CHAPTER 3: AGGREGATES 3.

5 CLASSIFICATION OF AGGREGATES
3.5.1. Classification Based on Sources
3.1 WHAT ARE AGGREGATES? ❖ Natural Aggregates
• Aggregates are the natural or artificial inorganic - Are taken from native deposits with no change in their
granular materials used with a cementing medium natural state during production other than crushing,
to form mortar or concrete. grading, or washing.
• Aggregate occupy around 70% to 80% other volume Examples:
of the concrete, reduce shrinkage effects and Sand, Gravel, Crushed Stone, Pumice
minimize costs. ❖ Artificial Aggregates
- Are those materials obtained either as a by-product of
an unrelated industrial process or by a special
3.2 USES OF AGGREGATES manufacturing process like heat treatment.
• Aggregates can be used in a number of ways in Examples:
construction. Blast-Furnace Slag, Expanded Pertile, Expanded
As a Loadin Bending material Vermiculite, Burned Clay
As a Filling Material
As an infiltrating Material 3.5.2. Classification Based on Shape
❖ Rounded Aggregates
❖ In roads and railways ballast the aggregates are - Are naturally rounded aggregates that are formed by
used to resist the overall (static as well as dynamic) water or weathering
load, to distribute the load properly to the supporting - Need less cement paste to make concrete
ground and to drain the water off the surface. In - Interlocking between particles is poor
concrete the aggregate is used for economy, reduce - Not suitable for high strength concrete
shrinkage and cracks and to strengthen the ❖ Irregular Aggregates
structure. They are also used in water filtration and - Partly shaped aggregates are called irregular
sewage treatment processes. aggregates
- No specific shaped
3.3 METHOD OF EXTRACTING AND ❖ Angular Aggregates
PROCESSING AGGREGATES - These aggregates have sharp edges and rough
❖ Underwater Sources: surfaces.
➢ Dragline Excavation Dredging - All types of crushed rocks are good examples for this
❖ Land Sources: type of aggregates
➢ Blasting Bedrocks - They need more cement paste, since voids are more
➢ Track Drills in the aggregates
➢ Crushers and Screens - Ideal for producing high strength concrete
❖ Flaky Aggregates
- Flaky aggregates have thickness less than 0.6 times
3.4 GOOD QUALITIES OF AN IDEAL
mean sieve size to which particles belong
AGGREGATE - Flaky aggregates reduce the durability of concrete
❖ An ideal aggregate used for the manufacturing of ❖ Elongated Aggregates
concrete and mortar, should meet the following - Individual particles are longer than they are wider or
requirements: deeper and due to this appear to be long and thin
➢ It should consist of natural stones, gravels and - This particle-type provides more surface are to a
sand or in various combinations of these concrete mix
materials.
➢ It should be hard, strong and durable. 3.5.3 Classification Aggregates
➢ It should be dense, clear and free from any ❖ Fine Aggregates
coating. - Aggregate passing through IS 4.75mm sieve
➢ It should be free from any injurious vegetable -Fine aggregate are basically natural sand particles from
matters. the land through the mining process, the fine aggregates
➢ It should not contain flaky (angular) and consist of natural sand or any crushed stone particles
elongated pieces. that are ¼” or smaller
➢ It should not contain any material liable to attack - Examples:
steel reinforcement in case of reinforced (a) Natural Sand
concrete. Fine aggregates formed by natural disintegration of
rocks
(b) Crushed Stone Sand
Fine aggregates made by crushing natural gravels
(c) Broken Fine Aggregates
Obtained by crushing broken brick (Surkhi)
Qualities of Fine Aggregates (j) Specific Surface
- Fine aggregate should be clean i.e. it should be free - The surface area per unit weight of the material is
from lumps, organic material, etc. called a specific surface
- It should be strong and durable (k) Bulking
- It should not react with cement after mixing - Bulking is a phenomenon that causes the
- Also, it should have a tough floor aggregates to swell by absorbing moisture from the
- It should not absorb greater then 5% of water humid air
- These types of aggregates should not be soft and - The concrete mix design may be inaccurate, and
porous enough additional sand is always added to
compensate for this swelling when this bulk sand will
Properties of Fine Aggregates return to normal state
(a) Size (j) Bulk Density
- The largest size that falls under the limit of the exact - It refers to the amount of voids or spaces between
set is 4.75mm particles, as well as the total density of aggregates
- Using the largest size will give more dense concrete, considered
but a mixture of all sizes is more desirable and more - The unit weight of sand is between 17 and 25 kN/m3
