RADIATION HEAT TRANSFER
THE VIEW FACTOR
View factor is a purely geometric quantity
and is independent of the surface
properties and temperature.
It is also called the shape factor,
configuration factor, and angle factor.
The view factor based on the assumption
that the surfaces are diffuse emitters and
diffuse reflectors is called the diffuse view
factor, and the view factor based on the
assumption that the surfaces are diffuse
emitters but specular reflectors is called
the specular view factor.
Fij is the fraction of the radiation leaving
surface i that strikes surface j directly.
The view factor ranges between 0 and 1.
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The view factor has proven to be very useful in radiation analysis
because it allows us to express the fraction of radiation leaving a
surface that strikes another surface in terms of the orientation of
these two surfaces relative to each other.
The underlying assumption in this process is that the radiation a
surface receives from a source is directly proportional to the
angle the surface subtends when viewed from the source.
This would be the case only if the radiation coming off the
source is uniform in all directions throughout its surface and the
medium between the surfaces does not absorb, emit, or scatter
radiation.
That is, it is the case when the surfaces are isothermal and
diffuse emitters and reflectors and the surfaces are separated by
a nonparticipating medium such as a vacuum or air.
View factors for hundreds of common geometries are evaluated
and the results are given in analytical, graphical, and tabular
form.
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View factor between two aligned parallel rectangles of equal size. 11
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View factor between two perpendicular rectangles with a common edge.
View factor between two coaxial parallel disks.
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View factors for two concentric cylinders of finite length: (a) outer
cylinder to inner cylinder and (b) outer cylinder to itself.
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View Factor Relations
Radiation analysis on an enclosure consisting of N
surfaces requires the evaluation of N2 view factors.
Once a sufficient number of view factors are available,
the rest of them can be determined by utilizing some
fundamental relations for view factors.
1 The Reciprocity Relation
Reciprocity
relation (rule)
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2 The Summation Rule
The sum of the view factors from surface i of an enclosure to all
surfaces of the enclosure, including to itself, must equal unity.
The total number of view factors that need to be
evaluated directly for an N-surface enclosure is
The remaining view factors can be
determined from the equations that are
obtained by applying the reciprocity and
the summation rules.
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3 The Superposition Rule
The view factor from a surface i to
a surface j is equal to the sum of
the view factors from surface i to Multiply by A1:
the parts of surface j.
Apply the reciprocity relation:
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4 The Symmetry Rule
Two (or more) surfaces that possess symmetry about a third
surface will have identical view factors from that surface.
If the surfaces j and k are symmetric about the surface i then
Fi j = Fi k and Fj i = Fk i
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View Factors Between
Infinitely Long Surfaces: The
Crossed-Strings Method
Channels and ducts that are very
long in one direction relative to the
other directions can be considered
to be two-dimensional.
These geometries can be modeled
as being infinitely long, and the view
factor between their surfaces can be
determined by the simple crossed-
strings method.
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RADIATION HEAT TRANSFER: BLACK SURFACES
When the surfaces involved can be
approximated as blackbodies because of the
absence of reflection, the net rate of radiation
heat transfer from surface 1 to surface 2 is
Reciprocity relation Emissive power
A negative value for Q1 → 2 indicates that net
radiation heat transfer is from surface 2 to surface 1.
The net radiation
heat transfer from
any surface i of an N
surface enclosure is 20
RADIATION HEAT TRANSFER: DIFFUSE,
GRAY SURFACES
• Most enclosures encountered in practice involve nonblack
surfaces, which allow multiple reflections to occur.
• Radiation analysis of such enclosures becomes very
complicated unless some simplifying assumptions are made.
• It is common to assume the surfaces of an enclosure to be
opaque, diffuse, and gray.
• Also, each surface of the enclosure is isothermal, and both
the incoming and outgoing radiation are uniform over each
surface.
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Radiosity For a surface i that is gray and
opaque (i = i and i + i = 1)
Radiosity J: The total
radiation energy leaving
a surface per unit time
and per unit area.
