requires a quick start

3) Water soluble Phosphatic fertilizers are suitable for Short duration crops like paddy,wheat,
jowar, ragi, maize soybean, cabbage, cauliflower, and vegetable crop

4) Citrate soluble phosphatic fertilizers are suitable for moderately acidic soils, long duration
crops like sugar cane, tapioca, tea, coffee, legume & pastures.

5) Insoluble phosphatic fertilizers are suitable for the soil which is strongly to extremely acidic
and long duration fruits crop

6) Single Super Phosphate should be applied to the soil just before showing in single dose.

7) SSP is unsuitable for top-dressing due to slow mobility for short duration crops and it should
not be used in acidic soils.

8) By water soluble phosphorus of super phosphate is hardly move, so superphosphate should be

placed in the root zone or is the soil layer where the roots are most active

9) Super phosphate should be applied just before sowing to enable it is proper placement, and
also to ensure sufficient supply of phosphorus in early stages of plant growth when it's
requirement is high.

10) Super phosphate should not be used on acidic soil having pH less than 5.5.

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 Prof. Sarika R. Koli
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Chapter No.20-21

Potassic fertilizers: classification, manufacturing process, properties,

their fate and reaction in [Link] fertilizers their fate and reaction in
the soil. Nano fertilizers.
Potassic or Potash or potassium fertilizers are applied to the soil to Supply the plants with
potassium potassium is a one of the elements essential for plant growth. The potassium in
fertilizer is expressed as K2O (Potassium oxide) and is commonly referred as Potash.

Potassium in the elemental form cannot be used as fertilizer, and must be combined with
one or more of other elements to form soluble compounds that will not damage the plant when
used under oridinary condition. The most common compounds of potassium is use as fertilizer.
are potassium , potassium sulphate and potassium nitrate.

Classifications of Potassic fertilizers-

Potassic Fertilizers can be classified in to

1) Fertilizers having K in the chloride form.

2) Fertilizers having K is non chloride form.

1) Fertilizers having K in the chloride form -

The most common fertilizer muriate of Potash (KCl) belongs to this group. This fertilizer
is extensively used by Cultivators throughout the world for all crop except where no chlorine is
desired in fertilizer. This fertilizer is cheaper than other potassic fertilizers.

2) Ferilizers having K in the non chloride form

The potassium fertilizers belonging to the group are sulphate of potash (K2S0 4) sulphate
of potash, magnesia (double salt of K & Mg) & Potassium nitrate(KNO3). Fertilizer belonging to
this Class are costlier per unit of k basic as compared to muriate of potash, and as such are in
demand by activators growing special crops like potato, tomato & tobacco

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Source of Potassic fertilizers -

Potassium in commercial fertilizers is derived mainly from water-soluble potash

minerals and to a small extent from brine. The soluble minerals from which potassic fertilizers
are manufactured are:

1) Sylvite( KCl) - 63.1% K2O

2) Carnallite (KCl MgCl2 6 H2O) - 17%. K2O

3) Kainite (KCl, MgSO4. 3H2O) - 18.9% K2O

4) Langbeinite, K2SO4, 2 MgSO4 - 22.6% K2O.

5) Sylvinite (mixture ) - 20.3% K2O.

Manufacturing Process and properties of Potassic fettilizers :

1) Potassium Chloride (KCl ) :

This is also called as muriate of potash of manufactured from two minerals-

sylvite and carnallite. This may also be produced from salt bittern and brines.

It contains around 60 % K2O and may be used either alone or in conjuction with N and p.

Two types of refining processes are employed to :

Seperate the potassium chloride from other compounds present in minerals. These processes are:

1) Crystallization

2) Froth Floation.

1) Crystallization -

The mineral, such as sylvite is mixed with hot brine to dissolved all it's Potassium
chloride. It's sodium chloride component does not dissolve and hence, remains as solid. Solid
sodium chloride is seperated. The hot solution of potassium chloride is then cooled to crystallize
Potassium chloride. After seperations of the crystals the mother liquor is reused to dissolve
potassium chloride from minerals.

2) Froth Floation.

The minerals is crushed to seperate Potassium chloride and sodium chloride crystals and
other salts. It is then mixed with brine and treated with aliphatic amine acetate to film Potassium

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chloride crystals, then air bubbles are [Link] filmed potassium chloride crystals attach with
bubbles to for specific gravity. Being lighter they floats as froth. The froth (i.e KClagglomerates)
are removed by skimmed. The skimmed agglomerates are filtered or centrifuged to seperate
brine form potassium chloride. The potassium chloride is dried and screened to have different
sizes of potassium chloride particles.

Properties

1) Potassium chloride is a coarse or fine salt resembling Ordinary salt

2) It contains 50 to 60% potassium, the whole of which is readily available to plants.

3) it is highly soluble in water and is readily available

4) It ionizes to K+ and Cl- ions in the soil and potassium is absorbed by soil particles.

5) It's colours is pink or red or brown or white.6) It is a neutral salt or neutral fertilizer.

Uses of KCl

Potassium chloride is suitable for a wide range of soils and Crops. It can be applied at
sowing time or prior to sowing, now a days application of this fertilizer as a top dressing is
considered good as potassic fertilizer

Potassium Sulphate :

Potassium sulphate is also a potassic fertilizer and it is sold in the market as sulphate of
potash. Potassium sulphate is commonly manufactured in the following two ways:

1) It is manufactured by treating potassium chloride with concentrated sulphuric acid.

2 KCl + H2SO4 K2SO4 + 2HCl

Potassium Sulphuric Potassium Hydrochloric

chloride acid. Sulphate. acid.
It is manufactued by dissolving langbeinite in water and adding conc. solution of potassium
chloride.

K2SO4.2Mg SO4 + 4 KCl 3 K2SO4 + 2 MgCl2

( Langbeinite) Magnesium Chloride

The solubility of potassium sulphate is more than magnesium chloride.. The potassium sulphate
is seperated by crystallization.

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Properties of K2SO4

1) It's colour is white

2) It is readily soluble in water

3) It contains commercial K2O, 48 to 52% K2O . Pure K2O -54%

4) It is neutral salt or neutral fertilizer

Uses :

It can be used for all crops of for all types of soils. It can be applied at any time of
crop [Link] applications to soil, this fertilizer seperates in to K+ & SO4- ions absorbed in
soils & by plant.

3) Shoenite :

It's also called as 'Potassium - magnesium sulphate. It contains about 22 percent K2O ,
11%, Mg, and 22% S. It occures in nature as the mineral. Langbeinite, which is refined to the
commercial fertilizer product. It is a good source of Water soluble K & Mg and is very important
where Mg and or s is deficient, or for use with Cl sensitive crops.

Reactions in soils

When Potassium chloride (MOP, KCl) and potassium sulphate (K2SO4) added to soil KCl and
K2SO4 dissociated to yields to yields the potassium and chloride ions and potassium and
sulphate ions respectively.

KCl K+ + CL-

K2SO4 2K+ + SO4--

Management of Potassic fertilizers :

1) KCl is cheaper fertilizer and extensively used by the cultivors fot all crops except where no
chloride is desired in the fertilizer eg. tobacco

2)K2SO4 is somewhat costlier on the basis of per unit of K as compared to KCl and used for the
Crops like Potato, tobacco & tomato.

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Complex fertilizers :

"The commercial fertilizers containing atleast two or more of the primary Essential plant
nutrients (N.P.K.) are called complex fertilizers." such fertilizers are called as multiple - nutrient
fertilizers.
They are of two types eg.
1) Incomplete complex fertilizers.
2) Complete complex fertilizers.
1) Incomplete complex fertilizers -
The complex fertilizer contains only two of the primary plant nutrients are designated as
incomplete complex fertilizer.
2) Complete complex fertilizers -
The complex fertilizers contains all three of plant nutrients (N, P 2O5 &K2O) are
designated as complete complex fertilizers
In contrast to the Straight fertilizers, complex fertilizers are much more desired for
balanced treatment of the soil, as such, there is an increasing tendency to manufacture complex
fertilizers.
Complex fertilizers in general, are manufactured by either of the following two methods
or by both
1) By Chemical reaction or change or
2) By Purely mechanical mixing of straight fertilizers.
Characterstics of Complex Fertilizers
1 High analysis fertilizers – They usually have a high content of plant nutrients - more than 40
kg per 100 kg of fertilizers. As such they are called analysis fertilizers
2) They usually a uniform grain size and good Physical conditions
3) Complete fertilizers are cheaper to the cultivators when the cost is worked out on the basis of
per kg of plant nutrient.
4) Since complex fertilizers are high analysis fertilizers. Transport and distribution costs to the
cultivors are less then worked out on the basis of per kg of plant nutrient as compare to straight
fertilizers
5) Complex fertilizers are a granulated one and for this it maintains good physical condition
during storage.
6) Complex fertilizers are desirable as these contain balanced nutrients for application
7) They supply nitrogen and phosphorus in an available forms to the soil in one operation
8) They are non- caking and non - hygroscopic, thus safer for storage.
Advantages of Complex fertilizers -
1)Complex fertilizers are granules, it is easy to application by broadcasting
2) complex fertilizers contains the nutrients in definite proportion or balanced plant elements

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3) It contains micronutrients in, addition to primary nutrients. So complex fertilizers some

micronnutrients also to the plants.
4) The complex fertilizers provides an opportunity of application of two or three plant nutrients
in single application.
5) Less cost is involved in transportation and application of complex fertilizers
6) Complex fertilizers have high fertilizers use efficiency
7) They are non-caking and non hygroscopic, thus safer for storage
8) Due to complex fertilizers it is possible the even and uniform distribution of plant nutrients in
soil
9) Complex fertilizers are available in different grades, according to need of soils and crops,
10) Due to use of complex fertilizers saving the time & labour

Commercial complex fertilizers being manufactured in India are classified in the

following two groups
1) Nitro- phosphate.
2) Ammonium phosphate.
1) Nitro- phosphate.
Manufacture Nitro- phosphate.
Costly sulphuric acid is replaced by relatively cheaper nitric acid to reduce the cost of
production, Nitrophosphate is manufactured by treating rock phosphate with either nitric acid or
mixture of acids.
Different types of process used for manufacturing nitophosphate
1) Nitro- carbonic process.
2) Nitro- seperation process.
3) Process involving nitric acid and phosphoric acid.
4) Process involving nitric acid and sulphuric acid.
1) Nitro- Carbonic process.
Nitrophosphate is manufactured by the Fertilizer Corporation of India by treating rock
phosphate in a series specially designed reactor with nitric acid which convert it to a mixture of
ortho phosphoric acid, Calcium nitrate and hydrofluoric acid.

Ca10 (PO4)6F2 + 20HNO3 6H3PO4 + 10 Ca(NO3)2 + 2HF

Phosphoric Calcium Hydrofloric acid
acid Nitrate

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The diammonium phosphate is added to the above reaction products when the under mentioned
reaction takes place

H3PO4 + 10Ca (NO3)2 + 2HF + 7 (NH4)2 HPO4

(Diammonium Sulphate)

14NH4NO3 + 3Ca(NO3)2 + 6Ca (H3PO4)2+ H3PO4+CaF2

The ammonia gas is passed through above mentioned reaction products to finally
yields ammonium nitrate, monoammonium phosphate, dicalcium phosphate for calcium fluoride.

NH4NO3 + 3Ca(N03)2 + 6 Ca(H2P04) + H3PO4 + CaF2 + 10NH3

(Ammo. nitrate)
20 NH4NO3 + 4 NH4 H2P04 + 9CaHP04 + CaF
(Ammo. nitrate) (Mono ammo. (Dicalcium Calcium
phosphate ) phosphate ) Fluoride

A potassic fertilizer eg. muriate of potash may also be added to the above mentioned
reaction product to yield Complex NPK fertilizers of various grades as [Link], [Link] etc.
containing both water Soluble and citric soluble P205
Nitrophosphate of Grade 12.9 : 12.9 : 0 which has been manufactured by nitro- carbonic
process is mixed with diammonium phosphate (16: 48:0 ) to yield a nitro composition 20: 20: 0
containing 30% of its phosphorus in water soluble form and rest is citrate soluble which has
been manufactured by the Fertilizer Corportion of India under the trade name "Suphala"
2) Nitro seperation -
Rock phosphate is treated with some nitric acid at temp of 60 to 70°c when some quantity
of it is converted to phosphoric acid, calcium nitrate & hydrogen fluoride as happens in the case
of nitrocarbonic process.

Ca10(PO4)6F2 + 20HNO3 6H3PO4 + 10Ca(NO3)2 + 2HF

Then some more nitric acid is added to rock phosphate in order to completely convert it
to ortho phosphoric acid, calcium nitrate & Hydrogen fluoride. The Calcium nitrate is partially
crystallised by lowering the temp. of the reaction products and removed. Thereafter, ammonia
gas is passed through the same reaction product to get a mixture of ammonium nitrate and

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dicalcium phosphate which is then dried to get a complex fertilizer containing 20% each of N
and P2O5
3) Using Nitric acid and phosphoric acid -
The rock phosphate is treated with nitric acid and enough phosphoric acid in order to
reduce the molar CaO: P205 ratio to a little less than 2 in the nitrophosphate that would be
formed. Nitric acid and phosphoric acid convert rock phosphate to a mixture of phosphoric acid,
monocalcium phosphate, calcium nitrate and Hydrogen fluoride.
Ca10(PO4)6F2 +16HNO3+4H3PO4 6H3PO4+ 2Ca(H2PO4)2 +8Ca(NO3)2 + 2HF
(Phosphoric (Dicalcium Calcium
Acid) Phosphate) Nitrate

Then liquid ammonia is added to the reaction products when dicalcium phosphate,
monoammonium phosphate, ammonium nitrate and calcium fluoride are formed
6H3PO4 + 2Ca(H2PO4) + 8Ca(NO3)2 + 2HF + 17NH3

9CaHPO4 + NH4H2PO4 + 16 NH4NO3 + CaF

(Dicalcium Mono Ammo. Ammo. Calcium
Phosphate) Phosphate) Nitrate Flouride

4) Using Nitric Acid and Sulphuric Acid -

In this case, rock phosphate reacts with a mixture of nitric acid and sulphuric acid
to yield phosphoric acid, calcium nitrate, calcium sulphate & Hydrogen fluoride

Ca10(PO4)6F2 + 12HNO3+ 4H2SO4 6H3PO4 +6Ca(NO3) + 4 CaSO4 + 2HF

Phosphoric Calcium
Acid Nitrate
Then liquid ammonia is added to reaction product to convert orthophosphoric acid and
calcium nitrate to Dicalcium phosphate mono ammonium phosphate & ammo. nitrate.
H3PO4 +6Ca(NO3) + 2HF+ 13NH3 5CaHPO4 + NH4H2PO4+ 12 NH4 NO3 + 2CaF

Some stabilizers is also added during the course of chemical reaction in order to prevent
the reversion of citrate solution phosphate to citrate insoluble phosphate.

Properties of Nitrophosphate
1) Entire phosphate is in available form.

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2) It is granulated fertilizer containing stabilizer.

3) Contains nitrogen as well as phosphorus
4) Maintain excellent physical condition during storage & handling.
RCF (Trombay) manufacture three types of nitrophosphate.
1) Suphala ([Link])
2) Suphala ( [Link])
3) Suphala ([Link])
* Ammonium phosphate-
Orthophosphoric acid is exactly neutralised by ammonia to yield mono ammonium phosphate.
NH3 + H3PO4 NH4 H2PO4
(Ammonia) Phosphoric acid (Mono ammonium Phosphoric Acid)
Diammonium phosphate is produced when excess of ammonia is produced through the
phosphoric acid to maintain the pH of the resulting solution to 5.8 to 6.0
2NH3 + H2PO4 (NH4)2 HPO4

Characteristics of Ammonium Phosphate

1) It is slightly grey material, resembling to well dried phosphate
2) It is least hygroscopic & does not absorb moisture from atmosphere.
3) It maintain excellent physical condition.
4) Slightly acidic and neutral in nature.
5) Various grades of ammo, phosphate are manufactured greater mobility in the soil.
6) It is well suited for calcareous and alkaline soil.
7) It produce acidity in soil if it used contineously and require 80 kg of CaCo 3 to counteract it's
acidity.
Various grades of ammo. phosphate are manufacture

NPK complex fertilizer

Complex fertilizers containing various composition of N, P2O5 and K2O These are
manufactured for application to various crop.
Value of complex fertilizer
The value of complex fertilizers is dependent on the following consideration
1) Their content of individual nutrients of ratio of Nitrogen, Phosphorus and potassium.

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2) Forms in which individual nutrients are present.

3) The resultant basic or acidic residue effect
2) These contain trace elements and contamination substances viz. chlorides, sulphate etc.
Nanofertilizer
Nanofertilizer - A fertilizer made of nano-sized nitrogen molecules coated in a polymer coating
with biosensor, which releases the particle when soil is needed is called nano fertilizer.
Advantages
1) Nano-coatings and technology can help in numerous ways to reduces cost and increase
productivity around the farm
2) Improvement in soil aggregation, moisture retention and carbon build up
3) Yield per hectare is much higher as compare to conventional fertilizer and give high returns to
the farmers.
4) Nutrient use efficiency increases by 2-3 times
5) 80-100 times less requirement to chemical fertilizers
6) 10 time more stress tolerance by crops
7) Complete bio-source and ecofriendly
8) Forms 30% more nutrients mobilization by plants
9) 17-54% improvement in crop yield.
Disadvantages-
1) Causes serious health hazard and toxic effect in human body. It causes Asthma Neurological
disorder, Gastrointestinal disorder.
Concept
1) Encapsulation of fertilizer within a nano particle is one of these new facilities which are done
in three ways.
a) The nutrient can be encapsulated inside nanoporous material.
b) Coated with thin polymer.
c) Delivered as particle or emulsion of nanoscale dimension.
2. It control the released speed of nutrients to match the uptake pattern of crop.
4. It reduced the fixation and increase the availability and uptake of nutrient in soil.

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Chapter No. 22and 23

Secondary &micronutrient fertilizers: Types, composition, reaction in soil and
effect on crop growth. Soil amendments.
Secondary nutrients -
Nutrients are required in relatively legs quantity than primary nutrients (eg. N,P & K) and
they play Secondary role in plant growth hence called as secondary nutrients. eg. Ca, Mg and s.
Secondary nutrients fertilizers
The carriers used as fertilizers to supply secondary nutrients are called as Secondary
nutrients fertilizers.
Fertilizers Nurient content

Ca% Mg% S%

Gypsum 20 - 12-18

Dolomitic limestone 22 3-12 -

Hydrated limestone 46 - -
Burned lime stone 60 - -

Basic slag 29 3 -

Magnesia (Mg oxide) - 55-60 -

Magnesium- Magnesium Sulphate - 9-20 14

Potassium- Magnesium Sulphate - 11 22

Elemental Sulphate - - >85

Ammonium Sulphate - - 24

Zinc Sulphate - - 15

Copper Sulphate - - 13

Ferrous Sulphate - - 19

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Micronutrient :
The term micronutrient or trace element is quite often used interchangeably though most
of the scientists prefer to use. The term micronutrients to denote the elements which are essential
for plant but are required in a small amounts.
" Micronument is a chemical element necessarily only is small amount (i.e less than 50
PPM) in plant foe growth of plants". Fe, Mn, Zn, Mo, B and Cl are essential micronurients.
* Micronutrient fertilizers - The carrier used a fertilizers to supply micronutrient are called as
micronutrient fertilizers.
They are classified as is -
1) Straight inorganic salt.
2) Natural and synthetic chelates as carrier.
1) Straight inorganic salt.
Mimonutrient Names Of Salt Nutrient Rate of Application
content
Soil Spray

Iron(Fe) FeSO4.7H2O Ferrous sulphate 20% Fe 10Kg/ha FeSo4 0.1-0.2%Lime

Zinc(Zn) ZnSO4.5H2OZinc Sulphate 20-35% Zn 40-50 Kg/ha 0.5-0.2%Lime

ZnSo 4

%Lime Copper(Cu) CuSO4. 5H2O Copper 20-35% Cu 10-50 Kg/ha 0.1-0.05%Lime

Sulphate Cuso4

Manganese(Mn) MnSO4.H2O Manganese 23% Mn 10-50 Kg/ha 0.6-0.25%Lime

Sulphate MnSo4

Boron(B) Borax (Sodium Borate) 10.6% B 5-20 Kg/ha 0.2 boric acid
Borac

Molybdnum(Mo) Ammo. Molybdate 52% Mo 0.14 Kg/ha 0.05 Ammo.