economical
- If cement mortar is prepared for masonry work or Fine Aggregate Grading
plastering work, very fine types of sand of similar
size is used Sieve Sieve Size Percent Passing
(b) Strength 3/8 in 9.5mm 100
- The strength of the aggregate cannot ensure the No. 4 4.75mm 95-100
strength of the concrete No. 8 2.36mm 80-100
- The strength of coarse aggregates are more No. 16 1.18mm 50-85
important No. 30 600µm 25-60
(c) Shape No. 50 300µm 5-30
- Irregularly nodular shaped sand is preferable to No.100 150µm 0-10
completely round grained sand No. 200 75µm 0-3
- The shape of the aggregate plays a more important
role in the coarse aggregate than in the fine
Fineness Modulus (FM)
aggregate
- Obtained by adding the sum of the cumulative
(d) Specific Gravity
percentage by mass of a sample aggregate retained
- The specific gravity of aggregates is the ratio of the
on each of a specified series of sieves and dividing
density of water to its density
the sum by 100
- It is used for concrete mix design and if not specified
FM = sum of cumulative percent retained/100
the specific gravity is taken as 2.7 because the
specific gravity of the most aggregates obtained
from different sources falls between 2.6 and 2.8 Calculation of Fineness Modulus of Sand
(e) Surface Texture - Let us say the dry weight of sample = 1000g. After
- Generally, round surface aggregates are better for sieve analysis the values appeared are tabulated
smooth aggregates, this property is also related to below.
coarse aggregate
(f) Water Absorption Sieve Weight Cumulated Cumulative
retained (g) weight retained percentage weight
- Typically, for sand, water absorption is negligible, it
(g) retained (%)
is desirable that water absorption should be kept
(g) Surface Index 4.75mm 0 0 0
- It is an empirical number that corresponds to a 2.36mm 100 100 10
specific surface of overweight particles given finer 1.18mm 250 350 35
fractions 0.6mm 350 700 70
(h) Soundness 0.3mm 200 900 90
- It refers to the expansion and contraction of 0.15mm 100 1000 100
aggregate when subjected to temperature changes Total 275
- A good, sound aggregates is one that exhibits
minimal expansion or contraction under changing Therefore, fineness modulus of aggregate = (cumulative
temperatures % retained) / 100 = (275/100) = 2.75
(i) Surface Moisture
- Many aggregates have a tendency to attract
moisture that is absorbed around each particle and
gives rise to the bulking phenomenon
❖ Coarse Aggregates • Impact Test on Aggregates
- The aggregates which is retained on IS 4.75mm - Impact value of aggregate will give aggregate
sieve. Most commonly used coarse aggregates are capability against sudden loads of forces
crushed stone, gravel, broken pieces of burnt bricks, • Soundness Test on Aggregates
etc. - To determine the weathering resistance of
aggregate, a soundness test is conducted. If the
Coarse Aggregate Grading resistance against weathering is good for
Sieve Sieve Size Percent Passing aggregate, then it will have high durability
1 ½ in 37.5mm 100 • Shape Test on Aggregates
1 in 25mm 95-100 - Shape of aggregate is also an important
½ in 12.5mm 25-60 consideration for the construction of pavement.
No. 4 4.75mm 0-10 Aggregate should not contain flaky and elongated
No. 8 2.36mm 0-5 particles in it. If they contain this type of particles,
they will affect the stability of the mix
3.6. SIEVE ANALYSIS OF AGGREGATES • Bitumen Adhesion Test on Aggregates
- It is a process of dividing a sample of aggregate into - Bitumen adhesion test will give the stripping of
various fractions, each consisting of particles of the bitumen from the aggregate
same nominal size. The resultant of particle size • Specific Gravity on Aggregates
distribution is called the gradation. - Specific gravity of an aggregate is the ratio of its
❖ Gradation mass to that of an equal volume of distilled water at
(a) Well Graded specific temperature
- Well-graded aggregates have a gradation of particle • Water Absorption on Aggregates
size that fairly evenly spans the size from the finest - This test helps to determine the water absorption
to the coarsest. A core of well-graded aggregate value of aggregate
concrete shoes a packed field of many different
particle sizes.
(b) Poorly Graded
- This aggregate is characterized by a small variation
in size. It includes aggregate particles that are near
the same size. This means that the particles of the
aggregate pack together, leaving relatively large
voids in the concrete
(c) Gap Graded
- Gap-graded aggregate consists of aggregate
particles in which some intermediate-size particles
are missing. A core of gap-graded concrete shows a
field of small-seized aggregate interspersed with
slightly large aggregate pieces embedded in a small
sized aggregate