For a blackbody = 1
The radiosity of a blackbody is
equal to its emissive power since
radiation coming from a blackbody
is due to emission only.
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Net Radiation Heat Transfer to or from a Surface
The net rate of
radiation heat transfer
from a surface i
Surface resistance
to radiation
The surface resistance to radiation for a
blackbody is zero since i = 1 and Ji = Ebi.
Reradiating surface: Some surfaces are
modeled as being adiabatic since their back sides
are well insulated and the net heat transfer
through them is zero.
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Net Radiation Heat Transfer Between Any Two Surfaces
The net rate of
radiation heat transfer
from surface i to
surface j is
Apply the reciprocity relation
Space resistance
to radiation
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In an N-surface enclosure, the conservation of energy principle requires
that the net heat transfer from surface i be equal to the sum of the net heat
transfers from surface i to each of the N surfaces of the enclosure.
The net radiation flow from a
surface through its surface
resistance is equal to the sum of
the radiation flows from that surface
to all other surfaces through the
corresponding space resistances.
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Methods of Solving Radiation Problems
In the radiation analysis of an enclosure, either the temperature or the net rate
of heat transfer must be given for each of the surfaces to obtain a unique
solution for the unknown surface temperatures and heat transfer rates.
The equations above give N linear algebraic equations for the determination
of the N unknown radiosities for an N-surface enclosure. Once the radiosities
J1, J2, . . . , JN are available, the unknown heat transfer rates and the
unknown surface temperatures can be determined from the above equations.
Direct method: Based on the above procedure. This method is suitable
when there are a large number of surfaces.
Network method: Based on the electrical network analogy. Draw a
surface resistance associated with each surface of an enclosure and
connect them with space resistances. Then solve the radiation problem
by treating it as an electrical network problem. The network method is not
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practical for enclosures with more than three or four surfaces.
Radiation Heat Transfer in Two-Surface Enclosures
This important result is
applicable to any two gray,
diffuse, and opaque surfaces
that form an enclosure.
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Radiation Heat The algebraic
Transfer in Three- sum of the
currents (net
Surface Enclosures radiation heat
transfer) at each
When Qi is specified at node must equal
surface i instead of the zero.
temperature, the term These equations are to be solved for J1, J2, and J3.
(Ebi − Ji)/Ri should be
replaced by the
specified Qi.
Draw a surface
resistance
associated with
each of the three Schematic of a
surfaces and three-surface
connect them enclosure and the
with space radiation network
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resistances. associated with it.
RADIATION SHIELDS AND THE RADIATION
EFFECTS
Radiation heat transfer between two surfaces can be reduced greatly by
inserting a thin, high-reflectivity (low-emissivity) sheet of material between
the two surfaces.
Such highly reflective thin plates or shells are called radiation shields.
Multilayer radiation shields constructed of about 20 sheets per cm
thickness separated by evacuated space are commonly used in cryogenic
and space applications.
Radiation shields are also used in temperature measurements of fluids to
reduce the error caused by the radiation effect when the temperature
sensor is exposed to surfaces that are much hotter or colder than the fluid
itself.
The role of the radiation shield is to reduce the rate of radiation heat
transfer by placing additional resistances in the path of radiation heat flow.
The lower the emissivity of the shield, the higher the resistance.
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Radiation heat transfer
between two large
parallel plates
Radiation heat transfer between two large parallel plates with one shield
The radiation
shield placed
between
two parallel
plates and the
radiation
network
associated
with it.
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If the emissivities
of all surfaces are
equal
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Radiation Effect on Temperature Measurements
The last term in the equation is due to the radiation effect and represents the
radiation correction.
The radiation correction term is most significant when the convection heat transfer
coefficient is small and the emissivity of the surface of the sensor is large.
Therefore, the sensor should be coated with a material of high reflectivity (low
emissivity) to reduce the radiation effect. 33