Molybdenum Molybdate

2) Synthetic and natural chelates :

Chelates

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This is most important category of micronutrient fertilizers. The word chelate is derived
from greek word Chelates are organo-metalic molecules of varing sizes and shapes in which the
organic part binds the nutrients in a ring like sructure.
Defination - "Chelates are the compounds which tightly hold certain cation are attracted towards
them and release them slowly for utilization plants."
Chelates are generally organic compounds that combines with actions like Fe, Mn, Zn,
au in complete ring Structure.
Synthetic Chelating compounds and agents-
1) EDTA - Ethylene Diamine Tetra Acetic Acid.
2) DTPA - Diethylene Tertramine Penta Acetic acid
3) CDTA - Cyclohexane Diamine Tetra Acetic Acid
4) EDDHA - Ethylene Diamine Di hydroxy Acetic Acid
5) NTA - Nitrilo Triacetic acid.
Natural Chelates -
FYM and other organic manures contains the organic substances which as chelating
compound. Therefore micronutrient salts applied through FYM & manures are slowly released
and made available to plants.
Reactions of Micronutrients fertilizers in Soil -
 The different soil conditions influence the availability of micro nutrients - the soil
acidity, alkalinity organic matter content, temporary water holding capacity, application
of phosphate and potassic fertilizers in soil are important factors which reduces or
increases the availability of applied micronutrients.
 When soil contains more lime, there is a iron deficiency Excess phosphate fertilization
induced Iron chlorsis & Zn deficiency, and favors molybdenum availability
 High Potassium application creates Mangnese deficiency
 Boron does not normally occur in toxic quantity and most arable soils.
 Decrease in acidity generally reduces the availability of copper. An increase in pH brings
about a conversion of bivalent Mn compound to unavailable MnO
 Micronutrient cations interact with silicate in two ways-
a) They may be involved in cations exchange reaction
b) They may be more tightly bound or fixed to certain silicate clays (2:1types).
 Depending on the conditions they may be released from the clays or fixed.
 Micronutrient cations may be held in the organic compounds.

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 The uptake of Fe and Zn may be reduced in the presence of excess phosphorus.

 When an inorganic iron salt such as FeSO4 is added to calcareous soil most of the Fe is
quickly rendered unavailable by reaction with hydroxide:

Fe +++ + 3 OH- FeOOH + H2O

Available Unavailable
 It iron is added in the form of Fe chelate the iron remains in the chelate form which is
available to plant.
Effects on plant growth -
Effect of Micronutrients on plant growth-
1) Supply of essential nutrients for life and growth of plants
2) Micronutrients are helps to form enzymes or vitamins.
3) They are aids in keeping another element reduced or oxidised
4) Micronutrients increases the resistance to disease.
5) Interact with secondary and major plant nutrients.
6) They directly influence the activity of microrganisms.
7) The excess of micronutrients may creates toxicity in plants.
Soil amendment
Soil amendment is a material added to soil to improve plant growth and health.
- Amendments depend upon current soil composition climate and type of plant.
- Examples -Fertilizers such as peat, manure anaerobic digestate or compost, coir, straw.
Characteristics of soil Amendments
1) Soil conditioner are natural and earthy
2) Absorb water quickly.
Role
- Improved soil structure and aeration.
- Increased water holding capacity
- Increased availability of water to plants.
- Reduced compaction and hard pan conditions
- Improved tile drainage effectiveness
- Alkali Soil Reclamation.

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- Release locked nutrients

- Better chemical incorporation
- Better root development
- Higher yields and quality
Type of Soil Amendments(Conditioner)
Organic Inorganic
1) Green Manure 1) Synthetic Binding agents
2) Compost 2) Mineral Conditioners - like Gypsum
3) Peats 3) Gelatin, Cellulose, Sucrose, Starch.
4) Crop Residues
5) Coconut Shell
6)Mulch

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Chapter No.24
Handling and storage of fertilizers: Fertilizer control order.
Fertilizers differ in their ability to become moist or hygroscopic, as such they have to be
handled with care fully during rainy season.
Main Features from storage point of view are as below
1) The fertilizer Should be stored in a cool, dry and damp proof godown. The rain coater must
not get entered in the godown and there is no need to have windows in the godown, but they
should have proper ventilation for regulating for exit of the gases from the store. The ventilator
should be sealed in rainy season.
2) The bags should not be piled up directly on the floor as moisture of the floor causes the
damage of fertilizers. The wooden racks should be used for pilling the Fertilizers bags.
3) The bags should not be piled together in a row of 8-10 bags.
4) The bags should not touch the wall of the godown.
5) Proper space should be allowed between two rows of piled fertilizers for convenience of
lifting the fertilizers.
6) The fertilizers that are fire hazardous such as Ammonium sulphate ,Ammonium Nitrate must
be handled very carefully.
7) The fertilizers that are hygroscopic in nature such as Urea, Ammonium nitrate, Ammonium
sulphate nitrate, calcium ammonium nitrate must be stored in water proof bags and the entire
bag should be used in one lot, otherwise bag should tide tightly and stored in a dry and damp
proof godown after taking required fertilizers.
8) All types of fertilizers such as nitrogenous Phosphatic & Potassic fertilizers should not be
piled together. But they should be piled seperately so that their handling is easy and gas or fumes
release from one group may not affect the quality of others.
9) The bag should not be kept open at any time to avoid the formation of cakes or lumps.
10) The home mixed fertilizers should not be stored. Rather it should be used immediately after
mixing of different fertilizers.
11) Prolonged storage of fertilizers should be avoided.
* Main features of Some Fertilizers from storage point & view are as below -
I) Nitrogenous fertilizers -
a) Ammonium chloride-
Excellent, no difficulty in storage & handling.
b) Ammonium sulphate and sodium nitrate -
Storage properties good, no difficulties in handling and Storage.

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c) Urea -
Storage properties satisfactory, But fertilizers Hydroscopic, so bags are firmly tied and it
is bagged is polythene lined jute bags and stored in dry place.
d) Ammonium nitrate -
Storage properties satisfactory but fertilizers is hygroscopic, so bags are firmly tied. As it
is the hazardous handle carefully. It is bagged in polythene lined jute bags as it is hygroscopic
I) Phosphatic fertilizers -
a) Single super phosphate -
-It contains small amount of acid, which deteriorate the gunny bags, hence it should be stored in
polythene lined gunny bags.
- Cakes formation is moist condition.
b) Dicalcium Phosphate -
- Excellent physical condition for storage & handling.
III) Potassic fertilizers -
Potassium sulphate of potassium chloride
- Excellent physical conditions for storage & handling.
Protect all fertilizers bags from moisture, water and rains. Protect bags against excessive
sunshine & heat by making use to shade of trees structures & covers.

Fertilizer control order -

An order issued by the Government of India under powers confirmed by section of the
Essential Commodities Act 1955 under the power the Government controls the production,
making price and quality of fertilizers. There are 89 clauses of this order covering definations,
prices, registrations of dealers & fertilizers mixtures regulations on manufacturing cellpacking
requirement, disposal of non -standard fertilizers, enforcement authority, analysis of samples etc.
The schedule I of the order includes detailed specifications of fertilizers convered by it. In
schedule II included detailed procedures regarding sampling , techniques & methods of analysis
is given.
The fertilizers was declared as an Essential commodity in 1957 in India to control the
trade Price, quality of fertilizers and their distribution,
"The fertilizer control order came in to force in 1957' Since then the fertilizer control order(FCO)
has been amended periodically. It is useful for the personnels engaged in
- Fertilizers manufacture.
- Fertilizer business.

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- Fertilizer analysis
- Fertilizer inspections.
* Controller Of fertilizers -
The Joint Secretary (fertilizers), Ministry of Agriculture (Department of Agriculture &
cooperation), Government of India is the controller of fertilizers.
Commissioner Agriculture, Government of Maharashtra exercise the function of the
controller in Maharashtra state.
Contents -
Some of the contents of fertilizer control order, 1985 are as follows -
1) List of fertilizers.
2) Specifications of fertilizers.
3) Tolerance limit in plant nutrient for various fertilizers
4) Procedure for drawal of samples of fertilizers
5) Methods of analysis of fertilizers
6) Forms of registrations
7) Appendices.
i) Sale of small quantities of fertilizers for gardening
Purposes -Exemption to dealers – clarifications
ii) Marking on containers
iii) Equipment required for laboratories
iv)Exemption of food corporation of India
v) Fees for obtaining certificates- certificate of Regis - Renewal duplicate copy
Also the fertilizers control order (1985) provides amendments issued from time to time.
Specifications of fertilizers
To control the quality of fertilizers "The fertilizers control order 1985" has laid
down specification for the fertilizers. The parameters of the specification are as follows
i) Moisture per cent by weight, maximum.
ii) Total nutrient content, percent by weight (eg. N % P 205% k2O%, ZN%, Mn %)
iii) Forms of nutrients per cent by weight (eg. % NH4,% No3,% water soluble phosphate,%
citrate soluble phosphate,% water soluble K 2O, Minimum / Maximum.
iv) Impurities, percent by weight (eg. % free H2SO4,As2O3,% NaCl, % Cl,% MgO)
v)Particle sizes.

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The particle-size the fertilizers control order desire to ensure the minimum content of
nutrients in fertilizers. Hence, the nutrient content higher than the prescribed limit is always
acceptable. Accordingly, it's content has been prescribed as minimum. The presence of moisture
& impurities is undesirable, though it is unavoidable.

Tolerance limit is plant nutrient & for various fertilizers

There may be some non- deliberate error in manufacturing process, sampling &
analysis of fertilizers . Hence limited variations have been permitted in the above discussed
specifications. These permissible limited variations are termed tolerance limits,
The tolerance limits as laid down in schedule 1 part 'B' in fertilizer control order, 1985 are as
follows:
Fertilizers Tolerance limit
1) For fertilizers with definite compounds
like ammo. Sulphate, urea, ammo. chloride 0.2
Mop, sulphate of potash, SSP which contains
more that 20% plant nutrient.
2) For calcium ammonium nitrate 0.3
3) For ammonium phosphate 0.5
4) For those contains less than 20 % 0.1
plant nutrients.
5) For nitrophosphate sulphala, ammo. Tolerance varies with nutrient
sulphate, nitrate, urea, ammo. phosphate, level in fertilizers subject
ammo. phosphate Sulphate, bone meal, to maximum of 2% far
granulated mixture NPK, mixture combined nutrient
of NPK with micronutrients
Methods of analysis of fertilizers-
In the fertilizers samples the following determinations are performed
1) Moisture Determination
- Moisture in Ammo. Chloride
- Moisture in urea, Diammonium phosphate, & ammo nitrate which yield volatile substance
other than moisture at drying temperature.
2) Determination of Nitrogen -
- Total nitrogen in sample free from nitrate.
- Total nitrogen in samples containing nitrate.

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- Ammonical nitrogen, nitrate nitrogen.

- Ammonical & nitrate nitrogen.
- Water insoluble nitrogen.
- Urea nitrogen.
- Determination of chlorides in Fe fertilizers other than Ammonium Chlorides
B) Determination of phosphate :
- Total phosphorus, water Soluble phosphate,
- Citrate Soluble phosphate, citrate insoluble phosphate
- Free phosphoric acid
4) Determination of potassium.
The methods of analysis & above have been described in schedule II, part B in , 1985,
* Forms for registrations -
The forms for registration for the purpose of business, manufacture & analysis of
fertilizers have been prescribed in FCO, 1985. The title of a form indicates the business.
Form A - Form of application to obtain dealers certificate of Reg.
Appendices -
Appendix - Sale of small quantities of fertilizers for gardening purpose - exemption to dealer -
clarification
For sale of fertilizers (straight or mixed) in small quantities weighing not more than 5kg
fertilizer for use in flower beds, kitchen garden, low no. The retailer of fertilizers may be
exempted by state Government from obtaining certificates of registration,
Appendix 2 - Marking of containers of fertilizers
-On containers of straight fertilizers and complex fertilizers.
i) Trade name / Brand name:
ii)Trade mark / Brand name
iii) Name of fertilizers
iv) Percent nutrients as total nitrogen, total p [Link] soluble P2O5 & K2O to denoted by letters
v) Cross and Net weight in kg, when packed
vi) Branch number
vii) Maximum Retail price

-On containers of micronutrient fertilizers, combination of NPK and micronutrients

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i)Name of Manufacturer
ii) Manufacturing/Registration Certificate Number
iii) Trade name / Brand name:
iv) Name of fertilizers
v) Gross and Net weight in kg, when packed
vi) Batch number
vii) Maximum Retail price-Inclusive all taxes

Fertilizer Quality control status in India

The number of laboratories in different states of India & there annual analysing capacity during
1997-98
There are 59 laboratories, there are four more laboratories of Government of India. They are -
1) CFQC&TI - central fertilizer Quality control & Training Institute at Faridabad
2) Regional fertilizers control Laboratory (RFCL) at Kalyani
3) Regional fertilizers control Laboratory at Navi Mumbai (RPCL)
4) Regional fertilizers control Laboratory at Chennai.(RFCL)
The CFQC & TI was established by the Ministry of Agriculture, Department of Agriculture &
Cooperation. It has recognised as scientific & technical institution by the Department of Science
& Technology (DST) in 1982. The objectives of the Institute are as follows -
1) Inspection, collection & analysis of both indigenous &imported fertilizers
2) Imparting training to the State Enforcement officers & fertilizers analyst to the foreign officers
3) Documentation of technical literature in the field of fertilizers quality control.
4) Acting as 'Advisory Body' on issues related to fertilizers quality control.

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Sharad College of Agriculture, Jainapur

 Prof. Sarika R. Koli
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Shri. Shamrao Patil (Yadravkar) Educational and Charitable Trusts

SHARAD COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE,

JAINAPUR
(Affiliated to M. P. K. V., Rahuri)
Tal: Shirol Dist: Kolhapur (Maharashtra) India 416 101
E-mail : [Link]@[Link] Web: [Link]

NOTES
Course No.: SSAC- 353
Credit: 3 (2+1)
Course Title:Manures,Fertilizers &
Soil Fertility Management

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Syllabus

Lesson Topic
Weightage
(%)
1&2 History of soil fertility and plant nutrition.
3
3&4 Soil as a source of plant nutrients, essential and beneficial
5
nutrients and their role. Criteria of essentiality, forms of
nutrients in soil.
5, & 6 Introduction and importance of organic manures. Sources 5
of organic matter, recycling, composition and C:N ratio.
7, 8 & 9 Definition, properties and classification of bulky and 6
concentrated organic manures, their composition and
nutrient availability. Preparation of FYM, composts,
different methods of composting, decomposition process
and nutrient losses during handling and storage.
10 & 11 Vermicomposting, green manuring; types, advantages and 5
disadvantages and nutrient availability.
12 & 13 Sewage and sludge, Biogas plant slurry; their composition 5
and effect on soil and plant growth.
14 & 15 Integrated nutrient management; concept, components and 6
importance.
16 & 17 Fertilizer; Definition and their classification; N fertilizers: 6
classification, manufacturing process and properties their
fate and reaction in soils.
18 & 19 Phosphatic fertilizers, manufacturing process and 5
properties, classification, their fate and reaction in soils.
20& 21 Potassic fertilizers: classification, manufacturing process, 5
properties, their fate and reaction in soils. Complex
fertilizers their fate and reaction in the soil. Nano
fertilizers.
22 & 23 Secondary &micronutrient fertilizers: Types, composition, 5
reaction in soil and effect on crop growth. Soil
amendments.
24 Handling and storage of fertilizers: Fertilizer control order. 3
25 & 26 Mechanism of nutrient transport to plants: Factors 6
affecting nutrient availability to plants. Measures to
overcome deficiencies and toxicities.
27,28 & 29, Chemistry of soil N,P, K, calcium, magnesium, sulphur 6

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Lesson Topic
Weightage
(%)
and micronutrients.
30 & 31 Soil fertility evaluation and different approaches. 6
32 Soil Testing (Available nutrients) :Chemical methods and 6
critical levels of different nutrients in soil.
33 Plant analysis methods : Critical levels of nutrients, DRIS 6
approach, rapid tissue test, indicator plants. Soil test based
fertilizer recommendations to crops.
34 & 35 Methods and scheduling of nutrient applications for 6
different soils and crops grown under rain fed and irrigated
conditions.
36 Factors influencing nutrients use efficiency (NUE) in 5
respect of N, P, K, S, Fe and Zn fertilizers.
Total 100

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Chapter No.25-26

Mechanism of nutrient transport to plants: Factors affecting nutrient

availability to plants. Measures to overcome deficiencies and toxicities.
Q.1 Explain in brief mechanism of nutrient transport from soil to plant?
1)Mass Flow: Mass flow is a convective process in which plant nutrient ions and other dissolved
substances are transported in the flow of water to the root due to the transpirational water uptake
by the [Link] mass flow can also be occur due to evaporation and percolation of soil water..
2)Diffusion: Diffusion process operates when an ion moves from an area of high concentration
to one of low concentration by random thermal motion. The three principal factors influencing
the movement of nutrients in to the roots. They are as follows
1)Diffusion Coefficient
2)Concentration of nutrient in soil solution
3)Buffering capacity of the solid phase to release nutrients into the soil solution.
This movement is conceived by Grahm and Fick i.e. called
Fick's Law: The rate of diffusion in a unit time is proportional to the concentration gradient.
dc /da = De.A
F= -D(dc/dx)
-ve movement is from
higher [Link] lower conc.
Where, dc/dt is change in [Link] time t.
De is effective diffusion coefficient
A is cross sectional area
dc/dx is change in conc. with distance
3) Root Interception:
1) The importance of root interception mechanism for ion absorption is governed by the growth
of new roots throughout the soil mass.
2) As the root system develop it adsorb various ions from soil and soil solution by process of
contact exchange.
3) Cell wall of roots are porous so that the soil solution along with nutrients can be move through
it.
4) For this movement nutrient must be attach with some carrier called carrier nutrient complex
which pass the nutrient from soil - cell wall (root) cell membrane(root) - top of plant

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Q.2) Differentiate between active and passive absorption?

Active Absorption Passive Absorption

1)Absorption of ion into inner space is Absorption of ions into the outer space is controlled by
controlled by metabolic energy by the the process of diffusion and exchange and such
root cell and such transport of ion transport of ion is called passive absorption.
is called active absorption.

2)Active absorption theories a)Lundegardh's Hypothesis 2)Passive Absorption theories a)Mass flow hypothesis
b)Protein Synthesis Hypothesis c)Protein folding and b) Diffusion along [Link] c) Molecular sieve
unfolding Hypothesis d)Carrier Hypothesis e)Cation and hypothesis d)The lipoid solubility hypothesis.
anion pumps

3)It takes place in plants 3)It takes place in soil

4)Metabolic energy is required 4)Metabolic energy in not required

5)The absorption is possible by carrier hypothesis 5) The absorption is possible by ion exchange

Q.6. State the active mechanism of nutrient uptake and explain carrier hypothesis?
Active Mechanism: Absorption of ions into inner space is controlled by metabolic energy by the
root cell and such transport of ion is called active transport.
1)Carrier Hypothesis: Epstein and Hagen (1952) under certain mechanism
-The biological membrane contain certain molecules which are capable of carrying ions across
the plants which are called 'carriers'.
-These carriers possess specific binding sites for particular ion species which enable them in
selective ion transport through the membrane. The carriers are diffusible in membrane (plant
parts)

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-During the process of nutrient uptake, these carrier meet particular ion species foes which it has
affinity and form carrier -nutrient complex.
-This carrier nutrient complex then move across the plant membrane where the enzyme
‘phosphatase’ split the nutrient ion from carrier. Thus the carrier loss its affinity for the ion and
this ion is move into cytoplasm (absorb by the plant).
-The carrier selectivity is regenerated by ‘Carrier ATP kinase' which is present at inner
membrane of plant. Then again carrier diffuse back into the root take another ion and uptake
cycle is repeated.
2) Lundegardh's Hypothesis: Lundegardh (1952)
- On the basis of experiment he conclude that the uptake of salts was dependent on anion
respiration.
-When the tissue were immersed in a salt solution, their rate of respiration increased and at the
same time there was an uptake of anions. The increase in respiration due to immersion in salts
has been called 'anion respiration'.
3) Protein Synthesis Hypothesis: Steward (1941)
- They reported that in some plant species like potato the ion absorption takes place only at the
time of protein synthesis which is a energy consuming process.
- According to Steward and Preston , both growth and salt uptake were dependent on protein
synthesis.
4) The protein folding and Unfolding: Goldacre (1952)
- In this theory the cation and anion uptake were related to the cycling folding and unfolding of
protein.
- When the protein are unfolded, the positive and negative charges on proteins were exposed and
these would attract anions and cations respectively.
- When the proteins are folded up, the negative and positive charges on protein would be
neutralized and consequently the cation and anion would be released."
5) Ion pump Hypothesis: Hodges et,al.(1972)
-It believed that at the time of photosynthesis the membrane bound ATPase (enzyme) splits the
ATP in ADP-(anion) and phosphoryl cation(H+) react with water and form produce H.
- This ATPase reaction produce anion ADP-and a cation H+ which is released in outer medium
and a pH gradient is thus develop across the membrane.
- The anion equivalents remain in the cytoplasm and give rise to the negative electropotential of
the cell which attract cations in exchange for H.
- Cations thus diffuse through the channel of the membrane into the cytoplasm which is called as
electric osmosis.