Aggregate Property Test to be Conducted

Strength Crushing Strength Test
Hardness Abrasion Test
Impact Value Impact Test
Resistance Against Weathering Soundness Test
Shape of Aggregate Shape Test
Bitumen Adhesion Bitumen Adhesion Test
Specific Gravity/Relative Density Specific Gravity Test
Water Absorption Water Absorption Test

3.7. TESTS TO BE CONDUCTED

• Crushing Test on Aggregates
- The aggregate crushing value gives the crushing
strength of aggregate up to which it can bear the
load without fail
• Abrasion Test on Aggregates
- Hardness property of aggregate is determined by
conducting abrasion test. Los Angeles abrasion
testing machine is used to conduct this test.
CHAPTER 4: CEMENT • Silica
➢ An important ingredient which gives strength to
4.1. WHAT IS A CEMENT? cement.
• Cement is a fine, soft, powdery-type substance. ➢ Silica provides high compressive strength, abrasion
• It is made from a mixture of elements that are found resistance, and bond strength to cement.
in natural materials such as limestone, clay, sand, • Alumina
and/or shale. ➢ Excess use of alumina quickens the setting time but
• When cement is mixed with water, it can bind sand weakens the cement bonding.
and aggregate into a hard, solid mass called ➢ It also lowers the temperature of clinkers.
concrete. • Iron Oxide
➢ It helps the fusion of the raw materials during the
4.2. HISTORY OF CEMENT burning stage.
➢ It gives colour, strength, and hardness to cement.
• Cement was first developed by, Joseph Aspdin, a
19th-century British stone mason, who heated a • Magnesium Oxide
mixture of ground limestone and clay in his kitchen ➢ If present in small quantities, MgO imparts hardness
stove and pulverized the mixture into a fine powder. and colour to cement.
➢ If excess in quantity, it weakens the cement.
• The result was the world's first hydraulic cement:
one that hardens when water is added. • Sulfur Trioxide
➢ It can enhance the expansive performance of
• Aspdin dubbed his creation Portland cement due to
cement materials and prolong the setting time of
its similarity to a stone quarried on the Isle of
cement.
Portland, off the British coast.
➢ A very small quantity is required in the
• In 1824, this brilliant craftsman obtained a patent for
manufacturing of cement.
what would prove to be the world's most ubiquitous
➢ If it is in excess, SO3 makes the cement unsound.
building material, laying the foundation for today's
• Alkalies
global Portland cement industry.
➢ Only a small quantity is required.
➢ High amount of alkali leads to difficulty in the
4.3. CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF CEMENT regulation of setting time, low amount leads to the
• The raw materials used for the manufacture of discolouration of cement.
cement consist mainly of lime, silica, alumina, and
iron oxide
• These oxides interact with one another in the kiln at
high temperature to form more complex
compounds.
• The relative proportions of these oxide compositions
are responsible for influencing the various
properties of cement, in addition to rate of cooling
and fineness of grinding.