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- This however, cannot bring about selective uptake as it cannot distinguish between different ion
species e.g. K+ and Na+
Passive Mechanism of Nutrient Uptake
Passive Mechanism: Absorption of ions into the outer space is controlled by the process of
diffusion and exchange and such transport of ion is called passive absorption.
1)Mass flow Hypothesis:
1)Mass Flow: Mass flow is a convective process in which plant nutrient ions and other dissolved
substances are transported in the flow of water to the root due to the transpirational water uptake
by the plant. Some mass flow can also be occur due to evaporation are percolation of soil water.
2)Diffusion: Mulder (1851).
Diffusion process operates when an ion moves from an area of high concentration to one of low
concentration by random thermal motion. The three principal factors influencing the movement
of nutrients in to the roots. They are as follows
1) Diffusion Coefficient
2) Concentration of nutrient in soil solution
3) Buffering capacity of the solid phase to release nutrients into the soil solution.
This movement is conceived by Grahm and Fick i.e. called
Fick's Law: The rate of diffusion in a unit time is proportional to the concentration gradient.
dc/dt = De.A dc/dx
Where, dc/dt is change in conc. with time t.
De is effective diffusion coefficient
A is cross sectional area
dc/dx is change in conc. with distance
3) Ion Exchange: Under this mechanism, the anions or cations from within the cells are
exchanged with anions or cations of equivalent charge of the external solution the tissue ion in
which the tissue is immersed. The ionic exchange process may be as under: "
a) Carbonic Acid Exchange Theory:
- The CO2 is regularly released at the root tips from the process of respiration which combines
with water and forms carbonic acid (H2CO3)
- The carbonic acid latter dissociates into H and HCO3 ions.
- The H+ ions exchanged with cations absorbed on the clay micelle will enter the soil solution
and diffuse to the root surface.

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- Thus a zone of carbonic acid develops in the root tip due to high respiratory activity. The H+
ions of the root surface may be exchanged with cations present in the soil solution after being
from clay micelle.
b) Contact Exchange Theory:
- According to this theory anions may be absorbed by the plant roots even without being
dissolved in soil solution.
- Thus exchange of ions may take place between the roots and clay micelle at the point where
they are in direct contact with each other.
c) Donnan Equilibrium:
- According to this theory if on the inner side of a permeable membrane a concentration of fixed
anions is present, more cations would be absorbed in addition to the normal exchange to
maintain the equilibrium.
- Thus the concentration of cations would be greater in the internal solution than in the external
solution.
4)Molecular Sieve Hypothesis:(Troube 1867)
- According to this theory a bounding membrane contain pores of a fixed size and such
molecules could pass through them as were smaller than size of the pores.
5) The lipoid solubility Hypothesis:(Overton 1897)
According to this theory the uptake of salts depended on the relative solubility in lipoid which
was a constituent of the cell membrane.

Factors Affecting Nutrient Availability to Plants

Q.1) Explain the relation between various components of dynamic soil system.
The interaction of numerous physical, chemical and biological properties in soil control the
availability of plant nutrients.

(Relation between the various components of dynamic soil system)

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Q.2) State the factors affecting nutrient availability to plants? Explain any two in brief.
OR
Enlist the soil parameters which affect nutrient availability to plant? Explain any two of
them.
Following are the factors affecting nutrient availability to plants.
1)Soil Texture 6) Composition of soil air
2)Soil Structure 7) Supply of mineral nutrients
3) Soil Reaction 8) Total nutrient content of soil
4)Temperature 9) Microbial Activity
5) Moisture Supply 10)Organic matter content
Explaination:
1) Soil Texture and Soil Structure: Fine textured granular or crumb structured soils have a
higher CEC and can hold a greater amount of exchangeable cation increasing the availability of
cation and other nutrient ion.
2) Soil Reaction:
- The soil reaction is an important in controlling nitrogen availability from soil organic matter
The ammonifiers and the nitrifiers are active at pH 5.5to 6.0,below which nitrogen availability
decreases.
- The pH rise towards neutral range causes increased microbial activity resulting in increased
availability of phosphate.
-At low pH the availability of potassium, calcium and magnesium is decreases.
-Iron, Mangnese, Zinc , Aluminium and Copper availability increases at low pH.
- Availability of boron decreases below pH 5.0 and above pH7.0 but above pH 8.5 it again
decreases.
2) Temperature:
- Availability of N>50°c is low because of the rate of mineralization (biological conversion of
organic form to inorganic form of mineral) declines,optimum rate of mineralization is lying
between 30-35°C.
- Phosphorus availability generally increases with increase in temperature.
- Potassium availability in soil is higher at higher temperature but reduces at lower soil
temperature
- Sulphur, Calcium and magnesium availability is severly decreases at or below 100°C and
increases with increasing temp from 20° -40°C.

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4) Moisture Supply:
The availability of N,K,Ca, Mg and S is usually dependent on the soil moisture content.
Generally optimum moisture content in soil increases the availability of the nutrient in soil.
5) Composition of soil air:
Oxygen deficiency in the soil air disturbs the metabolic process in plants. If the CO2 in soil air is
more may toxic to some plants. Root elongation is particularly sensitive to aeration conditions.
6) Supply of mineral nutrients:
Supply of mineral nutrients affect the nutrient availability. If supply is optimum then availability
is good but supply of nutrient is excess than the required, there is a toxic effect.
7) Total nutrient content of soil:
- Deep black soils are rich in nutrient contents and hence the availability is more than the lighter
type of soil. In sandy soil there is a very less availability of nutrients.
8) Microbial Activity:
- During decomposition, the soil microorganism release essential plant nutrients in inorganic
forms that can be absorbed by the plant roots. So, microbial activity is important for nutrient
availability.
9) Organic matter content:
- Organic matter content of soil governs the availability of essential nutrients in soil . More the
organic matter, more is the activity of microorganism and more is availability of nutrients.

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Chapter No.27,28and 29
Chemistry of soil N,P, K, calcium, magnesium, sulphur and micronutrients.
CHEMISTRY AND AVAILABILITY OF MAIOR NUTRIENTS
Nitrogen

Nitrogen occurs in soil in both cationic (NH4+) and anionic (NO3, NO2) forms, the greater part
occurs in organic forms. NH4+ fixed on the cation exchange sites, are tightly bound by clay and
are slowly available to plants. The available nitrate and ammonium form is only 1-2% of the
total soil nitrogen. Nitrate is highly mobile. Nitrogen availability depends upon the rate at which
organic nitrogen is converted to inorganic nitrogen (mineralization). Most soil nitrogen is
unavailable to plants. The amount in available forms is small and crops withdraw a large amount
of nitrogen. Two forms of nitrogen available to plants are nitrate (NO3-) and ammonium
(NH4+). Roots can absorb both of these forms, although many species preferentially absorb
nitrate-nitrogen over ammonium-nitrogen. Nitrogen performs important functions in plant
growth.

-Nitrogen is an important component of chlorophyll, enzymes, amino acids and proteins.

-Nitrogen stimulates root growth, development and uptake of other cations.

-Nitrogen encourages vegetative growth.

Nitrogen deficiency is first observed when older leaves of plants turn yellow. Toxicity of
nitrogen leads to (i) excess vegetative growth (ii) lodging (iii) delayed maturity (iv) plants
become susceptible to diseases and insect pests.

NITROGEN CYCLE

The primary source of nitrogen is the atmosphere. Soil nitrogen comes from living things.
Sedimentary rocks contain more nitrogen as compared to igneous rocks.

Nitrogen passes repeatedly through its various forms as it moves from the soil into the bodies of
living organisms and back again. Fig. 18.1 illustrates the complex cycle in which nitrogen is
involved. The nitrogen in soils is derived from fertilizers, crop residues, organic manure,
ammonium and nitrate salts brought down by precipitation. Atmospheric nitrogen is also fixed
by certain organisms. Nitrogen may be lost through following ways:

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(i). Denitrification; (ii). Immobilization; (iii) Leaching of mineral nitrogen (NO, and NH4+)
beyond the root zone of the plant; (iv). Decomposition of organic matter low in nitrogen by soil
organism and subsequent absorption of N by these

Under conditions of low water availability and high pH ammonium (NH 4) is converted to
volatile ammonia (NH3). The gaseous ammonia is lost into the atmosphere vi)Fertilizer loss by
runoff is another critical source of nitrogen loss.

Nitrogen Transformation in Soils

The cycling of N in the soil - plant - atmosphere system involves many transformations of N
between inorganic and organic forms. Nitrogen is subjected to amino compounds (R-NH, R
represents the part of the organic molecule with which amino group (NH2) is associated), then to

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ammonium (NH4+) ion and nitrate (NO3-). Ammonium nitrogen is often converted to nitrate-
nitrogen by microorganisms before absorption through a process called nitrification.

Nitrogen Mineralization
The conversion of organic N to NH4, and NO3 is known as nitrogen mineralization.
Mineralization of organic N involves two reactions, aminisation and ammonification, which
occur through the activity of heterotrophic microorganisms.
R represents the part of the organic molecule with which amino group (NH) is associated.
Aminisation
The decomposition of proteins into amines, amino acids and urea is known as aminisation.

Ammonification
The step, in which, the amines and amino acids produced by aminisation of organic N are
decomposed by other hetrotrophs, with the release of NH 4+, is termed ammonification.

Nitrogen Immobilization
Immobilization is the process in which available forms of inorganic nitrogen (NO 3, - NH4+) are
converted to unavailable organic nitrogen. Immobilisation includes assimilation and protein
production so those inorganic ions are made into building block of large organic molecules.
Nitrification

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Nitrification is a process in which NH4+released during mineralization of organic N is converted

to NO3-. It is a two step process in which NH4 is converted first to NO2 and then to NO3.
Biological oxidation of NH 4 to NO3 is represented by:

Nitrification occurs most efficiently when soil pH is between 5.5-6.5. Nitrification can be
completed within 2-4 weeks.
The reaction rates associated with nitrification in most well - drained soils are NO2- to
NO3-> NH4+ to NO2- As a result, NO2- generally does not accumulate in soils, which is fortunate,
since NO2- is toxic to plant roots
Losses from the Nitrogen Cycle
Nitrogen supply would not be a problem if there were no losses from the mineralization -
immobilization cycle. The various losses include.
Crop larvest: One of the biggest losses is from crop harvest. Large amounts of nitrogen are
consumed by the field crops etc.
Erosion losses: Every ton of soil lost from field carries nitrogen with it. A 10 tonnes loss of soil
containing 4% organic matter would amount to 20 kg of nitrogen.
Leaching losses: Nitrate nitrogen is easily leached from permeable soil.
Volatilization: There are several volatile forms of nitrogen (N2), ammonia (NH3), and the
various oxides of nitrogen (NO, N 2O, etc.).
Denitrification: Dentrification, is a process which involves the bacterial conversion of nitrate
nitrogen (NO, ) to nitrite (NO,-) to nitric oxide (NO), nitrous oxide (NO) or nitrogen gas (N.)
Fate of Nitrogenous Compounds
Fate of Ammonium Nitrogen
- Considerable amounts are appropriated by organisms capable of using this type of compound,
for example mycorrhizal fungi are able to absorb ammoniacal nitrogen and pass it on in some
form to their host.
-Higher plants are able to use this form of nitrogen, often very readily although they seem to
grow better if some nitrate nitrogen is also available. Ammonium nitrogen is not as readily
utilised by most plants as nitrate-nitrogen.
-Ammonium ions are subject to fixation by vermiculite, smectites and organic matter.

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-When plant and animal synthesis are temporarily satisfied, the remaining ammonium nitrogen
may be readily oxidised by certain special bacteria (converts to nitrites and nitrates) which uses it
not only as a source of nitrogen but also as a source of energy.
-Some ammonia may be lost into the atmosphere.
Fate of Nitrate Nitrogen
The nitrate nitrogen of the soil whether added as fertilizers or formed by nitrification (i) may be
incorporated and assimilated into higher plants. Both plants and soil micro-organisms readily
assimilate nitrate nitrogen, (ii) May be lost in drainage, or escape in a gaseous condition. Since,
nitrate ions are negatively charged they cannot be adsorbed by the negatively charged colloids
that dominate in soils. Consequently, they are subject to ready leaching and move downward
with water. Nitrate nitrogen has a greater propensity towards leaching as compared to
ammonium nitrogen.
How to Minimise Losses of Nitrate Nitrogen?
Nitrification inhibitors: To minimise losses of nitrate nitrogen the volatilisation and leaching, it
is desirable to keep nitrogen in the ammonium Chemicals that can inhibit the nitrification process
are called nitrification inhibit Two major compounds that can inhibit nitrification are 2-chloro-
5(trichloromethyl) pyridine commonly known as N-serve and 2-amino-4-chloro6-methyl
pyridine commonly known as AM.
Sulphur coated ureu: Urea granules are coated with elemental sulphur lb sulphur slows down
the release of urea to the soil solution. It limits hydroly 550 urea to ammonia and the oxidation of
ammonia to nitrate. This reduces the availability of nitrate for the denitrification process.

Influence of High Concentration of Added Fertilizers

The added fertilizers salts will almost invariably be localized in higher concentration than found
in the bulk of the soil. For this reason, the usual reactions are sometimes subject to modification.
When anhydrous ammonia, ammonia containing salts, or even urea is added to highly alkaline
soils, some nitrogen loss in the form of free ammonia is likely. Also, under these conditions, the
nitrification process is inhibited, only the first step proceeding normally. Nitrates may thus
accumulate until much of the ammonium forms have been oxidised. Only then will the second
step,that of nitrate formation, take place at normal rate.
REACTIONS OF NITROGEN FERTILISERS
Micro-organisms play a key role in controlling the availability of soil nitrogen to plants and the
fate of nitrogen fertilizers. Temperature and moisture control both these factors.
Organic materials: Organic forms of nitrogen include the application of animal manure,
compost. Nitrogen is gradually released through inorganic materials.
Inorganic fertilizers: Nitrogen applied in fertilizers undergoes the same kind of reactions as
does nitrogen released by biochemical processes from plant residues.
Nitrogen fertilizers may be grouped into four classes: amide, ammoniacal, nitrate and mixed i.e.
ammoniacal cum nitrate.

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Amide Fertilizers: The plants do not absorb amide nitrogen directly through their roots. It is
converted into NH, and NO, forms which plants can use. Urea in soil is rapidly hydrolysed by
enzyme urease as follows:

Urea should be applied in moderately, moist conditions 5 cm deep to avoid leaching and
volatilisation losses. Under wet condition, urea is subjected to loss through leaching. Urea
nitrogen is subject to ammonification, nitrification and utilisation by microbes and higher plants.
Ammoniacal Fertilisers: It consists of nitrogen in ammonium (NH4+) form that is adsorbed by
soil colloids. These fertilizers cause acidity in the soil which can be corrected by liming. For
example, ammonium sulphate and ammonium chloride. Ammonium Sulphate is an excellent
fertilizer for wet land rice as leaching losses of NH 4N are less due to adsorption of NH, N by soil
colloids. The reaction of ammonium sulphate and ammonium chloride in soil occurs as follows:

The conversion of ammonia into nitrate takes place under following reaction

The H+ ions released under nitrification process cause acidity in

the soil which may be corrected by adding 110kg of lime/100 kg ammonium sulphate.

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Ammonium chloride: When applied to the soil, it produces acidity ard the soil requires
128 kg calcium carbonate to neutralize the resulting acidic effect on 100 kg of ammonium
chloride.
Soil + 2NH4 Cl → Soil + CaCl2
Ammonium fertilizers can be oxidised to nitrates, fixed by the soil solids og they
can be utilised without change by higher plants or micro-organisms.
Nitrate fertilizers: Nitrate fertilizers contain nitrogen in NO, form, which is readily
taken up by plants. However, under waterlogged condition, it may be lost due to denitrification.
These fertilizers cause alkalinity in soils. Eg. sodium nitrate and calcium nitrate.
Sodium nitrate: It is soluble in water. When added to the soil, the plant 70013 readily
absorb the nitrate ion. NO, being soluble in water is subjected to leaching due to heavy rains. The
sodium neutralizes, acidity of the soil to a large extent i.e. 100 kg of NaNO3 is equivalent to
129kg of CaCO3. It leaves basic cations and creates alkaline condition.
Calcium nitrate: The nitrogen present in it is readily soluble in water and easily
available to plants. It improves the physical properties of soil. Nitrate Sales can be lost by
volatilization or leaching or they can be absorbed by plants on micro-organisms. In most soil
situations, the effects of higher localized concentrations of fertilizer materials on nitrogen
transformation are not serious
Mixed ammonical cum nitrate fertilizers: This group contains fertilizers which have
ammonical as well as nitrate form of nitrogen.
Calcium ammonium nitrate: It contains 25-26% nitrogen, half of which is in NH4+
form and rest half in NO3- form. Except this it contains about 35 5 0 calcium carbonate and 5.5%
magnesium carbonate, which are mixed fertilizers. Heavy irrigation after its application should
be avoided as it contains 50% nitrogen in the form of NO, which may be lost due to leaching.
This can be mixed with other phosphatic and potassium fertilizers if the mixture has to be
applied within few days of mixing.
Ammonium sulphate nitrate: It is a double salt of ammonium nitrate and ammonium sulphate
made by neutralising a mixture of nitric and sulphuric acids with ammonia. It contains 26%
nitrogen. The nitrogen present in it constituent about 76% ammoniacal and rest 24% nitrate form.
It reacts quicker than ammonium sulphate due to presence of nitrate form of nitrogen, which is
readily available to plants. There is negligible loss of nitrogen from this fertilizer. It is non-
hygroscopic in nature due to which it does not cake easily but, if stored in moist condition caking
may take place. Being totally water soluble it does not leave residual nitrogen except that of
acidity which may be neutralized by adding 85 kg of CaCO3/100 kg of ammonium sulphate
nitrate.
Effect of ammonium sulphate nitrate on soil: It is acidic fertilizer and causes acidity due to
which it is not suitable for acidic soils. It helps in neutralizing alkalinity and is best fertilizer for
marginally saline soils having a pH up to 8.5.*
Effect of ammonium sulphate nitrate on crop plants: The nitrogen is slowly mineralized or
made available to plants and both recovery and fertilizer use efficiency is found to be relatively
much better. It also contains 12% sulphur, a secondary nutrient element, which improves plant
growth, yield and quality.

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Ammonium nitrate: It is one of the quick acting nitrogenous fertilizers and a

representative fertilizer sample contains 35% of nitrogen, half of which is in ammoniacal form
and rest half in nitrate form. Of the total nitrogen only 95% is available to plants, i.e. nitrogen in
nitrate form is fully available but that in ammoniacal form is only 90% available to plants. The
fertilizer is fully soluble in water hence it leaves no residue in the soil.
Effect of ammonium nitrate on soil: Being acidic in nature it causes acidity when
applied to the soil which may be corrected by liming through addition of CaCO 3, at the rate of 60
kg/100 kg of fertilizer. The ammonium nitrate should not be used under waterlogged conditions
because the nitrate nitrogen gets lost through leaching or washing. Heavy soil types are best
suited for its application because such soils may retain nutrient for longer time.
Anhydrous ammonia: It is a cheapest source of nitrogen, as it does not need processing.
It is injected in the soil at a high pressure nearly 7.5 to 10 cm below the surface. Immediately
after application the soil must be sealed through compaction to avoid losses due to volatilisation.
It is found that losses are much less in coarse textured soils than in fine textured soils. Slightly
higher moisture reduces the loss of ammonia hence the field should be worked slightly below the
field capacity.
Use of calcium cynamide as a fertilizer: It supplies free lime in soils and adds calcium
to the soil. Calcium gets released and the cynamide reacts with soil colloids where it produces
urea and dicynamide depending upon soil reaction i.e. in acidic or in neutral conditions, urea is
formed. This process is found to be more rapid in fine grained and moist soils than in coarse and
dry soils. In alkaline reactions calcium cynamide produces dicynamide.
Reaction of Cynamide in Alkaline Soils

Reaction of Cynamide in Neutral and Acidic Soils

PHOSPHORUS CYCLE
The phosphorus cycle in and above the soil surface is shown in Fig. 18.4. Phosphorus undergoes
unique transformation reactions in different soils. Unlike nitrogen, there are no gaseous losses of
P and leaching loss with percolating water is negligible.
- Crop residues, animal manure and chemical fertilizers are the primary sources of phosphorus.
Transformation of P in soil involves both inorganic and organic reactions.
-The decrease in the soil solution P concentration with adsorption by plant roots is buffered by
both inorganic and organic P fractions in soils.

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-Numerous soil micro-organisms digest plant residues containing P and produce many organic P
compounds in soil. These organic P compounds can be mineralized through microbial activity to
supply soluble P. Inorganic P adsorbed on mineral and clay surfaces as H2PO4-, or HPO4 2- also
can desorb to buffer decreases in solution P.
-Primary and secondary P minerals dissolve to resupply H2PO4,/HPO42- in solution. Water-
soluble fertilizer P applied to soil readily dissolves and increases the concentration of soil
solution P. Again, the inorganic and organic P fractions can buffer the increase in solution P.
-From the cycle it is clear that the adsorbed P and the other solid forms are all in equilibrium
with the solution P and thereby with each other.

PHOSPHORUS COMPOUNDS IN SOILS

Organic and inorganic forms of phosphorus occur in soils and both the forms are important to
plants as sources of phosphorus. The relative amounts of phosphorus in organic and inorganic
forms vary greatly from soil to soil.
Organic Phosphorus Compounds

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Organic phosphorus represents about 50% of the total P in soils varies between 15 and 80% in
most soils). Most organic P compounds are esters of orthophosphoric acid and have been
identified primarily as (a) inositol phosphates, (b) phospholipids and (c) nucleic acids.
Inositol phosphates: Inositol phosphates represent a series of phosphate esters ranging
from monophosphates up to hexaphosphates. Phytic acid, which has an empirical formula (CH) 6
(H2PO4) 6 has six orthophosphate (H2PO4)groups attached to each C atom in the benzene ring.
Phytin, (a Ca-Mg salt of phytic acid), is the most abundant of the known organophosphorus
compounds in soils. The total proportion of inositol phosphates in soil is 10–50%.
Phospholipids: Phospholipids, phosphorus containing fatty compounds, are insoluble in
water but are readily utilized and synthesized by soil micro organisms. Some of the most
common phospholipids are derivatives of glycerol. The rate of release of phospholipids from
organic sources in soils is rapid. Phospholipids constitute 1-5% of total organic P in soil.
Nucleic acids: Nucleic acids occur in all living cells and are produced during the
decomposition of residues by soil micro-organisms. Two distinct forms of nucleic acids,
ribonucleic acid (RNA) and deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA), are released into soil in greater
quantities than inositol phosphates, and they are broken down more quickly. Nucleic acids
constitute 0.2 to 2.5% of total organic P in soil. Enzyme phosphatase (enzymes responsible for
splitting of phosphates from complex organic molecules) plays a major role in the mineralization
of organic phosphates in soil.

Inorganic Phosphorus Compounds

Most inorganic phosphorus compounds in soil fall into one of the two groups: (a) those in which
calcium is the dominant controlling cation (calcium phosphates) and (b) those in which iron and
aluminum are the controlling cations (iron and aluminium phosphates)
Calcium phosphate: The original natural source of phosphorus is the mineral apatite, a
calcium phosphate that is nearly insoluble. Apatite minerals may be found in even the more
weathered soils, especially in their lower horizons. This fact is an indication of the extreme
insolubility and consequent unavailability of the phosphorus contained therein. The simpler
compounds of calcium such as mono and dicalcium phosphates are readily available for plant
growth. These compounds are present in extremely small quantities only because they easily
revert to the more insoluble forms.
Iron and aluminum phosphates: The compounds involved are probably hydroxy
phosphates such as (a) strengite — iron phosphate and (b) variscite — aluminum phosphate.

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Strengite and variscite are too insoluble to contribute much to plant nutrition. Smeck (1973)
suggested that the accumulation of iron and aluminum phosphates is a good indication of the
stage of soil development.
The most common P minerals found in acid soils are Al-P and Fe-P minerals, while Ca-P
minerals predominate in neutral and calcareous soils
At pH 7.2 there are approximately equal amounts of H2PO, and HPO... Below this pH, H2PO, is
the major form in soil solution, whereas HPO42- is the predominant form above pH 7.2.

PHOSPHORUS FIXING POWER OF SOILS

Crop uptake of fertilizer phosphorus rarely exceeds 20 to 25% in a single cropping season. This
is due to the various physico-chemical and biological transformations that revert the soluble P
into insoluble forms. The soil factors that affect transformations are pH, organic matter,
temperature, mineralogical composition, free sesquioxide content, microbial population and root
exudates.
It is difficult to make a comparison of the values of phosphate-fixation capacity given by various
workers in different soils and clays, as the amount fixed varied with the method used. Although
soils fix phosphate to varying degrees, the amount so fixed is not entirely lost. It builds up the
reserves of soil P and adds to the soil
P available to plants. Since phosphate is a relatively immobile nutrient, the fixation of phosphate
improves the P status of the soils. Under suitable systems of soil management, this fixed
phosphorus can be made available to the crop. The residual value of applied fertilizer phosphate
in subsequent years is largely due to this phenomenon of phosphate fixation.
Amongst the various soil groups, black, red, laterite, mixed red and black, red and yellow
and coastal alluvial soils exhibited higher P fixation than alluvial, gray brown, desert and other
soils. Gupta (1965) observed the relationship of phosphate fixing capacity to added phosphate
(Table 18.6) which reveals that the maximum phosphate-fixing capacity is in the order: red soil >
medium black > heavy black > alluvium grey brown > alluvial soils. Khanna and Mahajan
(1971) studied the behaviour of added phosphates in soils of varying physical properties. They
observed that more than half of the conversion of added phosphates was in the form of
aluminium phosphate: 47-73% at pH 4.7 and 35-56% at pH 6.6; followed by Fe-phosphate, 18-
44% at pH 4.7 and 17-34% at pH 6.6. In alkaline and calcareous soil, saloid bound P and Ca-P
were much more than in acid soil.
Phosphate Retention and Fixation
Phosphate anions can be attracted to soil constituents with such a bond that they become
insoluble and not easily available to plants. This process is called phosphate fixation or retention.
Many authors use the term fixation and retention interchangeably. However, Tisdale and Nelson
(1975) are of the opinion that retention refers to that part of adsorbed phosphorus that can be
extracted with dilute acids. This fraction is relatively available to plants. The term fixed on the
other hand is reserved for the portion of soil phosphorus that is not extractable by dilute acids.
This portion of phosphorus is not readily available to plants.

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Soil pH, organic carbon, exchangeable Ca 2+ + Mg2 and K+ were highly related to I0
.DPBC did not relate significantly to soil properties and available P. I0 and available P were
highly related to each other (r = -0.966) indicating the good equilibrium between I0 and Q
The addition of manure raised the soil pH, organic carbon, available P, CEC, exchangeable Ca2+
+ Mg2+ and K+ and decreased the amount of exchangeable Al3+ (Patiram & Singh 1993). It
may be the combined effect of release from manure and the effect of organic acids on soil
minerals, which has the positive effect on the quantity and intensity parameters of P supplying
capacity of soil.
Phosphate Retention
- Acid soils usually contain significant amounts of soluble and exchangeable
Al3+, Fe3+ and Mn2+ ions. Phosphate, when present, may be adsorbed to the colloid surface
with these ions serving as a bridge. This phenomenon is called co-adsorption. The phosphate
retained in this way is still available to plants. Such a reaction can also take place with Ca -
saturated clays.
-Ca clay adsorbs large amounts of phosphate. The Ca 2+ ions form the linkage between the clay
and phosphate ions as: Clay - Ca - H 2PO4
-The phosphate ions can also enter into a chemical reaction with the foregoing free metal ions as:
A13+ + 3H2PO4- → AI (H2PO4), The product formed is not soluble in water and precipitates from
solution. With the passage of time the Al phosphate precipitates, become less soluble and less
available to plants. The lower the soil pH, the greater the concentration of soluble Fe, Al, and
Mn; consequently, larger the amount of phosphorus retained in this way.
Phosphate fixation in acidic soils: Many acidic soils contain high amounts of free Fe and Al
and of Fe and Al hydrous oxide clays. The free Fe, Al and the sesquioxide clays react rapidly
with phosphate, forming a series of not easily soluble hydroxy phosphates.

The amount of phosphorus fixed by this reaction usually exceeds that fixed
by phosphate retention. Generally, clays with low sesquioxide ratios (SiO 2/R2O2 have a higher P-
fixing capacity.
Phosphate fixation in alkaline soils: Many alkaline soils contain high amounts of
soluble and exchangeable Ca2+ and, frequently, CaCO3. Phosphate reacts with both the ionic
and the carbonate form of Ca.

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Phosphate fixation cannot be avoided entirely, but it may be reduced b: addition of

competing ions for fixing sites. Organic anions from stable manure and silicates are reported to
be very useful in reducing P fixation.
The following salient conclusions can be drawn from the results of phosphate fixation
obtained.
- The role of clay minerals such as muscovite and phlogopite in P fixation is important. There
exist a good correlation between the clay content and I fixation. Thus clay fraction in soils seems
to be the site of phosphate fixation
-Free CaCO3, present in calcareous soil adsorbs phosphate.
-Organic matter in soils influences P fixation both directly and indirectly Directly, phosphate can
be adsorbed by organic matter, the clay complex and the chelating compounds; indirectly, the
organic acids released during the decomposition of organic matter affect phosphate solubilization
and fixation.
- Oxides of iron and aluminium combine with phosphates to form meta phosphate. This causes
reversion of soluble P into insoluble products.
- In calcareous and alkaline soils, too, the amount of free sesquioxides is highly correlated with
phosphate fixation.
-A significant amount of phosphorus is leached out in saline and alkali soils. This is due to
formation of highly soluble sodium phosphates. The presence of monocalcium phosphate in soil
and sodium carbonate in presence of water leads to formation of soluble sodium phosphates.

POTASSIUM CYCLE
The major components of the potassium cycle are shown in Fig.
-Primary soil minerals such as micas and feldspars are the native sources of potassium. They
weather to fine micas (illite) and other silicate clays in which some of the potassium is held in a
non-exchangeable, but slowly available form. Kaolinite, halloysite, nacrite and diorite are
important 1:1 clay minerals containing potassium.
-The non-exchangeable potassium is slowly released to the exchangeable form and later to the
soil solution, from which it is adsorbed by plant roots, and is eventually recycled through plant
residues and wastes to the soil.

FORMS AND AVAILABILITY OF POTASSIUM IN SOILS

Potassium in soil occurs in four phases namely soil solution phase, exchangeable phase, non-
exchangeable phase and mineral phase. The different

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Fig. 18.6. The potassium cycle

forms are in dynamic equilibrium with one another. All the forms of soil potassium were
interrelated, indicating the existence of dynamic equilibrium among them.
Distribution of total potassium in soil as well as in the different size fractions of the soil
is controlled to a large extent by clay fraction of soil. The forms of potassium in soils were
positively and significantly correlated with K content in silt and clay.
Water soluble K: The water soluble K is the fraction of soil potassium that can be readily
adsorbed by the growing plants. However this is a very small fraction of total K. The dilution of
the soil increases the concentration of water soluble K and drying decreases it further. It is about
1 to 10 mg kg of total K.
Exchangeable K: Exchangeable K is held around negatively charged soil colloids by
electrostatic attraction. Thus, exchangeable potassium represents that fraction of K, which is
adsorbed on external and accessible internal surfaces. It is about 40 to 60 mg kg' of total K.
Generally non-exchangeable. Non-exchangeable K is distinct from mineral K that it is not
bonded covalently within the crystal structures of soils miner particles. Instead, it is held between
adjacent tetrahedral layers of dioctahedral and trioctahedral micas, vermiculites and intergrade
clay minerals. It is about to 750 mg kg' of total K.
Mineral (lattice) K: Lattice K is a part of the mineral structure and is available to the plants very
slowly. (As compared to the non-exchangeable K) the amount of lattice K released to plants
depend on the quantity of clay, especial the smaller clay particles, and its mineralogy. It is about
5,000 to 25,000 mg kg-1
For convenience, the various forms of potassium in soils can be classified the basis of
availability in three general groups: (a) unavailable (b) readily available and (c) slowly available.
A dynamic equilibrium of various forms of K in the soil may be shown as

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K (lattice) -K (exchangeable) - K (solution)

When fertilizer K is applied to the soil the reaction goes from right to left
Considerable amount of K may remain on the exchange complex and the amount fixed on
the clay lattice will depend on the type of minerals and their fixing capacity. Since only a small
amount of K remains in the soil solution, small amount of K (soluble form) can be lost to
leaching. Potassium may be carried with soil erosion. It is the major cause of K loss.
Relatively Unavailable Forms
The greatest part (90-98%) of all soil potassium in a mineral soil is in relative unavailable
forms. The compounds containing most of this form of potassium are the feldspars and micas.
These minerals are quite resistant to weathering and probably supply relatively insignificant
quantities of potassium during a give growing season.
Readily Available Forms
The readily available potassium constitutes only about 1-2% of the tot: amount of this element in
an average mineral soil. It exists in soils in two form (i) potassium in soil solution and (ii)
exchangeable potassium adsorbed on so colloidal surfaces. Most of this available potassium is in
the exchangeable form (approximately 90%). Soil solution potassium is most readily adsorbed
by high plant and is, of course, subject to considerable leaching loss.
Slowly Available Forms
In the presence of vermiculite, smectite, and other 2:1- type minerals the potassium of such
fertilizers as muriate of potash not only becomes adsorbed but may become definitely ‘fixed' by
the soil colloids. The potassium as well as ammonium ions fit in between layers in the crystals of
these normally expanding clays and become an integral part of the crystal. Potassium in this form
cannot replaced by ordinary exchange methods and consequently is referred to as nor
exchangeable potassium. As such this element is not readily available to high plants. This form is
in equilibrium, however, with the available forms and consequently acts as an extremely
important reservoir of slowly available potassium.

QUANTITY AND INTENSITY FACTORS AS RELATED TO THE

AVAILABILITY OF PHOSPHORUS AND POTASSIUM
It is important to be aware of the different forms in which phosphorus / potassium is
found in soils. But it is even more important to know a soils ability to maintain sufficiently high
levels of phosphorus / potassium in the soil solution to assure satisfactory plant growth. In the
Q/I approach, nutrient assessment is measured by three parameters namely quantity, intensity
and buffer capacity.
Quantity is the amount of ion, which is present at a definite potential or held at a definite
strength in the soil at a particular time.
Intensity of an ion is a measure of the length with which it is attached to the electrochemical
system. The concentration of the nutrient in the soil solution is a measure of the intensity factor.
Buffer capacity is a rate of change of quantity with intensity (dQ/dl) and is a measure of the
capacity of the soil to maintain the intensity against depletion. The Q/ I parameters of soil
phosphorus and potassium are discussed in the following paragraphs:

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Q/I relationship of soil phosphorus: Ramamoorthy and Subramaniam (1960) and Beckett and
White (1964) approached the determination of capacity of the soil phosphate by determining the
equilibrium concentration of P in soil
Q/I relationship of soil potassium: Q/ I parameters of potassium can be expressed in a number
of ways:
The Q/I relationships are measured by shaking together soil and dilute CaCl 2 solutions
containing various amounts of KCl for short periods at different soil solution ratios. K and Ca
are determined in the solution while activity ratio and gain or loss or K by the soil are calculated
(Beckett, 1964). The QI relationship on graphical interpolation gives the equilibrium K AR when
K is neither gained nor lost by the soil.

Chemistry and Availability of Secondary Nutrients

SECONDARY nutrients include sulphur, calcium and magnesium. Secondary elements are
required in very small quantity as compared to primary elements.
Sulphur: In 1911, Peterson discovered the essentiality of sulphur for plant growth.
Sulphur in the form of sulfate is essential for all plants. It is needed in almost similar quantities
as phosphorus or magnesium. Involvement of sulphur in plant metabolism and yield responses
makes sulphur as the fourth major element after NPK. The depletion of sulphur and other
micronutrients has increased in soils due to intensive agriculture involving use of high yielding
varieties, scarce use of organic manure and high use of sulphur and micronutrient free high
analysis fertilizers.
IMPORTANCE OF SULPHUR
Sulphur in Soils
-Sulphur is the thirteenth abundant element in the earth's crust, average ranging between 0.06 to
0.10%. Sulphur in soils is being derived from weathering of rocks and soils, i.e., gypsum, barite,
epsomite, mirabirite.
The C:N:S ratio of soil organic matter is approximately [Link].2.
The soils with less than 10 mg/kg available sulphur is considered as low (using mono calcium
phosphate as extractant).
Sulphur in Plants
Sulphur in the form of sulpate (SO4 2-) represents the readily available fraction to the plants.
Roots absorb SO4 2-ions by mass flow and diffusion process. SO4 2- ions are transported within
the plant in the same form and then reduced to SH (sulfhydryl-group) and incorporated into
organic forms.
Sulpate is mainly translocated in an upward direction and the capability of higher plants to move
S in the downward direction is relatively low.
Sulphur content in the plant ranges between 0.1% and 0.5% with an average of 0.3%. 0.2% S in
plants has been considered as a critical limit of deficiency.
The economic part of the plant (grain, fruits) accumulates higher S content than the non-
economic parts. Sulphur uptake is generally 9–15% of the N uptake though it can range from 5–
30%.

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Sulphur Containing Fertilizers

 The sulphur requirements of crops are met with fertilizers, atmosphere pollution,
irrigation water, farmyard manure, crop residues and sulph containing pesticides.
Factors Affecting Availability of Sulphur
Generally, total S content in the tropical soils of India, is lower than t values reported for the
temperate zone soils. Sulphur content in a soil depends largely on its organic matter and organic
sulphur content. The low S reserves the tropical soils have resulted largely from their poor
organic matter stati Following factors may affect available S content in a soil:
Soil organic matter: A higher amount of total S has been reported in surface than sub-surface
soils. This is due to a higher organic matter content in surface soils. Sulphur is a constituent of
organic matter; the amount and nature of organic matter govern its content in soils.
Soil texture: The differences in sulphur content of different textural class result from the
association of organic matter with the clay fraction of the [Link] finer textured soils contain a
higher amount of total and available sulphur than coarse textured soils.
Soil reaction: In general, acidic soil contains a higher amount of sulphur than the alkaline soils.
Acidic soils are also high in free Fe and Al oxide, which have higher adsorption capacity for
sulpates.
Salt content: Accumulation of S is accompanied by the accumulation of sulfates. High contents
of salts in coastal saline and alkaline alluvial soils have resulted from the accumulation of salts of
sulfate in these soils. Many workers have reported a positive relation between total S and SO 4,-S.

Climate: Soils located at higher altitude compared with lower altitude contain a higher
amount of total and available sulphur. This is largely due to increase in organic matter content of
soils because of higher rainfall and lower temperature at high altitude.

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Vegetation: Sulphur content declined markedly in cultivated soils (1228 ppm) followed
by soil in the tea, coffee (1323) and forest soils (1408 ppm). It increased considerably under
horticultural crops (Table 19.2). Grasses are better able to utilize SO22-than legumes.

Application of sulphur up to 60 kg ha-1 significantly increased the seed weight per head
and seed yield of sunflower which might be ascribed to increased protein as well as oil content of
the seeds.
THE SULPHUR CYCLE
Sulphur cycling in the soil - plant atmosphere continuum is shown in Figure 19.2. Some
similarity between sulphur and nitrogen cycles is evident.
-The atmosphere is an important source of both the elements i.e. sulphur as well as nitrogen.
- Each is held largely in the organic fraction of the soil and each is dependent to a considerable
extent upon microbial action for its various transformation.
-Sulphur goes through a cycle of oxidation in the soil and reduction in the plant much like the
nitrogen cycle.
-An exchange between the sulphur of soil and plants and atmospheric sulphur dioxide is an
important part of the sulphur cycle.
- Many different microbes can release soluble sulphur by decomposing organic matter.
Sulphur Sources in Soils
The main S-bearing minerals in rocks and soils are
Gypsum (CaSO4.2H20), Epsomite(MgSO4.7H2O), Mirabilite(Na2SO4.10H2O), Pyrite (FeS2),
Sphalerite (ZnS),Chalcopyrite (CuFeS 2), Cobaltite (CoAsS),Pyrrhotite(Fe 11S12), Galena
(PbS),Arsenopyrite (FeS2.FeAs2), Pentlandit(Fe, Ni)9, S8

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- The S content of igneous rock usually ranges from 0.02 to 0.07%. The S content in sedimentary
rocks varies from 0.02 to 0.22%.
- Elemental sulphur occurs in deposits over salt domes, in volcanic deposits and in deposits
associated with calcite and gypsum.
-Oceans contain approximately 2,700 ppm SO4. In other natural waters SO4 ranges from 0.5 to
50 ppm but may reach 60,000 ppm (6 per cent) in highly saline lakes and sediments.
- Another source of soil S is the atmosphere. This is common in regions where coal and other S-
containing products are returned (burned back) to earth in precipitation. - Volatile S compounds
are released in large quantities from volcanic activity, from tidal marshes, from decaying organic
matter and from other sources.
Sulphur Transformations in Soil
The transformations of sulphur are important indicators of its availability to plants. Availability
of sulphur from organic sulphur reserves in soils depends on its mineralization through microbial
activity. Sulphur transformations may be affected by following factors:
Soil temperature: An increase in temperature increases the sulphur oxidation rate in the soil. It
has been reported that mineralization of element sulphur increased with temperature up to 35o C.
Organic matter: The transformation of element sulphur was faster in soils having low content of
organic matter then in those having high organic matter (Chopra 1965). S may be immobilized in
soils in which either the C/S or N/S ratio is too large. Immobilization or tie-up of SO2- in various
organic forms is favoured if the ratio (C/S) is greater than 400.
Soil moisture: Drying of soil enhanced mineralization of organic sulphur, and there was a flush
of sulfate sulphur in soils after a prolonged drought (Kanwar 1976). Soil moisture affects the
activity of sulphatases, the rate of S mineralization and the movement of SO22- in soil. Das
(1973) concluded that under both aerobic and submerged incubation a major part of the added
sulfate remained in a form available to plants. Under waterlogged conditions formation of
hydrogen sulfide may occur. Liming and addition of ammonium sulfate and single
superphosphate increased the production of sulfide in these soils. This indicates the possibility of
sulfide toxicity in wetland rice crop in certain soils because of sulfate reduction when large
amount of sulfate containing fertilizers or amendments are applied.
Soil depth: It is reported that maximum sulphur was in the surface (0-15 cm) soil and decreased
with depth. This may be attributed to higher content of organic matter on surface soils.
Type of cations: It has been reported that the oxidation of element sulphur to sulfate was
affected by the nature of the cations in the soil in the following order: Na +> H+> K+ > Ca2+ .>
Mg2+. Thus alkali or saline alkali soils in the arid regions have greater amounts of sulfate.