Oxide Percent Content

CaO (Lime) 60 - 67%
SiO (Silica) 17 - 25%
Al2O3 (Alumina) 5 - 8%
Fe2O3 (Iron Oxide) 0.5 – 6%
MgO (Magnesia) 0.1 – 4%
Alkalies (K2o and Na2O) 0.2 – 1.0% 4.5. PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF CEMENT
SO3 (Sulfur Trioxide) 1 – 3% • Fineness
➢ It is the biggest factor in the strength of cement.
[Link] OF INGREDIENTS OF CEMENT Higher fineness leads to higher strength.
• Lime (CaO) ➢ Fineness of cement affects hydration rate.
➢ Major ingredient of cement. ➢ Smaller cement particles react much quicker than
➢ Excess quantity of lime makes the cement unsound. the larger particles.
➢ If the lime is used more than 65%, it may result in ➢ Fineness test is used to check the proper grinding
the problem of expansion. of cement.
➢ If it is less, it decreases the strength and allows the
cement to set quickly.
• Soundness 4.6. MANUFACTURING OF CEMENT
➢ The capacity of not changing the properties of the • There are more than twenty types of cement used
material, like volume change; when water is added to make various specialty concrete, however the
to it, is soundness. most common is Portland Cement.
➢ Material with high soundness has a higher strength. • Several types of Portland Cement are available. The
So, cement should also have high soundness. most common, called Ordinary Portland Cement
➢ Cement should be the cause of high soundness in (OPC), is grey, but white Portland Cement is also
mortar and concrete. available.
➢ Some of the tests carried out to ensure the • Ots named is derived from its resemblance to
soundness are: Le Chatelier Test & Autoclave test. Portland stone which was quarried on the Isle of
Portland in Dorset, England.
• Consistency
➢ The consistency of cement is the minimum water 4.7. 4 STAGES OF MANUFACTURING
requirement to start the chemical reaction between PORTLAND CEMENT
water and cement to form a paste. • Crushing
➢ In other words, the flowing ability of cement paste is ➢ All except soft materials are first crushed, often in
the consistency. two stages, and then grounded, usually in a rotating,
➢ Vicat Test is carried out to measure the consistency cylindrical ball, or tube mills containing a charge of
of cement. steel grinding balls.
➢ For limestone and clay, they are ground separately
• Setting Time to a size of about 25 mm in crushers. Then it is
➢ When water is added to the cement, it hardens and pulverized into fine powder in ball mills and tube
sets. mills.
➢ Setting time may depend upon uniformity of cement, ➢ The crushing and pulverizing process is carried out
water-cement ratio, presence of admixtures, etc. separately for each material.
➢ The initial setting time of the cement should not be
less, and the final setting time should not be high. • Blending
➢ The best initial and final setting time for cement is ➢ The raw materials are then mixed in correct
given as: proportions in dry powdered form with the help of
Initial Setting Time: 30-45 Minutes compressed air.
Final Setting Time: Below 10 Hours ➢ This finely ground powder of the raw materials is
called raw mix.
• Heat of Hydration ➢ In the dry process, these mixes are stored in silos;
➢ The chemical reaction between cement and water is slurry tanks are used in the wet process Thorough
called the heat of hydration. mixing of the dry materials in the silos is ensured by
➢ When water is added to cement, heat is generated. agitation and vigorous circulation induced by
This can affect cement quality because excessive compressed air.
hydration leads to undesired strength.
➢ Hydration depends upon the water-cement ratio, • Burning
uniformness, temperature of curing, etc. ➢ The raw mix is then fed into the rotary kiln, made up
of steel tubes.
• Strength of Cement ➢ The temperature at the firing end ranges from about
➢ Compressive, tensile, and flexural strength play a 1,350 to 1,550 °C (2,460 to 2,820 °F), depending on
vital role in the durability and quality of cement. the raw materials being burned.
➢ Factors affecting the strength of cement are: ➢ The burned product emerges from the kiln as small
Water-cement ratio of a mix. nodules of clinker. These pass into coolers, where
the heat is transferred to incoming air and the
Loading conditions
product cooled. The clinker may be immediately
Cement-fine aggregate ratio ground to cement or stored in stockpiles for later
Age of cement use.
Curing conditions
Size and shape of a specimen • Grinding
➢ The clinker and the required amount of gypsum are
The manner of moulding and mixing ground to a fine powder in horizontal mills similar to
those used for grinding the raw materials.
• Compressibility ➢ About 3-5% gypsum is added during grinding to the
➢ Cement has high compressive strength. Thus, it cooled clinkers to prevent flash set.
provides stability and durability to the structure. ➢ Clinkers are ground in ball mills and tube mills after
controlled cooling. Closed-circuit grinding is done in
 tube mills. A cyclonic separator ensures proper
particle size distribution. ➢ To prepare mortar
➢ After grinding the cement into a fine powder, it is - Cement mortar is like a paste which is prepared by
stored in silos. adding a certain quantity of water to cement and
➢ With the help of an automatic machine, the cement sand mixture.
is then weighed and packed in bags of 50 kg. - Cement in this case is denoted as matrix while sand
is termed as adulterant.
- We know Cement has good binding properties while
other binding materials are also available, but
cement is mostly used because of its high strength
and water resisting properties.
- Generally, the cement sand ratio in a mortar is
between 1:2 to 1:6. The ratio of cement and sand
mix is decided based on the importance of work.
➢ To prepare cement concrete
- Cement concrete is a major building material in the
world which is widely using because of its marvelous
structural properties
- The ingredients of cement concrete are cement, fine
aggregate, coarse aggregate and water
respectively.
➢ To Build Fireproof or Heat Proof Structures
- To with stand against high temperatures and to
prevent fire accidents structures should be built with
great fire-resistant materials like cement.
- High alumina cement is more suitable material to
make concrete for the structures in high temperature
regions.