ROLE OF CALCIUM AND MAGNESIUM COMPOUNDS IN SOIL AND PLANT

Sources of Soil Calcium
The calcium concentration of the earth's crust is about 3.64%. The important sources in soil are:
(i) Anorthite CaAl2SI2O3 (ii) Calcite CaCO3 (iii) Dolomite Ca Mg (CO3)2 (iv) Gypsum
CaSO4.2H20 (v) Apatites Ca5 (PO4)3F, Ca5(PO4)C1, Ca5(OH) (PO4)3
Calcium in Soils

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Calcium is generally the major base on the exchange complex of soil when
the pH is in the range of 5.5 to 6.5. According to Chapman (1975), for example a 'normal' soil
would have an exchangeable Ca content of 60 to 85% of the total cation exchange capacity and
such soils are nearly neutral in reaction. Soils of humid regions are generally low in Ca. Under
these conditions when water containing carbon dioxide percolates through the soil, the carbonic
acid displaces Ca (and other bases) from the exchange complex. This results in leaching of Ca
and the soils become more acidic. Soils of arid planes of north India where the rainfall is lower
as compared with the humid hills; contain higher quantities of calcium carbonate.
Calcium concentration in the soil when higher than necessary for plant growth will normally
have little effect on Ca2+ uptake, because Ca2+ uptake is largely genetically controlled.
As a general rule, coarse-textured, humid-region soils formed from rocks low in Ca mineral are
low in Ca. This is because of removal of Ca and other cations by excessive leaching through the
soil profile.
Sources of Soil Magnesium
Mg constitutes 1.93 % of the earth's crust. Its content ranges from 0.1 % in coarse sandy soils in
humid region to 4 % in fine textured arid or semi arid soils. Basalt, periodotite and dolomite are
important Mg containing rocks. Under average conditions, exchangeable Mg is about 5% of the
soil cation exchange capacity.
Mg in soils is in equilibrium with exchangeable Mg++
Magnesium in Soil
Mg-deficiency is common in plants growing on coarse textured acid soils having sandy loam,
loamy sand or sand surface.
Mg deficiency also occurs in soils with high ratios of exchangeable Ca/Mg (This ratio should not
exceed 10 to 15). The magnesium deficiency is widespread in the soils of West coast of India,
which receives a high rainfall during south-west and north-east monsoon seasons. The mean
annual rainfall of this area varies from 3000 to 4000 mm, where the soil forming processes are
dominantly controlled by precipitation.
Acid soils with pH 5.0 and below are liable to exhibit Mg deficiency. Thus Mg deficiency is
created when higher dose of ammonium sulfate was added to low exchangeable Mg++soils.
A high dose of potassium fertilizers on sandy soils induces Mg deficiency. Generally the
recommended K/Mg ratios are < 5 for field crops, 3 for 1 vegetables and sugarbeets and 2 for
fruit and green house crops.
Calcium in Plants
The plants from the soil remove large quantities of calcium. In the ash of the vegetative parts of a
citrus tree, for example, Ca constitutes about 34%, the highest of any other nutrient. Calcium is
taken up by the plants in the form of Ca++ ion either from the soil solution or from the clay
complex. Although Ca is present in plants in relatively higher proportion as compared with many
of the other major elements, yet its actual requirement by plants is not much higher than that of a
micronutrient .Some higher plants could be grown in a solution containing only a [Link] of Ca,
provided other potentially toxic (but essential) ions such as Mg, Cu, Fe and Mn are kept at a low
balanced level.

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Magnesium in Plants
Roots of the plant as Mg++ from the soil solution absorb Mg by mass flow and diffusion. Mg
content of plant ranges from 0.1% to 0.5%. The Mg present in the chlorophyll molecules is about
15–20% of the total Mg content of the plant tissues. Mg content in the grain and seeds are higher
than in the other plant organs. The average uptake of Mg in crops ranges between 10-25 kg/ha
/year. Mg is a very mobile element in the phloem and can be translocated from older to younger
leaves. The plant tissue contains Mg ++ in association with mobile anions such as malate and
citrate and non-diffusible anion such as exalate and pectate. Root crops and legumes are heavy
consumers of magnesium.
Functions of Ca
Calcium occurs in plants chiefly in the leaves.
- Calcium is an important nutrient for root development and functioning. When the Ca supply is
held up, the roots turn brown and eventually die. An adequate supply of Ca stimulates the
development of root hairs and encourages the development of entire root system.
Calcium is required at various concentrations for cell division and chromosome stability. It is a
constituent of chromosome, hence Ca deficiency causes chromosome abnormalities. As Ca-
pectate, it is a constituent of the middle lamella of cell walls.
Calcium enhances uptake of NO3-N: Calcium is essential for cell elongation and division.

Functions of magnesium
Mg plays an important role in the synthesis of the chlorophyll molecules as it occupies the
central position. Mg is an essential constituent of all green plants.
Mg favours the synthesis of carotene and xanthophyll. It activates nearly 300 enzymes mainly as
cofactors. Enzymes dehydrogenase and enolases are also activated by Mg ++. It is involved in the
synthesis of carbohydrates through the activation of the enzyme RuBp carboxylase (Rubisco),
Mg++ is involved in the stabilization of ribosomal particle in the configuration necessary for
protein synthesis. Mg++ is involved in the synthesis of oil in the plants.
Mg activates formation of polypeptide chains from amino acids. Mg is needed for phyto
hormone balance and reduction of nitrate.
Mg is involved in the germination of pollen.
Mg influences the strength of cell walls and permeability of membranes. Mg also increases
drought resistance in plants.
FACTORS AFFECTING AVAILABILITY OF CALCIUM AND MAGNESIUM IN SOIL
Use of acidic fertilizers: 100 kg of ammonium sulpate causes a loss of Ca equivalent to about
100 kg of CaCO3 Sulphur acidifies the soil making Ca subject to leaching. Excess use of muriate
of potash also causes losses of calcium from the soil.
Removal by crops: These losses are not substantial. Continued removal by crops especially
under condition of acid forming fertilizer may cause its deficiency.
Loss by leaching: In humid regions percolation is common. Excess water moves through the
soil profile, dissolving soluble ions and carrying them into ground water. Soil layer loose soluble

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salts. Thus much of the adsorbed salts like Ca Mg K and Na is removed. Calcium and
magnesium ions are subject to leaching in larger amounts.
Exchangeable ions in soil: The amount of exchangeable cations in most soils is large. It depends
upon the texture and C.E.C. of soils. Fine textured soils and those with high C.E.C. contain a
larger amount of exchangeable Ca and Mg.
Use of liming materials: Liming materials are the carbonates, oxides hydroxides and silicates
of calcium and magnesium. Impure CaCO3, and dolomitic lime are mostly used as liming
materials. Most Ca and Mg tests are related to the need for lime. Well-limed neutral and alkaline
soils contain sufficient calcium for plant growth. If liming is not done, gypsum is needed to
supply calcium. The positive effect of liming on the yield of wheat has been explained due to
higher uptake and supply of calcium and magnesium besides improvement in other physical,
chemical and biological properties of soils.
Soils characteristics: Magnesium deficiency is common in plants growing on coarse-textured
acidic soils having a sandy loam, loamy sand and sand surface texture.
Calcium and Magnesium Transformations in Soil
Calcium is an important amendment element in saline and alkali soils. Calcium application helps
in correcting the toxicity and deficiency of several other nutrients. The main transformations of
Ca and Mg in soils are (i) solubilization and leaching and (ii) conversion into less soluble
fractions by adsorption.
Solubilization and leaching of calcium and magnesium: It is affected by the following:
Soil texture: Losses are more in light -textured soils because of high permeability and
percolation of rain and irrigation water.
Rainfall: As the rainfall increases the loss of Mg and Ca also increases,
Fertilizers: Acid-forming fertilizers neutralized Ca and Mg and these results in acidification.
Sulphur also solubilizes Ca and Mg.
Organic matter: Application of organic matter leads to net loss of Ca and Mg from the soil.
Ferrolysis: High amounts of bases such as Ca2+ and Mg2+ may be lost from the exchange
complex and leached by high amounts of cations such as Fe2+ and Mn2+ which are released
following reduction of soil. This is called ferrolysis.
Conversion of calcium and magnesium into less soluble form by adsorption:
Calcium and magnesium in soil solution and in exchange complex are in a state of
dynamic equilibrium. When their concentration in solution decreases, Ca and Mg coming from
the exchange complex replenish this. On the other hand if their concentration in soil solution is
high, there is tendency towards their being adsorbed on the exchange complex.
Chemistry and Availability of Micronurients
ROLE OF MICRONUTRIENTS
Micro-nutrients have specific and precise role. It can be summarized as below: Some micronu-
trients function in the enzyme systems of plants. Enzyme molecule may contain boron and
molybdenum (anion forming elements) as part of their structure. Cation forming elements such
as copper serve as coenzymes that activate an enzyme.

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Micro-nutrients function in oxidation reduction processes of plant metabolism. Thus iron, copper
and manganese may enter into oxidation-reduction reactions (as these elements can change their
valencies). Some micro-nutrients are necessary in the production of chlorophyll.
Role of Zinc
Zinc is a metal component of a series of enzymes: It is required for the formation of certain
microbial enzymes. The metal has shown to be a specific inducer of pyruvic carboxylase in
Rhizopus nigricans and of alcohol dehydrogenagse. Zinc plays an important role as a constituent
of alcohol dehyrogenage and galactose oxidase in yeasts and moulds respectively.
Enzyme activator: It activates enzyme carbonic anhydrase and dehydrogenase.
Deficiency of zinc restricts RNA synthesis and protein synthesis: Zinc plays a role in
photosynthesis and nitrogen metabolism. As in case of copper, the effect of zinc deficiency on
photosynthesis is found even in apparently normal green leaves of zinc deficient plants.
Zinc is involved in auxin production: Zinc plays a role in regulating the auxin concentration in
plants.
Role of Copper
Copper is associated with metal protein: Polyphenol oxidase, ascorbic acid oxidase and
tyrosinase have been held to be terminal oxidases in respiration. They catalyse the actual
oxidation in the last stage of aerobic oxidation in which hydrogen is removed from reduced
coenzymes produced during the Kreb's cycle.
Presence in cytochrome oxidase: Several plant enzymes contain copper. These are polyphenol or
catachol oxidase, tyrosinase, laccase and ascrobic oxidase. These are all enzymes, which bring
about the oxidation of organic compounds by means of molecular oxygen.
Presence in chlorophyll: Copper is concerned with the oxidation of iron in the plant. Copper is
strongly bound to the protoplasm.
Role of Iron
Role in enzyme system: Iron plays a keyrole in enzyme systems (Haem enzyme, catalase,
peroxidase and cytochromes). Iron is a constituent of porphyrin compounds-cytochromes, haem
and haem enzymes and other functional metallic proteins. The cytochromes play an important
role in oxidative and photophosphorylations during the respiratory electron transport and
photosynthesis respectively
In leguminous plants: The haemoglobin of the leguminous root noduleslaghaemoglobin contain
iron as an essential nutrient.
Constituent of enzymes: Iron is a constituent of non-haem enzymes ferredoxin, regulates
oxidation reduction reactions. The iron containing protein ferradoxins with a very long
oxidation-reduction potential plays an important role in the reduction of CO 2 atmospheric
nitrogen and sulphate.
Nitrogen assimilation: It plays an important role in photosynthesis, nitrogen assimilation. It has
some role in the synthesis of chlorophyll precursor and protoporphyrin. Being a constituent of
ferradoxin, iron is involved in the nitrogen fixation by a diverse group of micro organisms.
Role of Manganese

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Tricarboxylic acid cycle: Manganese has a primary role in the tricarboxylic acid cycle in
oxidation and reduction reactions i.e. malic enzyme and isocitrate dehydrogenase.
Malate + NADP Malic enzymes pyruvate + NADP + H + CO2

Mn +2
Activates a number of enzymes: It is known to activate a wide variety of enzymes concerned
in cellular oxidation-reductions (oxireductases), hydrolysis (hydrolases), group transfer (lyases)
and joining together of 2 molecules coupled with the breakdown of phosphate bonds in ATP or a
similar phosphate.
Acts as an autocatalyst: Isocitrate dehydrogenase, malic dehydrogenase, glycocyaminase, D-
alanyl synthetase of micro organisms are important Mn requiring enzymes.
Involved in water splitting reaction during photosynthesis: Manganese is also essential for
nitrogen metabolism. It is involved in chlorophyll synthesis by regulating the lipid content in the
thylakoid membrane.
Involved in carbondioxide assimilation: It plays a role in photosynthetic O2 evolution,
carbohydrate and protein synthesis.
Cell elongation: It has been indicated that Mn is important for the growth of lateral roots by its
role in cell elongation.
Involved in nitrogen metabolism: As a constituent of hydroxylamine reductase, which
catalyses the reduction of hydroxylamine to ammonia which is later metabolized into soluble
organic nitrogen compounds and proteins. Mn may play an important role in nitrogen
metabolism.
Role of Boron
Physiological activities: Boron is required for proper development and differentiation of tissue
particularly vascular elements. It is involved in the vital physiological activities of the plant.
Boron increases the cell wall thickness by forming certain complexes.
Reproductive phase: Boron is involved in the reproductive phase of plant. Boron functions in
cell maturation by regulating the formation and lignification of the cell wall. Boron increases the
pollen grain producing capacity of anthers and pollen grains viability. Boron deficiency creates
sterility and malformation. Boron deficiency in plants exhibits necrosis and disorganization of
tissues.
Transport of carbohydrates: It is involved in carbohydrate metabolism, particularly in the
translocation of photosynthates-the sugar. Boron forms complexes with sugar for easy
transportation through cellular membrane.
Cell wall synthesis: Boron is involved in the cell wall synthesis through N base utilization. It is
also involved in the synthesis of proteins. It inhibits IAA oxidation.
Role of Molybdenum
Assimilation of nitrogen: Molybdenum has been shown to be required for nitrogen fixation by
nitrogen fixing agents such as Azotobactor, Clostridium etc.

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Component of nitrate reductase and nitrogenase: Molybdenum is a constituent part of the

enzyme nitrate reductase and nitrogenous concerned with the reduction of nitrate to nitrite in
both micro-organisms and higher plants.
Synthesis: Molybdenum is needed in the synthesis of ascorbic acid.
Physiological activity: Molybdenum makes iron physiologically available within the plant.
Antidote: Molybdenum is an antidote of excessive copper, manganese and zinc.

Role of Chlorine
Photosynthesis and enzyme activation: Some of the enzymes activated are involved in starch
utilization, which affects germination and energy transfer. These functions require a small
amount of chloride (CI-).
Transport of other nutrients: Chloride aids in the transport of nutrients such as K, Ca and Mg.
Its role is to maintain electrical charge balance.
Water movement in the cell: Concentration of Cl- in the cells aid in the movement of water into
cells and retention of that water. This is especially important under moisture stress conditions.
Stomatal activity: Both K and Cl are involved in the movement of guard cells that control
opening and closing of stomata on leaf surfaces. High concentrations of K and Cl cause the
guard cells to swell, closing the stomata and controlling water loss.
Nitrification inhibitor: Under certain conditions, chloride may limit the conversion of
ammonium nitrogen into nitrate nitrogen in the soil. Presence of chloride in the soil may then aid
in plant utilization of ammonium nitrogen, which may positively affect plant nutrition and
health.
Disease suppression: Many crop diseases particularly of small grains are temporarily
suppressed by chloride. Fungi cause many of these diseases, in both root and leaf.
Reproductive development: Small grain crops grown with adequate chloride tend to form heads
earlier and complete head emergence sooner than low chlorides plants.

FACTORS AFFECTING AVAILABILITY OF MICRONUTRIENT

CATIONS AND ANIONS
The trace element content of a soil may be affected because of follow factors:
Nature of Soil
The micronutrients from the standpoint of soil chemistry can be put in th groups:
Heavy metal cations - Co. Cu, Zn. They are held on soil surface.
The divalent cations - Fe, Mn, which are held less strongly on soil surface .These cations being
oxidized to higher valence states can form insoluble oxides and are not easily leached.
Anions like Boron and Molybdenum (MOO42-). Boron held in soil is persist as resistant mineral,
tourmaline. Under acidic conditions, molybdenum combines with sesquioxides and clay
minerals. Biological cycle also play role in conserving both these elements (boron and
molybdenum) from leaching

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Influence of parent material

The rocks from which the parent material was derived. For example,
Soils formed from basic rocks are likely to have high content of Co, Cr, Mn and Cu while soils
derived from acid rocks such as granites m be relatively low in these elements.
Soils derived from argillaceous shales and slates tend to be natural rich in trace element. On the
contrary, those developed from sandstone and related rocks tend to be poor in their trace element
content.
The influence of parent material is more pronounced during the early stage of soil development.
The rate of weathering of the individual constituent minerals of igneous rocks governs the rate at
which the elements contained in them become available.
Influence of Processes of Weathering
It involves the processes of weathering to which soil forming materials were subjected. Most of
important trace elements such as Zn, Mn, Co and Cu occur in easily weathered constituents of
igneous rocks as indicated in Trace element content of igneous and sedimentary rocks and the
factors governing their distribution account for the differences in different parent materials .
Physical weathering leads to the formation of sediments containing original minerals. Chemical
weathering involves a solution process and governs the differentiation in sedimentary rocks
(most of the present surface of soil is contributed through sedimentary rocks).
Shales, which constitute 80% of the total sedimentary rocks, are important from the soil
point of view. Igneous and sedimentary rocks when subjected to pressure and heat result in their
crystallization, and some adsorbed ions become incorporated in the crystal lattice. For example,
boron is incorporated in a resistant mineral, tourmaline. The distribution of trace elements from
soil parent materials enables to anticipate the total content of trace element with some degree of
accuracy in young soils than those which have undergone little weathering.
Micro-nutrient Variations in Soils
Variations in the content of most trace elements in soils are far greater than variations in
macronutrients. The total content of trace element may vary thousand folds. The total content is a
fairly good indication of trace element content of a soil. This also helps in predicting the excess
or deficiency of biologically important trace elements. The presence of organic matter on surface
horizons, cropping and cultivation regulate the distribution and mobility of micronutrient cations.
There are significant differences in trace element content of freely drained and poorly drained
profiles irrespective of their parent material.
Effect of Clay Minerals, Iron, their Oxide and Organic Matter
The trace elements released during the course of weathering may be locked up in the crystal
lattices of the clay minerals and thus become relatively unavailable. On the contrary, if they are
adsorbed at exchange sites of clay minerals, they become available fairly easily. In presence of
organic matter, trace elements may be adsorbed as organic-mineral complexes.
Clay mineral bind trace elements with varying degree of forces. Different binding forces
account for variation in the extraction rate of different trace element cations by different
reagents. Trace elements are readily adsorbed by clay minerals but displaced with difficulty. The
relative ease of displacement is: Li > Na> Mg > Ca> Zn>Co>Cu. (Li can be easily displaced and
Cu is displaced with difficulty.

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A few trace elements like Mo, B and V when displaced by weathering appear as complex
anions. Calcium or organic complex may bind these anions. Molybdate is less strongly bound
than phosphates or sulphates
During soil development trace elements may become associated with iron and other
oxides. The presence of these oxides around the surface of clay minerals restricts the adsorption
of cations and anions by these minerals. The oxide layer coats particles of all size fractions and
most elements may be extracted.
Humic and fulvic acids in organic matter play an important role in nutrient cation
fixation. The greater acidity of fulvic acid is due to the presence of more COOH groups, with
which major part of cation exchange capacity of organic matter is associated.
One of the criteria of availability of trace elements is their uptake by plants. Different
plant species and varieties differ in their uptake of trace elements.

Micronutrients and Plant Growth

The micronutrients are present as part of the exchange complex or in soil solution. The
availability of these micronutrient contents depends on the composition of the minerals. The
availability to plant growth is influenced by the factors: 1. Clay contents 2. Free calcium
carbonate content 3. Organic matter content 4. Soil pH 5. Salt concentration 6. Fertilizer doses 7.
Soil moisture status 8. Climatic conditions 9. Crops and their varieties.
Factors Affecting Availability of Boron, Copper, Iron, Manganese, Zinc, Molybdenum and
Chlorine
These factors will be discussed in detail while reviewing individual micronutrient cation
in further discussion.
Boron
Boron is a non-metal. It occurs as ħon-ionized H3BO3 in soil solution, but as B(OH), at
pH greater than 8.5. Boron has three valencies. Boric acid is a very weak acid and in aqueous
solution at pH 7, it occurs as undissociated boric acid. At higher pH, boric acid accepts hydroxyl
ions from water, thus, forming tetrahedral borate ions.
B(OH)3 + 2H2O B(OH)4 + H3O+ The most prominent boron mineral in
soils is tourmaline. In soils, boron has four major groups: 1) in primary rocks and minerals, 2)
combined with soil organic matter, 3) adsorbed on colloidal clay and hydrous oxide surfaces,
much as in phosphorus and 4) as boric acid (H3BO3) or B(OH) 4 ion in soil solution.
Soil texture: Higher clay content decreases boron availability. Clay retains boron more
effectively than sands. Thus plants will take up much larger quantity of boron from sandy soils
than will from fine textured soil at equal concentration of water-soluble boron.
pH and liming: Boron availability decreases as the pH increases, as a result of formation of
B(OH). Moderate liming depresses boron availability and uptake. It is therefore, practiced in
soils containing high boron. High pH resulting from heavy liming of soils may encourage
organic matter decomposition and release of boron.

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Organic matter: Organic matter content increases the boron availability by (i) Preventing its
leaching loss (ii) Brings about its accumulation in surface soil (iii) Lowers the effect of rising
pH.
Boron is more available in surface soil as compared to sub surface soil. This is because of
greater quantities of organic matter present in the surface soils. Hence, application of organic
materials to soils can raise the concentration of boron in the plants.
Inter relationship with Other Nutrients
Calcium: When plants have low calcium supply their tolerance to boron deficiency decreases.
When calcium nutrition is high, there is a greater requirement for boron. The occurrence of free
calcium ions in alkaline soils restricts boron availability. Thus, Ca/B ratio in leaf tissues has been
used to assess the boron status of crops.
Potassium:
Increased rates of potassium accentuate boron toxicity (at high levels of boron). On the
contrary, when boron nutrition is low, increased rates of potassium may accentuate boron
deficiency symptoms.
Copper
The common forms of soil copper are 1). In the soil solution (ionic and complexed), 2).
On normal exchange cation exchange sites of clays and organic matter-held electrostatically in
response to coulombic forces, 3). Co-precipitated in soil oxide materials, 4). On specific
adsorption sites- when held in this form copper cannot be removed by the reagent normally used
for replacing exchangeable ions and 5). In biological residues and living organisms. Copper is
very tightly bound in soil. There is, however, a significant 'pool' of diffusable copper, in the form
of organic complex which is in equilibrium with very low level of Cu in soil solution.
Texture:
Cu deficiency usually occurs in sandy and gravelly soils. An increase in available Cu
with an increase in the finer fraction of soil has been reported.
Soil pH: The mobility of Cu in soil solution often decreases with increasing pH and its supply is
correspondingly reduced because of greatly diminished solubility and increased sorption on
mineral colloidal surface. The general effect of increasing adsorption with increasing pH is
believed to be due to (i) an increased generation of pH dependent sites on the soil colloids. (ii)
Reduced competition with hydrogen ions (iii) change in hydrolysis status of Cu in solution.
Interrelations with other elements: Application of nitrogen fertilizer can aggravate copper
deficiencies. NPK fertilizers have been implicated for greater incidence of copper deficiencies.
The occurrence of copper deficiencies following the use of acid forming fertilizers may be due to
increased aluminum levels in soil solution. High concentration of zinc ảnd aluminum in soil
solution depress absorption of Cu by plant roots and may intensify Cu deficiency. Both
phosphorus and iron have been found to restrict copper absorption by plants. A reverse
relationship between Mo and Cu has been observed. The accumulation of Cu occurred in
molybdenum deficient leaves and vice versa.
Incorporation of crop residues: It is possible that the large amount of sulphur released during
decomposition of crop residues may immobilise Cu in soil solution. Reduction in effectiveness
of fertilizers Cu include, (i) Chemical reactions of Cu with organic compounds and other

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substances originating from decomposition of straw, (ii) Competition for available copper by
stimulated microbial populations. (iii) Inhibition of root development and ability to absorb
copper.
Plant factors: Some plant species exhibit Cu deficiency more frequently than others. Crops that
are highly responsive to copper include wheat, rice, citrus and onion. On the other hand, crops
with greatest apparent tolerance to low Cu are beans, peas and potatoes. There are genotypic
differences in the Cu nutrition of plants. Some of the mechanisms resulting in the genotypic
differences are Cu absorption by roots, root length per plant, longer root hairs, root exudates,
change in redox potential, more efficient transport of Cu from roots to shoots, lower tissue
requirement.
Iron
It is interesting to know that in the case of iron nutrition of plants, there is one peculiarity that the
limitations of growth under conditions of iron deficiency is usually a consequence of the quality
rather than the quantity of iron within the plants. Iron has a tendency to become unavailable
within the plants. Generally, clay contains more of the fine sized particles of iron. The basis of
iron deficiencies of plants is one of soil and environmental conditions impairing the availability
of soil iron.
Iron imbalance
It may occur due to:
(a) Accumulation of copper in soils after long years of application in sprays and fertilizers (b)
iron Chlorosis: when crops are grown on soils high in Mn (c) iron deficiency may occur in soils
because of a low ratio of Fe/Cu+Mn in the plants.
Effect of pH, bicarbonate and carbonate: (a) Fe deficiency is common on high pH and
calcareous soils in arid regions, but it may also occur in acid soils that are low in iron, (b)
Solubility of iron reaches to minimum between pH 7.4-8.5. It is between this pH range in soils
that iron deficiencies usually occur. Significance of high pH on iron availability is obvious when
it is realized that Fe 3+ and Fe 2+ activities in the soil solution decrease 1000-fold and 100-fold
respectively for each unit increase in pH, (C) Irrigation waters and soils high in bicarbonate
(HCO3-) may aggravate iron deficiencies. The undesirable effect of HCO 3- may be due to the
high pH levels accompanying its presence and (d) The pH of the most soils containing CaCO 3
falls in the range 7.3 to 8.5, which coincides with greatest incidence of iron deficiency and
lowest solubility of soil iron. Similar conditions of pH and iron availability result from the
presence of calcite and dolomite in soils. Bicarbonate can be formed in calcareous soils by the
following reaction of CO2 and H2O on calcite.
CaCO3 + CO2 + H2O → Ca2 + HCO3-
Excessive water and poor aeration: (a) Accumulation of CO2 will occur when soils are wet
and poorly drained. Consequently, any compact heavy textured soil that is calcareous and basic
in reaction is iron deficient. (b) Iron chlorosis is associated with cool, rainy weather when soil
moisture is high and soil aeration poor.
Organic matter: (a) Additions of organic matter to well drained soils have produced varying
effects on iron availability. Organic materials such as manure may supply chelating agents that
add in maintaining the solubility of micronutrients.

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(b) improved soil structure resulting from applications of organic manure should increase iron
availability because of better soil aeration.
(c) presence of organic matter can have a profound influence on iron solubility in waterlogged
soils. Iron reduction was greatly accelerated by the addition of organic matter, and the longer the
period of submergence, the greater the amount of soluble plus exchangeable iron.
Interrelationships with other nutrients: (a) Excesses of essential nutrients such as Co, Cu, Mn,
Mo, Zn and P will encourage iron deficiency. (b) Two iron phosphorus relationships are known
in plants. First, high P level usually aggravate iron deficiency through some kind of inactivation
reaction. The second relationship indicates that plant can be more tolerant of low iron when
phosphorus is also low. (c) Plants receiving NO3- are more likely to develop iron chlorosis than
those nourished with NH4+. Nitrate uptake leads to an alkalization effect in the root zone and in
the plant, a condition that can markedly lower iron solubility and availability. Iron solubility and
availability are favored by the acidity that develops when NH4+ is utilized by plants (d)
Deficiencies of potassium or zinc can disrupt movement of iron within plants. Lack of either of
these two nutrients causes iron to accumulate in stem nodes of maize.
Plant factors: Differential responses to iron deficiency occur in a wide variety of plants. The
ability of plants to absorb and translocate iron appears to be a genetically controlled adaptive
process that responds to iron deficiency or stress. Roots of iron efficient plant alter their
environment to improve the availability and uptake of iron. Some of the biochemical reactions
and changes enabling iron efficient plants to tolerate and adapt to iron stress are:
-Excretion of H+ ions from roots.
- Excretion of various reducing compounds from roots.
-Increases in the rate of reduction (Fe3+ to Fe2+) at the root surface.
-Organic acids increase in the root saps.
-Adequate transport of ions from roots to tops.
-Less accumulation of phosphorus in roots and shoots even in the presence of high phosphorus in
the growth medium.
-Iron efficient varieties should be selected for conditions where iron deficiencies are likely to
occur.
Manganese
Manganese has been found to exist in soils as water soluble, exchangeable and higher oxides of
manganese, which exist in equilibrium in soils. The usual forms of manganese in soils are
various oxides and hydroxides. They occur as coatings on soil particles, deposited in cracks and
veins, and mixed with iron oxides and other soil constituents in nodules. Individual crystallites
are small and have large surface area. The principal ion species in solution is Mn 2+. MnSO4 (aq),
MnHCO3+),and MnOH+) are other minor species present. Dissolved Mn 2+) in soil solution is of
direct importance to plants since they obtain their entire requirement in this form. Manganese in
soil solution is greatly increased under acid soils, Mn 2+ solubility can be sufficiently great to
cause toxicity problems to sensitive species. The occurrence of manganese deficiency may be
because of intensive leaching of soluble Mn.
Imbalance of heavy metal ions: High level of Cu, Fe or Zn in the growth medium will impede
Mn uptake by plants.

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Effect of pH and carbonates: Mn2+ concentrations are sensitive to pH. Management practices
that change soil pH will also greatly influence Mn 2+availability and uptake. Liming very acid
soils resulted in a three - fold decrease in the amount of exchangeable Mn 2+in the soil. It also
resulted in a two - fold decreases in the Mn content in the plant.
Low Mn2+availability in high pH and calcareous soils and in over limed, poorly buffered, coarse
textured soils can be overcome by acidification through the use of acid forming nitrogen or
sulfur materials. High pH favours the formation of less available organic complexes of
manganese. Activity of soils micro organisms which oxidize soluble manganese to unavailable
forms reaches a maximum near pH 7.
Excessive waters and poor aeration: Soil submergence and waterlogging lower redox potential
and increase the amount of soluble Mn 2+in soils. This is true in acid soils high in active
manganese. As soluble Mn 2+concentration increases under submerged condition, there is a
corresponding decline in O2 levels.
Manganese availability can be increased by poor aeration in compact soils and by local
accumulations of CO2 within root masses. The resulting low redox conditions will render Mn
more available without appreciably affecting redox potential or pH of the bulk soil.
Organic matter: Availability of Mn2+ can be affected in several ways by the presence of
organic material. The low availability of Mn in basic soils, high in organic matter is attributed to
the formation of unavailable chelated Mn 2+ compounds. It may also be held in unavailable
organic complexes in peat and muck soils.
Additions of certain neutral organic materials such as compost and straw have increased Mn 2+ in
water soluble, water soluble + Exchangeable, exchangeable and easily reducible fractions.
Interrelationships with other nutrients: Addition of physiologically acidic nitrogen materials
such as NH4CI, (NH4)2SO4, NHNO3, NH4H2PO4, and CO(NH2)2 to the growth medium will
enhance plant uptake of Mn2+Neutral chloride containing salts including KCI, NaCl have
increased the Mn2+concentration of plants and level of Mn in acidic soils.
Phosphate fertilization also has been reported to both enhance and decrease Mn 2+
availability.
Seasonal and climatic factors: It is believed that wet winter weather favours the presence of
Mn2+whereas warm, dry summer conditions encourage the formation of less available oxidized
forms of Mn2+ It has been indicated that dry weather increased manganese deficiency or
aggravated this nutritional problem particularly in fruit trees.
Plant factors: The differences in response of Mn-efficient and Mn-inefficient plants are believed
to be due to internal factors rather than to the effects of the plants on the growth medium.
Reductive capacity at the root may be the factor restricting uptake and translocation of
Mn2+There may also be significant differences in the amounts and properties of root exudates
generated by plants. Dissimilarity between Mn-efficient and Mn-inefficient oat plants has been
attributed to calcium substituting for Mn at non-specific sites in Mn-efficient plants, thus freeing
adequate Mn for essential reactions. It is possible that some or all of the
Zinc
The igneous rocks basalt and granite contain on the average 100 and 40 mg kg -1 of zinc
respectively. Among sedimentary rocks, shales contain more zinc (95mg kg -1) than either

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limestone. (20 mg kg-1) or sandstone (16 mg kg-1). Sphalerite (ZnS), smithsonite (ZnCO3) and
hemimorphite (Zn4 (OH)2 Si2O, H2O are common zinc containing minerals. Zinc has a strong
tendency to combine with sulfides and it occurs most frequently in the lithosphere as sphelerites.
The forms of zinc in soils considered to influence in varying degree its supply to plants are water
soluble Zn2+ exchangeable Zn 2+ adsorbed Zn 2+ on surfaces of clay, organic matter, carbonates,
and oxide minerals; organically complexed Zn 2+ and Zn2+ subsituted for Mg2+ in the crystal
lattices of clay minerals. Most of the zinc in many soils is located in ferromagnesian minerals
such as augite, hornblende and biotite. The occurrence of Zn 2+ in these minerals is due to its
isomorphous replacement of some of the original Feat and Mg 2+. The oxidation state of zinc in
soils is exclusively Zn2+. Several zinc hydrolysis species exist in solution with Zn 2+
predominating at soil reactions below pH 7.7. Above this pH, ZnOH + becomes the most
abundant species until it is supplemented by Zn(OH)2 at pH 9.1. Complexes with nitrate chloride
and phosphate can form, but with the exception of ZnHPO 4 in solution are considered
insignificant. Plants take up zinc as the Zn 2+. ion, and mobility of this ion in soil has an
important bearing on proper nutrition of plants. Diffusion is the dominant mechanism for
transporting Zn 2+. to plant roots.
Soil pH
The availability of soil zinc to plants decreases with increase in soil pH, as would be
expected by the sensitivity of Zn 2+ solubility to pH. Most pH induced zinc deficiencies occur
within the range 6.0 to 8.0 and calcareous soils are prone to this nutritional problem. It should be
noted that not all-basic soils are deficient in zinc because of mechanisms such as chelation of
Zn 2+ by naturally occurring organic substance, which may compensate for low solubility of Zn 2+
at high pH. At high pH, zinc farms insoluble compounds such as Zn(OH)2 and ZnCO3 which can
reduce available zinc in soils to lower levels. The drastic decline in Zn 2+solubility with
increasing pH is the overruling factor. Liming acid soils especially that low in zinc will reduce
uptake of Zn2+. This depressive action is usually attributed to the effect that increasing pH has on
lowering Zn2+ solubility. It is possible, however, that some Zn2+could be adsorbed on the surface
of freshly added particles of liming agents such as CaCO3 With increasing pH, zinc adsorption
by hydrated Al 2O3 and Fe203 is increased. Adsorption of Zn2+ by organic matter is also
influenced by pH. The amount of Zn2+ complexed by humic acids increases with rising pH. The
stabilities of zinc organic complexes increase up to a point with increasing pH, after which the
complexes break up and hydroxides form.
Adsorption by Clay Minerals
Fixation of Zn2+ by clay minerals such as bentonite, illite and kaolinite has been reported by
several investigations. The presence of iron and aluminum oxides influences this adsorption.
Removal of iron oxides increases the capacity of clays to adsorb Zn 2+ more frequently than it
decreases (their retentiveness) it. Zn adsorption capacity is usually directly related to the cation
exchange capacity of clays and hydrous oxides.
Adsorption by carbonate minerals
Zinc adsorption by carbonates or precipitation of Zn(OH)2 or ZnCO3 is partly responsible for the
unavailability of Zn2+ in calcareous soils. Detailed analysis of Zn2+ adsorption studies revealed
that CaCO3 content was the principal factor contributing to the Zn 2+ adsorption maximum.
Although ZnCO3 was precipitated at higher Zn2+ concentrations, zinc availability to plants will
not be seriously impaired because the solubility of this compound is too high for it to persist in

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soils. Zinc is most strongly absorbed by magnesite (MgCO3) followed by dolomite and calcite
(CaCO3). Zinc is adsorbed into the crystal lattice surfaces at sites in the lattice normally occupied
by magnesium atoms in the magnesite and dolomite.
Complexation by Soil Organic Matter
-It is well known that zinc forms stable complexes with soil organic matter components. The
humic acid and fulvic acid fractions are prominent in zinc adsorption. Three classes of reactions
of organic matter with micronutrients such as zinc have been distinguished.
-Immobilization by high molecular weight organic substances such as lignin.
-Solubilization and immobilization by short chain organic acids and bases Complexation by
initially soluble organic substances which then form insoluble salts.
Thus the action of organic matter on zinc can be expected to be variable
depending on the characteristics and amount of organic materials involved. When
immobilization and complexation reactions of organic matter prevail, availability of soil zinc
will be adversely affected. This occurs in deficient peats and humic gley soils. On the other hand,
formation of soluble chelated compounds of zinc will enhance availability by shielding the
retained zinc from fixation reactions. Increased solubilisation and extractability of zinc may not
always be reflected in enhanced zinc uptake by plants.
Organic matter in soil may form organic complexes with Zn and thus may avoid its
transformation to other forms. Organic matter application causes considerable decrease in water-
soluble and exchangeable Zn. This may be attributed to the complexation of Zn by other ligands
and microbial immobilization of Zn.

Management of Micronutrient Fertilizers

The following points must be considered for management of micronutrients in soil and plant
system.
Boron in Soil
Less than 5% of the total boron is generally available to plants. Soil minerals containing boron
are practically insoluble in water. Thus, concentration of boron in soil solution is likely to be
very low.
Extraction with hot water is the most reliable evaluation of soil boron availability. In arid
regions, toxic concentration of boron may occur because of irrigation water containing high
amount of boron. Generally in the soils of arid regions, particularly in the saline alkali soils, its
toxicity and in the acid and highly leached soils of humid regions, its deficiency is well known.
Boron in Plant
Normal plant leaves contain 25 to 100 mg kg-' boron. Alfalfa is a good indicator crop for boron.
The symptoms are evident on young leaves because boron is relatively immobile in plants. It has
been found that.
Boron deficiencies retard uptake of calcium. With increase in calcium supply,the severity of the
symptoms of boron toxicity becomes less. • High potassium uptake caused higher boron uptake.
The ratio of Ca/B to the plant is influenced by the supply of potassium, increase in K+ in the

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nutrient solution bringing about a lowering of Cal: B ratio. Ca has no significant influence on the
K/B ratio.
Copper in Soil
Most of the copper in soils is very insoluble and can only be extracted by strong chemical
treatments, which dissolve various mineral structure or solublize organic matter.
Most copper minerals are of very low solubility.
Copper is strongly adsorbed to clays, aluminium and iron hydrous oxides and manganese oxides.
Cu forms stronger Cu-organic bonds than other metal ions. Copper deficiency is common in (a)
sandy soil (b) organic soils (c) calcareous soils
Copper in Plant
Copper content of most plants varies between 5 to 50mg kg:!. Copper is relatively
immobile in plants and symptoms of deficiency occur on newer growths. Copper uptake seems
to be inversely related to iron uptake. Too little copper causes iron to accumulate in plants.
Excess of copper causes chlorotic symptoms similar to those of iron deficiency.
There is competition of copper with other metals for uptake by the [Link] to tasselling
Iron in Soil
Application of ferrous to calcareous soils is not effective. The problem being low
availability resulting from the high pH in such soils. The added iron react to form ferrous
hydroxide or other insoluble compounds.
Iron deficiencies may result if the soil minerals do not gradually release ferrous
iron. This is necessary as ferrous iron is being oxidized to ferric iron in
naturally occurring processes.
Iron deficiencies can also occur from an excess of manganese or copper.
Manganese and copper can serve as oxidizing agents and convert ferrous iron to insoluble ferric
form.
Iron in Plant
Iron has a tendency to become unavailable within the plants.
Deficiency of iron in plants affects the younger leaves more than older leaves because iron is
relatively immobile inside the plant. The veins remain green while the areas between veins turn
yellow from chlorosis.
Larger root systems and increased solubility of iron at higher temperatures help plants obtain
more iron in the summer.
Manganese in Soil
Different forms of manganese (water soluble, exchangeable and reducible) exist in equilibrium
in soils.
Acid sandy soils are low in manganese because leaching has lost most of the supply. Manganese
toxicity occurs in acid soils in case such soils have not been leached.

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Muck soils are deficient in manganese because the organic materials release and lose cations
more easily than anions.
Calcareous and overlimed soils, because of low solubility are low in manganese content. (even
though, total manganese is sufficient in such soils). Increasing the Fe ++ and Zn++ supplies can
help to reduce Mn toxicity, because these ions reduce plant uptake of Mn ++.
Lowering pH by addition of sulfur compounds can cause manganese toxicity. Liming to raise
soil pH is effective for overcoming the toxicity.
Manganese in plant
Manganese deficiency can be diagnosed by visual symptoms mostly in leaves. Plant or tissue
analysis and soil analysis helps diagnose hidden hunger and deficiency in soil.
The usual range of manganese concentration in plants is from 20 to 400 mgkg -1. Manganese is
immobile in plants and deficiency symptoms will appear on young leaves in the plant first.
The similarity between manganese and iron causes a form of competition between the two
elements. Symptoms of iron toxicity correspond to symptoms of manganese deficiency, and
symptoms of manganese toxicity correspond to those of iron deficiency.
Zinc in soil
Following soil conditions are most often associated with zinc deficiencies. (a) Acid sandy
soils low in total zinc; (b) neutral or basic soils; especially calcareous soils; (c) soils with a high
content of fine clay and silt; (d) soils high in available phosphorus; (e) some organic soils and
sub-soils exposed by land levelling operations or by wind and water erosion.
- The solubility of zinc compounds in water is low.
- The zinc ion (Zn++) is strongly absorbed on the cation exchange sites of silicate clays.
Zinc in Plant
The plant availability of Zn 2+ is conditioned by a number of soil and environmental factors. pH,
adsorption on surfaces of clay, organic matter, carbonates and oxide minerals, complexation by
organic matter, interaction with other nutrients and climatic conditions.
- Increased soil compaction and wetter soils reduced zinc uptake. However, in rice plants
growing on flooded soil zinc uptake is significantly [Link] soil temperature reduces zinc
uptake.
Molybdenum in Soil
Molybdenum occurs in the earth's crust and in soils in extremely small quantities. In soil, it
ranges from 0.2 – 5.0 mg kg-1 with an average of 2.0 mg kg-1
Phosphorus minerals usually contain some molybdenum as impurities. This is also true for
phosphorus fertilizers.
Most of the molybdenum is locked up in organic and mineral structures. It may be adsorbed on
positively charged exchange sites.
The available form is (MoO4-) molybdenum ion. The solubility of MoO4- increases as the pH
rises. Thus molybdenum deficiency is more likely in acid soils.
Molybdenum in Plant

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The low concentration of molybdenum in soil solution is reflected in its low concentration (less
than 1.0 mg k kg-1) in plant.
Molybodenum requirement of plants is very small as compared to other
micronutrients.
Molybdenum deficiency can cause a nitrogen deficiency in the plant, because molybdenum is
essential in symbiotic nitrogen fixation.
Micronutrient Mixtures
Micronutrients can be best utilized by supplying them as mixture fertilizers. It is based on
following facts:
-The function of one element cannot be replaced in the plant by another element.
-As the demand for increasing production is pressing, no single element can be made to be the
limiting factor.
-The law of limiting factor says that if any of the element falls short then the yields get restricted
directly in proportion to the element that falls short.
-The high yielding varieties do not give expected yields because nutritional support in balanced
form is lacking.
-Micronutrient mixture fertilizers help in better utilization of NPK fertilizers.
-NPK fertilizer do not give the expected percentage of returns as they were
giving earlier because secondary and essential micro-nutrients are depleted and not being
replaced along with NPK.
-There is no fear of toxicity in the use of micronutrient mixture fertilizers. -
Micronutrients fertilizer mixture adds to balanced plant nutrition programme, Other package
practices may not give expected yields if nutritional balance of crops is not achieved.
Use of Organic Manure as a Source of Micronutrients
Mineral fertilizers as well as organic manure are essential to maintain sustained productivity.
Organic manure improve physical condition of the soil and maintain a continuous supply of
micro-nutrients due to their chelating property. Organic manure contains some quantities of
micro-nutrients

Phosphorus Micronutrient Interaction in Soil

Excessive P fertilization reduce the availability of micronutrients. Such an association of
reduced micro-nutrient concentration with high P has been termed as 'P induced micronutrient
deficiency'.
ZnxP
Available P is decreased due to excess of zinc by formation of zinc phosphate.
Mechanism involving P-Zn interaction which induces zinc deficiency are:
- Dilution of Zn in plant tissues by promoting plant growth due to P
fertilizers.

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- Inhibition of Zn absorption by cations added with P fertilizers.

- Formation of oxides and hydroxides of Fe and Al in the soil resulting
in the decreased absorption of Zn by plant roots
An excessive concentration of P interferes with the metabolic function of Zn at certain sites in
the cells.
FexP
Fe and P have antagonistic effect. This is attributed to the precipitation of Fe 3PO4 on the root
surfaces. For maximizing crop yields on soils low in both P and Fe, application of P should be
accompanied with addition of Fe. The effect of P on Fe absorption is due to the competition
between P and organic ligands within the plant, which function to maintain Fe in soluble mobile
form.
MnxP
Beneficial effects of applied P on the availability of Mn have been established. Due to the
accumulation, the concentration of Mn in roots increased.
CuxP
The interaction between Cu and P is antagonistic. The excess of P and Cu in the leaves interferes
with the metabolic translocation of Fe and make Fe inactive chlorophyll synthesis.

ВxP
It is usually synergistic. Added B increases the permeability of plasmalemma at the root surface
allowing more absorption of P by the roots.
MoxP
Synergistic effect of Mo with P is due to formation of phosphomolybdate, which can be readily
absorbed by the plants.

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Chapter No.30-31
Soil fertility evaluation and different approaches.
Soil Fertility: The quality of soil that enables it to provide essential chemical elements in
sufficient quantity for the growth of specified plant.
Q. What is soil fertility evaluation? Enlist the different approaches of soil fertility
evaluation?Explain any one of them in detail?
Soil Fertility Evaluation: It is the assessment of nutrient supplying capacity of soil.
Different Methods (Approach)of Soil Fertility Evaluation
I) Chemical Methods
A) Soil Analysis 1)For total nutrients
2) For available nutrients ([Link] soil testing)
B)Plant Analysis 1)Total elemental analysis
a) Crop log technique b) 'A'Value technique.
2) Tissue Testing
II) Biological Methods
A) Using higher plants 1) Neubauer Seeding
2) Pot Culture Experiment
3) Field Experiment
4) Mitscherlich's techni
5) Jennys pot culture test
6) Sunflower pot culture technique
B) Using Microorganism 1) Azotobactor
2) Asperillus Niger
3) Cunninghamella plaque method
III) Visual symptom methos : Diagnosis of deficiency symptoms of nutrients by visual
observations in fields
Biological Methods
A)Using Higher Plants
1. Neubauer Seedling Method: In this technique, 100 seedling of rye or oat are made to feed on
100 gm of soil mixed is also run. The total 50 gm of sand for 17 days in dishes of 11cm diameter
and 7cm depth. The blank without any soil is also run. The total P 2O5 and K2O uptake is
calculated and the blank value is deducted to obtain the root soluble P 2O5 and K2O in 100 gm of

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air dry soil. These values are represented as Neubauer numbers. These neubauer limit values are
used for determining the deficiency of K and P.
[Link] Culture Experiment: In the pot culture experiment pots are grown in a small volume of
soil or other containers under controlled conditions, where several combinations of plant
nutrients are used comparative growth or yield of crops and uptake of plant nutrients.
[Link] Experiments: The most direct way of diagnosing the nutrient status of soil is field trial
in which the effect of additional amount of nutrients in the form of fertilizers applied to the soil
on the growth of the crop is measured. The fertilizer nutrients in graded doses are applied to
statistically laid out plots in a fairly homogenous field. Yield is the main criteria for assessing the
nutrient requirement of crop in that soil.
[Link] Pot culture technique: In this method pots containing 2.72 kg soil are taken for
growing, oats as test crop. N, P and K are added indifferent combinations in these pots as test
crop. N, P and K are added in different combinations in these pots (No, Po, Ko, NPK).The crop
is grown till maturity and percentage increase in yield is calculated by using Mitcherlich table
from addition of given quality of fertilizers over native fertility status (control).
5. Jenny's pot culture test: Smaller pots consisting of 1.81kg are used for growing lettuce as
test crop for 6 week following treatments combination in 4 replication.
1. Control NPK 000
2. NPK 150 150 100
3. NPK 0 150 100
4. NPK 150 0 100
5. NPK 150 150 0
The percentage values are categorized as:
Nutrient Tested % Yield
Definite Probable Uncertain
Deficiency Deficiency Deficiency
N 20 20-50 51-70
P 20 20-50 51-65
K 70 70-75 76-80

[Link] pot-culture technique for Boron: This technique is adopted by Ghosh et al. for
determining B deficiency in soil. In this method 500 gm of soil is taken in small pot and
sunflower seedlings are allowed to grow. The soil is fertilized with a solution containing all the
nutrients except B and deficiency of B is noticed and ranked as given below.
Days required to notice B deficiency in Sunflower Seedling

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Deficiency Class Days after B deficiency is notice

Marked deficiency In less than 28

Moderate deficiency Between 28 to 36
Little or no deficiency More than 36

B)Using Microorganism:
Sackett and Steward technique:
- This technique is used to find out P2O5and K2O status in the soil in this soil by observing the
colonies of Azotobacter in the culture prepared from soil.
- Three containers having soil culture are used of which one portion is supplied with P 2O5 and
rest with P+K and K2O.
- These cultures are now inoculated with Azotobactor and incubated for 72 hours for the growth
of colony which may be classified as under:
Class1 Very deficient None or few extremely small pin head sized colonies on
the unfertilized

Class II Moderately deficient Few to numerous but small and weak colonies with little
or no pigment on the unfertilized plaque

Class-III Slightly deficient The colonies on unfertilized plaque are equal in number
and development

Class-IV Not deficient Colonies on both fertilized and unfertilized plaques are
equal in number and development

Cunninghamella-plaque method for phosphorus:

-This test is adopted to determine the P2O5 deficiency in the media in which cunninghamella is
grown which is very sensitive to P 2O5 status.
-The soil is mixed with nutrient solution and paste is prepared which is spread in a clay dish.
-Now this dish is inoculated on the surface with cunninghamella and allowed to incubate for 4-5
days.
-After incubation the diameter of mycelial growth is measured to find out P deficiency range

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Diameter of colonies (mm) Degree of Deficiency

Less than 10 Very Deficient
11-15 Moderately Deficient
16-21 Slightly Deficient
More than 22 Not Deficient

Mulder's Aspergillus Niger test for Cu and Mg:

In this method known standards are prepared in weighed quantity of soil to compare the colour
of mycelia and spores with those growing on unknown soils.

Cu in ug/g of air dry soils Deficiency Degree Mg in ug/g of air dry soils
Less than 0.4 Very Deficient Less than 50
1.0-1.5 Silghtly Deficient 50-100
More than 2 Not Deficient More than 100
This method may be used for determination of Mo, Co, Mn, S and Zn content in the soil.
Visual Symptoms:
Use of indicator plants: Certain plants are very similar to deficiency of a specific plant nutrients
and they produce special symptoms which are different from other deficiency symptoms.
Indicator Plants: The plants which show specific deficiency symptoms or clue for deficiency of
particular element are called indicator plants.

Elements Deficiency Indicator Plant

Nitrogen Cauliflower, Cabbage
Phophorus Rapeseed
Potassium Potato
Calcium Cauliflower, Cabbage
Magnesium Potato
Iron Cauliflower, Cabbage, Potato
Sodium Sugarbeet
Manganese Sugarbeet, Oat, Potato
Boron Sugarbeet

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Hidden Hunger - Situation in which a crop needs given nutrient yet has shown to deficiency
symptoms.
Luxury Consumption -When the plant uptake more of a nutrient than needed for functioning and
production.

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Chapter No.32
Soil Testing (Available nutrients) :Chemical methods and critical levels of
different nutrients in soil.
Q. State the objectives of soil testing?
Objectives
• To assess the nutrient status/fertility status of the soil.
• To predict the amount of fertilizer needed to make the nutrient supply in soil.
• To evaluate the nutrient status of soil of an area with the object of having an estimate of
fertilizer requirement of that area.
• To compare the fertility status of two or more area. We can determine the need of field for
determine the crop can be grown in field.
Q. Explain chemical method of soil fertility evaluation?
The chemical method of soil fertility evaluation consist of:
A) Soil Analysis
a)For Total Nutrient-Total Elemental Analysis
a) Total Nitrogen Analysis by Kjeldhal Method - In this method sample is digested with conc.
H2SO4 and then N is estimated
b) Na2CO3 fusion-Use for estimation of Si, Fe, Al, Ca, Mg,P,K.
c) HCLO4 digestion-Use for estimation of P
d)H.F (Hydrofloric Acid)fusion for estimation of Co and Mn
b) For Available Nutrients
1) Available Nutrients-Alkaline Permangnate Method
2) Available Phosphorus-For Acid Soils-Bray's Method
For Neutral or Alkali Soil-Olsen's Method
3) Available Potassium-Neutral Normal Ammonium Acetate by Flame Photometer
4) Available Sulphur- Turbidiometrically Method
5) Micronutrient Cation-DTPA Method
6) Available Boron: Hot water extractable method
Critical Nutrient Limit:
Range of nutrient concentration at as specific growth stage above which nutrient supply is
adequate and below which nutrient deficiency occurs.
Critical Nutrient Limit of Soil Available Nutrient

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Nutrients Soil

Limits Range

Nitrogen 250kg/ha 250-500 kg/ ha Above Low Medium High

500kg/ha

Phosphorus Below 10 kg/ha 10-20 kg/ha Above Low Medium High

20kg/ha

Potassium Below 100 kg/ha 100-250 kg/ha Above Low Medium High
250 kg/ha

Sulphur Below 10 ppm Hot Water Soluble

Calcium Below 50% of CEC Amm. Acetate Extractable

Magnesium Below 4 % of CEC Amm. Acetate Extractable

Zinc Below 0.6 ppm (0.51.2 ppm) DTPA extractable

iron 2.5-4.5 ppm. Below 2 ppm DTPA extractable

Mangnese Below 2 ppm DTPA extractable

Copper Below 0.2ppm DTPA extractable

Boron Below 0.5ppm Hot water soluble

Molybdenum Below 0.2ppm Amm. Oxalate Extactants

Chlorine Below 2.0ppm Water Soluble

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Chapter No.33
Plant analysis methods : Critical levels of nutrients, DRIS approach, rapid
tissue test, indicator plants. Soil test based fertilizer recommendations to
crops.
Q. Objectives of plant analysis?
Defination: Testing of plant parts for determination of availability of nutrients by which further
fertilizer recommendations are done to increase the yield.
Objective
• Confirming the diagnosis of visible symptoms
• Identifying hidden hunger
• Locating areas has show no deficiency symptoms in older leaves
• Indicating whether the applied nutrients have entered in the plant body
• Indicating interaction among nutrient elements
B)Plant Analysis
1)Total Elemental Analysis
a) Crop Log Technique
- Croplogging for sugarcane has been first done by [Link] in Hawaii. -
Croplogging is a record of composition of crop with respect to nitrogen, phosphorus ,potassium,
sugar, weight of young sheath tissue and management practices especially irrigation) at regular
interval of 35 days during crop growth in the field
- From the knowledge of nutrient status, additional nutrient requirement of sugarcane crop are
assessed and necessary application of fertilizer made.
- By data of moisture status necessary irrigation facilities were made for irrigation of young
sheath tissue.
b) Value Technique
-Fried and Dean (1952)develop 'A'value technique.
- This technique was related to supply of phosphorus as a nutrient.
- The phosphate fertilizer mixed with a very small amount of phosphate having radioactive pand
given to soil.
-After a suitable period of growth the plants are harvested and total P as well as p32 contents are
determined by using equation

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(1-y)
A=B
y

Where A=Available 'P' in soil

B=Amount of fertilizer 'p'
y =Fraction of 'P' in plant desire from fertilizer
1-y=Fraction desired from soil
Same equation can be followed for radioactive P32 so by knowing y and B, A can be calculated.
2)Tissue Testing :
-The nutrients absorbed by plant roots and later they are transported to other parts of plant body
where they are needed. So in these test usually the main stem, leaf midrib or blade tissue are
tested for determination of N, P, K etc.
- Plant parts may be chopped up and extracted with reagents. The intensity of colour developed
is compared with standards and used as a measure of the supply of the nutrient.
- Rapid test: Plant tissue is squeezed with pliers to transfer plant sap to filter paper, colour
developing reagents are added. The resulting colour is compared with a standard V chart that
indicates very low, low, medium or high nutrient content.
- In, general most critical growth stage for tissue testing is at bloom, or from bloom to the early
fruiting stage. During this period maximum utilization of nutrients occurs and low nutrient levels
are likely to be detected.
-It is also advisable that the test should neither be made so early in the morning nor so late in the
evening because nitrate content is usually higher at both the times.
•Q. What is plant analysis? Explain DRIS method of fertilizer commendation?
Diagnosis and Recommendation Integrated System (DRIS)
Defination:
It a system that identifies all the nutritional factors limiting crop- growth
production and thus, increases the change of obtaining high crop yields by improving the
fertilizer recommendations.
Requirement of DRIS
- All the nutritional factors effect on yield of crop must be defined.
-The relation between these factors and yield must be described.
-Caliberated norms must be established. •
-Recommendations suited to particular set of condition and judicious use of their norms must be
continuously refined.
Advantages of DRIS
-The importance of nutritional balance is taken into account in deriving the norms and making
diagnosis.
- The norms for the nutrient content in leaves can be universally applied to the particular crop.

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-Diagnosis can be made over a wide range of stages of crop development.

- The nutrient limiting yield, through either excess or insufficiency can be readily identified and
arranged in order of their limiting importance for yield.
Establishment of DRIS Norms:
1st stage:
-A survey is conducted to obtain data first.
- Large number of sites where particular crop is grown are selected randomly.
- At each site, plant and soil analysis for available nutrients are conducted.
-Other parameters like soil treatments climatic conditions, cultural practices and yield are
recorded.
II nd Stage
-The entire population of observation is divided into two populations based on vigour,quality and
yield of crop e.g High yield and Low Yield.
-Percent of nutrient N in dry matter or the ratio of nutrients is calculated:N/P,N/K

Determination of Relative N-P-K Requirement

-The chart is constructed of three axis for N/P, N/K,K/P
- The mean value located at the point of interception for each nutrient
-The point of interaction -optimum Nutrient conc. and maximum yields are obtained
-The concentric circles are confidence limits
-A qualitative interception can be made by using arrows
a) Horizontal Arrows-In inner circle-Balanced Nutrition
b) Diagonal Arrow-Between two circles-Tendency to imbalance
c)Verticle Arrow- Above outer circle-Imbalance nutrition

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Using DRIS Indices to Diagnose NPK requirement

-The most negative DRIS index represent the most limiting nutrient.
-The most positive DRIS index indicates the one least needed
-The diagnosis would have been possible only after 30 days stage.
Critical Nutrient Range (CNR): It is defined as the range of nutrient concentration at a specified
growth stage above which the crop is amply supplied and below which crop is deficient

Nutrient Deficient Sufficient(Normal) Toxic

N(%) - 1-5 -

P(%) - 0.1-0.4 -

-K(%) - 1-5 -

Ca(%) - 0.2-1 -

Mg(%) - 0.1-0.4 -

S(%) - 0.1-0.4 -

Fe(Mg/Kg) <50 100-500 >500

Mn(Mg/Kg) 15-25 20-300 300-500

Zn(Mg/Kg) 10-20 27-150 100-400

Cu(Mg/Kg) 2-5 5-30 100-200

B(Mg/Kg) 5-30 10-20 50-200

Mo(Mg/Kg) 0.03-0.15 0.1-2.0 >100

Cl(Mg/Kg) <100 100-500 100-500

Ni(Mg/Kg) <0.1 0.1-1.0 >1.0

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Soil Test Based Fertilizer Recommendation to Crops

Q. What are fertilizer recommendation approaches? Describe STCR approach?
Fertilizer Recommendation Approaches
- Agronomic Approach
- Targeted Yield Approach
- Soil Analysis and Correlation Approach
- Critical Level Approach Fertilizer
- Gradient Approach
- Soil Fertility Cum Soil Survey Approach
- Integrated Soil Testing Approach

Agronomic Approach:
1. In this approach, random selection of field is made with appropriate classification based on
broad agro-climatic conditions and other relevant information.
2. This approach is entirely based on fertilizer experiments on the field.
3. Cultivators field are selected and experiments are conducted with graded doses of
NPK fertilizers singly or in combination.
4. Responses are worked out and optimum levels of different nutrients are calculated.
5. Based on responses and economic fertilizer doses are recommended.
6. However, no consideration is given to soil nutrient status of different fields and to soil as
genetic entity.
Targted Yield Approach:
1. The principle of this approach is to first calculate the amount of nutrients removed by a crop
for a certain yield level and the contributions that are likely to be made by the available nutrients
for soil and fertilizer and finally to calculate the amount of fertilizer to be added to meet the
requirements of the crop for a desired yield target.
Soil Analysis and Correlation Approach:
1. In this approach , assessment of soil fertility is based on the determination of available
nutrients primarily N.P and K by standard chemical methods and classifying the soil into
different classes such as low, medium, high based on response consideration.
2. These recommendation have been formulated on the basis of large no of pots and field
experiments on farmers fields. Here quantification for individual situation is not possible and
recommendation are location specific rather situation specific.
Critical Level Approach:
1. In this field experiments are conducted and soil analysis is made for each field, graded doses
of fertilizer are applied and response curve fitted.
Fertility Gradient approach:

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1. This aims at eliminating the influence of three or four factors in the yield equation such as
crop, climate and management by choosing one field over which treatments are superimposed to
obtain crop responses for correlation with soil test values which are artificially created by
differential fertilizer treatments before Controlled conditions conducting the regular experiment.

Soil Fertility cum Soil Survey Approach:

1. This approach is based on soil fertility and soil survey information for fertilizer
recommendation on farmers field within well defined soil units viz., association, series or soil
type.
Integrated Soil Testing Approach:
1. In this, a caliberation model based on the generalization of the coefficients of an orthogonal
polynomial yield response model which can include all variables affecting the response to
fertilizers, is followed all factors
Soil Test Crop Response Concept (STCR)
[Link] is also called as Rationalised Fertilizer Prescription approach in which inherent soil fertility
and yield level of the crop are taken into account while recommending the fertilizer dose.
- Fertilizer Recommendations are made for different crops and different zones seperately. -
Fertilizer recommendations based on such equations has been given as under for rice crop.
Fertilizer N=4.39T-0.6723 soil N
Fertilizer P205=2.83T-6.110soil p
Fertilizer K2O=1.14T-0.329soil K
Soil P and K in the equation are considered in elemental form while fertilizer Pand K are in
oxidized form as P205, K2O
T=Targeted Yield for Rice.
Soil N, P, K =values of N, P, K which are obtain by soil testing of initial soil sample.

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Chapter No- 34-35

Methods and scheduling of nutrient applications for different soils and crops
grown under rain fed and irrigated conditions.
Q. Discuss about time and method of fertilizer application of kharif crop?
A- A) Time
The crop has three or four critical growth stages when its water or nutrient requirements should
be adequately met for satisfactory growth.
a) Germination and early growth stage.
b) Advance tillering or grand growth or branching stage.
C) Peak flowering and fruiting stage.
Nitrogen is required throughout the growing period of crop. Nitrogen requirement is
moderate in the beginning and increases rapidly as the crop ether grand growth stages and
fruiting and reduces thereafter. Phosphorus is required more in early growth period while potash
is required throughout the growing period but in small quantities.
B) Method -
Nitrogen is highly mobile so that it can be move rapidly in any direction in soil. Generally it is
loss by leaching volatilization so it should be applied in split doses. Either by broadcasting
drilling or foliar sprays. The phosphorus later stag as and applied in single dose by localized
placement.
Q. Discuss about time and method of fertilizer application of rabi crop?
A- A) Time
The crop has three or four critical growth stages when its water or nutrient requirements should
be adequately met for satisfactory growth.
a) Germination and early growth stage.
b) Advance tillering or grand growth or branching stage.
C) Peak flowering and fruiting stage.
Nitrogen is required throughout the growing period of crop. Nitrogen requirement is
moderate in the beginning and increases rapidly as the crop ether grand growth stages and
fruiting and reduces thereafter. Phosphorus is required more in early growth period while potash
is required throughout the growing period but in small quantities.
B) Method -
Nitrogen is highly mobile so that it can be move rapidly in any direction in soil. Generally it is
loss by leaching volatilization so it should be applied in split doses. But in the rabi season the
moisture percentage in the soil is optimum so nitrogen should be given in a single dose. Either by
broadcasting drilling or foliar sprays. The phosphorus later stage as and applied in single dose by
localized placement.

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Chapter No.36
Factors influencing nutrients use efficiency (NUE) in respect of N, P, K, S, Fe
and Zn fertilizers
Factors Affecting Nutrient Use Efficiency:
Nutrient Use Efficiency
Basic principle of efficient nutrient management for crop consist of precision in the use of
recommended level of nutrients timely application ,correct mode of application and adoption of
such a measure which tend to increase the response of growing crop and use of organic along
with chemical fertilizers.
Nitrogenous Fertilizers
1) Crop Characteristics:
A) Variety of Crops: Different crop requires different requirement of fertilizers nutrients.
Improved and high yielding varieties or cultivars requires higher dose of nutrient than normal
dose and also than local varieties
e.g. Paddy,Local Variey:N:P:K -[Link] kg/ha.
Improved/High Yielding Varieties:N:P:K-[Link] kg/ha.

B) Type of Root System:

a) Tap Root System: Dicotyledon plants have tap root system , placement of nitrogenous
fertilizers below the seeds.
b) Latéral Roots System/Fiberous Root System
Monocotyledonous have lateral/fibrous root system. Placement of nitrogenous fertilizers in the
root zone area, side dressing /band placement.
C) Legume Crops: The legume crops leaves nitrogen root residues to the next crop by taking
intercrop and as a rotational crop, thus reduce /meet nitrogen requirement.
D) Application of Fertilizers in Standing Crop: The top dressing under irrigated condition is
done for N in splitted (2-3 doses) to avoid leaching losses. It is done in Kharif season.
In Rabi season Nitrogen is given in a single dose because of limited soil moisture.
E) Use of Nitrification Inhibitors in Rice Field: To minimize the losses of nitrate nitrogen
through volatilization and leaching, it is desirable to keep nitrogen in the ammonium form. Mix
urea with locally available nitrification inhibitors such as neem cake and karanj cake (1 kg+5kg
urea).This will reduce N looses from soil.
2) Soil Characteristics:
a) Leaching Losses: Loss of nutrients beyond root zone along with water is known as leaching
losses of [Link] fertilizers along with water into deeper layers.
Nitrate form of nitrogenous fertilizers are having higher leaching losses as compared to other
forms.

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Leaching loss of urea are around 7.5% of applied nitrogen .This is less in ammonical fertilizers
as ammonium ions are adsorbed on clay complex where as urease activity is less. Leaching
losses occurs in submerge soil and soil of less CEC (Cation Exchange Capacity). To avoid
leaching losses N application is given in split doses.
Gaseous form of nitrogen
b) Volatilization: 1) Volatilization losses increases with increase in pH due to OH ions. by
buffering reagent
2) Decrease in CEC due to less adsorption.
3) Increase in temperature due to high rate of reaction.
4) Increase with CaCO3 content.
Volatilization losses range 0.1 to 20% and can be reduced by incorporation of fertilizers or by
deep replacement.
Volatilization of Ammonia: Ammonia ions reacts with water and hydroxyl ion and form
aminonia and water. Ammonia gas escapes into atmosphere.

NH4 +OH- + H2O NH2 + 2H2O

C) Denitrification : Denitrification losses are more where drainage is restricted or under flooded
condition. For ex. paddy Deep placement Fertilizer granules fertilizers use efficiency can be
increased by deep placement of the fertilizers and improving soil drainage.
Denitrification conversion of nitrate nitrogen to nitrous oxide (N2O). The most extensive gaseous
loss is by denitrification. Denitrification occurs when poor aeration limits the amount of free
oxygen in the soil.
d) Soil Texture: Clay fraction is important constituent of soil that controls soil physical and
chemical properties. The particle size less than 0.02 mm in diameter (having the highest surface
area). They have highest surface area. They can absorb. water and nutrients. Clay [Link]
weak acid which is neutralized by bases such as, calcium and magnesium ions, thus serving as
store house for several nutrients.
Light textures soils, like sandy, loamy, sand, sandy loam, sandy clay, nitrogen application in Spit
doses is practically beneficial.
3) Fertilizers Characteristics
1) Two forms of nitrogen are available to plants one is nitrate (NO 3-) anionic form and
ammonium (NH4+)cationic form. Root absorb both of these forms some plant absorb nitrate
nitrogen and some absorb ammonical form of nitrogen.
All forms of nitrogenous fertilizers are efficiently effective in upland soils.
2) In submerge soil, ammonical and amide form of fertilizer is more effective than nitrate form.
Accumulation of ammonia in submerge soil is capacity of soil to meet nitrogen demand of rice
crop. Mineralization of organic form of nitrogen converted to inorganic nitrogen is stop at
ammonium (NH4+)stage due to anaerobic condition (absence of oxygen ) thus accumulation of
ammonia.

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3) Use of urea super granules with deep placement of fertilizers increase the urea efficiency.
4) Use of coated fertilizers like super coated urea, neem coated urea reduces nitrogen losses.
4) Climate:
1) In rainy season/kharif season application of nitrogen is split doses because to avoid leaching
losses due to water or rains.
2) In winter or rabi season single application of fertilizer applied as a basal dose,because use of
moisture present properly.
3) Foliar application of nitrogenous fertilizers in rainfed condition is more effective.
Fate of Nitrate Nitrogen
Nitrates are negatively charged ions cannot adsorbed by negatively charged colloids that
dominate in soils. They are readily leached and move downward with water.
Nitrate nitrogen is greater prosperity towards leaching as compared to ammonium nitrogen.
Phosphatic Fertilizers
1)Nature and Amount of Soil Component: Organic and inorganic forms of phosphorus occur
in soil and both the forms are important in plant as source of phosphorus . The relative amount of
phosphorus in organic and inorganic vary greatly from soil to soil.
Organic Phosphorus Compounds
The organic phosphorus compounds are the esters of orthophosphoric acid and have been
identified primarily as
1) Inositol Phosphate - 10-50% of total organic P in soil
2) Phospholipids - 1-5 % of total organic P in soil
3) Nucleic Acid-0.2-2.5% of total organic P.(RNA and DNA)
Inorganic Phosphorus Compounds
a) Calcium Phosphate: Natural source of P in mineral Apatite. This mineral is dominated in
neutral and calcareous soils. This is not available to plants. This mineral is found in Vertisol soil
order,having 40-50% of total phosphorus in neutral and alkali soils and more than 50% in
alkaline soils.
b) Iron and Aluminium Phosphate: The Fe and Al phosphate are commonly found in acidic soils.
Strengite-mineral is dominated in Fe phosphate. Variscite mineral is dominated in Al Phosphate.
These minerals are dominated in soil order Alfisols.
Phosphorus in soil solution is found
1) Primary Orthoclase-H2PO4 more in acid soil.
2) Secondary Orthoclase-HPO4 more in alkaline soils.
2) Fertilizer Placement: Phosphatic fertilizers are applied at localized placement because P 2O5
are not lost from soil. But adsorbed by soil particles ,so they are placed in the root zone.
Phosphorus is required at early root development and early growth stage. Crop plant utilize 2/3
of the total requirement of P when plant accumulate 1/3 of their dry matter, therefore plant
require more P during early growth stage.

Sharad College of Agriculture, Jainapur

 Prof. Sarika R. Koli
[Link](Agri)

All phosphatic fertilizers release phosphorus for plant growth slowly. Water soluble
P2O5becomes immediately slightly insoluble or is converted to dicalcium phosphate or citrate
soluble P2O5 .In this form phosphorus become available to plant.
Phosphorus moves slowly from the point of placement to plant roots. To reduce the fixation of
phosphate the phosphatic fertilizers should be placed that they came into minimum contact
within soil particles and closer to plant roots. In other words localized placement of phosphatic.
fertilizers near the root or seedling roots should be practiced .
3) Microorganisms:
a) Use of phosphorus mobilizing biofertilizers:
These microorganism mainly Bacteria (Genus- Bacillus and
Pseudomonas)FungiGenusAspergillus and Pencillium).
These microorganism posses the ability to bring insoluble soil P into soluble form by-secreting
several organic acids under favourable condition. They can solubilize 20-30% of insoluble P and
crop yield increase by 10-20%
b) Mycorrhiza or VAM (Vesicular Arbuscular Mycorrhiza):
These are obligate symbiotic enhance uptake of P, Zn, S and water. Leading to uniform crop
growth and increased yield and also enhance resistance to root disease. Recommended for forest
crops ,forage grasses, maize, millets, sorghum, barley and leguminous crops.
4) pH of Soil:
At pH 7.2 there are approximately equal amount of H2PO4 and HPO4 ,below this pH H 2PO4 is
the major form in soil Solution where HPO4; is the predominant form above pH 7.2.i.e
A pH 7.2-equally H2PO4 and HPO4
< 7.2 H2PO4
> 7.2 HPO4When the pH is more then 7.5 PO4 is present in excess.
Soil pH is less than 5.0 soluble phosphate fixed as complex and insoluble compounds of [Link]
and Mn. Hence Acid soil fix more phosphate then neutral, alkaline and calcareous soil.
5) Sources of P fertilizers:
SSP and DAP (Diammonium phospate) are the forms of water soluble phosphate which are good
for all soil types, ranging from light to heavy soils, neutral to alkaline soil. But when this water
soluble phosphatic fertilizes are applied to acid soils they are converted into unavailable form of
Fe ad Al phosphate.
Rock phosphate well suited for acidic soils.
6) Q/IFactor:
The available P is measured by intensity of supply (I) and Total Quantity of P in soil (Q).
Q/I is ability of soil to maintain sufficiently high levels of phosphorus in the soil solution to
assure satisfactory plant growth. In the Q/I approach nutrient assessments is measured by three
parameters mainly Quantity, Intensity and Buffer Capacity.
Quantity is the amount ion , which is present at deficient potential or held at a definite strength in
the soil at a particular time. Soil solution

Sharad College of Agriculture, Jainapur

 Prof. Sarika R. Koli
[Link](Agri)

Intensive of an ion exchange is a measure of the length with which it is attached to

electrochemical system.
The concentration of the nutrient in the soil solution is a measure of the intensity factors.
Buffer capacity is a rate of change of quantity with intensity (dQ/dI) and is a measure of the
capacity of soil to maintain the intensity against depletion.
6.6-7.5 –P available Buffering-resistance to change in soil pH

Factors Affecting Q/I

Soil pH ,organic carbon ,exchangeable Ca,Mg and K were highly related to I. Intensity and
available P were highly related to each other indicating good equilibrium between I and Q.
The addition of manures raised the soil pH ,organic carbon available P, CEC ,exchangeable
Ca,Mg and K decreases the amount of exchangeable [Link] is combined effect of manure and
effect organic acid on soil mineralization which has positive effect on quantity and intensity
parameter of P supply capacity of soil.
7) Temperature:
1) Soil temperature influenced on solubility of food nutrients and their availability.
2) Important microbial processes controlled by soil temperature is the decomposition of organic
matter.
3)Soil temperature influences the various chemical reactions takes place in the soil. With
increase in temperature there is a corresponding increase in speed of reaction. The maximum
growth of microorganism between 25-35°C .Below 50°c and Above 50°C growth of soil
microorganism will be ceases or stops
Potassic Fertilizers:
1) Kind of Clay Minerals
2) Amount of Exchangeable Potassium
3) Sub Soil K and Rooting Depth
4) Aeration
5) Soil pH
6) CEC ( Cation Exchange Capacity)
7) Capacity to fix K
8) Soil Moisture
9) Soil Temperature
10) Soil Calcium.
1) Kind of Clay Minerals: Primary soil minerals such as mica and feldspar are the native
sources of potassium .They weather to fine mica (illite) and other surface clays in which some of
the potassium is held in a non exchangeable K, but slowly available form.
Isomorphous Substitution Kaolinite, Nacrite and Diorite are important 1:1 clay minerals
containing potassium.

Sharad College of Agriculture, Jainapur

 Prof. Sarika R. Koli
[Link](Agri)

2) Amount of Exchangeable Potassium: Non exchangeable K is slowly released to the

exchangeable form and later to the soil solution form which is adsorbed by plant roots.
Potassium is present in the soil solution in four phases.
1) Soil Solution Phase
2) Exchangeable Phase
3) Non-Exchangeable Phase
4) Mineral Phase
a) Water Soluble K: Water soluble K is the fraction of soil potassium that can readily adsorbed
by growing plants. It is about 1 to 10 mg/kg of total K.
b) Exchangeable K:Exchangeable K is held around negatively charged soil colloid by
electrostatic attraction . It is about 40-60 mg/kg of total K.
c) Non Exchangeable K:Potassium heldsat inter lattice position is generally non exchangeable.
Non exchangeable K is different from mineral K.
d) Mineral Lattice K:Lattice K is a part of mineral K and available to plant very slowly is about
5000 to 25000 mg per kg of total K.. .
Readily Available Form of K:
Readily available potassium consist only about 1-2 % of the total; amount of this element in an
average mineral soil. It is existed in two forms 1)Potassium in soil solution 2)Exchangeable
potassium adsorbed on soil colloid surfaces.
Slowly Available Form
In the presence of vermiculite ,smectite and other 2:1 type minerals the potassium of such
fertilizer as muriate of potash not become adsorb but may become definitely fixed by the soil
[Link] is refers to non exchangeable to higher plants.
3) Sub soil K and Rooting Depth
a) Available K and non exchangeable k decreases with increasing the depth of soil in calcareous
and alluvial soils.
b) Alluvial soil contains more available K in surface soil while exchangeable K is more in
subsurface soil.

4) Soil pH: a) Availability of K increases in the soil having pH of 6.5-7.5.

b) In acid soil less uptake of K due to toxic amount of exchangeable Al 3+ is present.
c)Liming of acid soil already at pH 6.0-7.5 will decreases exchangeable K and reduces K uptake
by plant. Liming of acid soil brings about a conversion of exchangeable K and decreases the
absorption of potassium by the plants.
In alkaline soil particularly alkalinity due to excess CaCO3 or brought about by overliming the
availability of potassium is depressed.

Sharad College of Agriculture, Jainapur

 Prof. Sarika R. Koli
[Link](Agri)

5) CEC (Cation Exchange Capacity) : Cation exchange Capacity is the total number of
milliequivalents of exchangeable cations (Ca+Mg+Na+K)which in 100gm of soil contains. Fine
textured soil have higher CEC and can hold more exchangeable cations and exchanegeable K.
6) Capacity to fix K: In vermiculite,smectite and 2:1 type minerals potassium of fertilizers may
only adsorbed but may fixed by the soil colloids .potassium as well as ammonium ions fit
between layers in the crystals. Potassium found is comparatively high levels as compare to other
nutrients in soil.
It is beneficial to give frequent light applications rather than one heavy application of fertilizer
because
1) It is rapidly fixed as it is supplied in soil.
2) Quick leaching from the soil. High leaching from the soil
3) Heavy consumption of K by some crops.
The beneficial effects of FYM on available K is due to the reduction of potassium fixation and
release of K due to interaction of organic matter with clay minerals.
7) Soil Moisture: As the availability of moisture is less the K availability is also less.
8) Soil Temperature: If temperature reduces the plant growth also reduce as the uptake of K is
decreases.

4) Iron Fertilizers
1) Soil pH:
a) Fe deficiency is common in high pH and calcareous soils
b) Solubility of Fe is minimum between pH range 7.4-8.5.
c) The availability of Iron is maximum with pH range 5-6.5 i.e. in acidic soil.
d) Availability of exchangeable Fe decreases with increase in pH. Fe 3+ and Fe 2+ activities in the
soil solution decreases 1000 folds and 100fold respectively for each unit increase in pH.
2) Effect of bicarbonates and Phosphates:
a) Irrigation water and soils have high in bicarbonates may cause iron deficiency.
b) Bicarbonates and high pH levels affects unavailability of Fe.
c) pH of soil containing CaCO3 fall in range of 7.3-8.5 get Iron deficiency and lowest solubility
of soil iron.
Bicarbonates can be formed in calcareous soil by the following reaction of CO 2 and H2O on
calcite
CaCO3+CO2+H2O Ca2+ + 2HCO3-
d) Excessive essential nutrient such as Co, Cu, Mn, Mo and P and Zn will encourage deficiency.
f) Higher levels of P usually aggravase iron deficiency in plants.
h) Higher concentrations of phosphorus content deposition of iron on the root surface or just
inside the root possibly as iron phosphate.

Sharad College of Agriculture, Jainapur

 Prof. Sarika R. Koli
[Link](Agri)

3) Organic Matter:
a) Addition of organic matter to well drained soil have produced varying effect on iron
deficiency
b) Organic matter such as manure acts as a chelating agent maintain availability of
micronutrients.
c) Organic matter improve soil structure increases availability of nutrients and better soil
aeration.
d) The organic matter in aid soil increases solubility of Fe, but in alkaline and calcareous soil it
reduces
4) Water Logging and Submergence
A) Accumulation of CO2 will occur when soils are wet and poor drainage, the heavy textured
soil when submerged get iron deficiency.
B) Presence of organic matter influences iron solubility in water logged soils. Iron reduction was
greatly accelerated with addition of organic matter and longer the period of submergence greater
the amount of soluble plus exchangeable iron.

5) Soil Texture: Fine textured soils have more available Fe than Coarse textured soils.

Sharad College of Agriculture, Jainapur