4.9. TYPES OF CEMENT

• Ordinary Portland Cement (OPC)
➢ Most widely used type of cement manufactured and
used worldwide.
➢ "Portland is a generic name derived from a type of
building stone quarried on the Isle of Portland in
Dorset, England. OPC is suitable for most general
• Each step of cement's manufacturing process
concrete jobs and mortar or stucco construction
requires monitoring with frequent chemical and
projects.
physical tests to ensure cement meets industry
specifications.
• Portland Pozzolana Cement (PPC)
• Scientists may use oxide analysis to verify the
➢ Created by grinding pozzolanic clinker, sometimes
content and composition of cement samples.
with additives of gypsum or calcium sulfate, with
• Some physical features they may inspect may
ordinary Portland cement.
include: (Air content, Compressive strength, Early
➢ Compared to OPC, it has a higher resistance to
age strength development, Increased heat of
various chemical reactions within concrete.
hydration, Lower heat of hydration, Particle size,
➢ Used for projects like bridges, piers, dams, marine
Setting time)
structures, sewage works or underwater concrete
projects.
4.8. USES OF CEMENT
• Cement is widely used across the world in the • Rapid-hardening Cement
construction of various engineering structures. ➢ Contractors or construction teams may choose this
• It has proved to be one of the leading engineering for its high strength in the early stages of the
material of modern times and has no rivals in hardening process its strength in three days is
production and applications. comparable to OPC strength at seven days with the
• Cements may be used alone (i.e. “neat”, as grouting same water-to-cement ratio.
materials), but the normal use is in mortar and ➢ May have an increased lime content, combined with
concrete in which the cement is mixed with inert a finer grinding process, or better strength
material known as aggregate to form a strong development.
binding material. ➢ Used for projects with early-stage formwork removal
or when the focus is on increasing construction rates
and decreasing costs.
• Extra-rapid-hardening Cement • Colored Cement
➢ May set and become durable even faster than OPC ➢ Has properties similar to OPC and white cement
and rapid-hardening cement. Construction ➢ Manufacturers mix 5% to 10% mineral pigments
professionals achieve this by adding calcium with OPC to achieve the desired color.
chloride to rapid-hardening cement. ➢ Like white cement, contractors often use this type
➢ Useful for cold-weather concrete projects due to its for decorative purposes and projects to enhance
fast-setting rate. their designs.

• Quick-setting Cement • Air-entraining Cement

➢ Similar to extra-rapid-hardening cement, this ➢ More workable with a smaller water-cement ratio
concrete type may set and become stronger even than OPC and other types of cement. Manufacturers
quicker than OPC and rapid-hardening cement. Its add air-entraining agents like glues, sodium salts
grain and strength rate are similar to OPC, but it and resins to the clinker during the grinding process
hardens faster. to create this cement.
➢ Beneficial for time-sensitive projects or those ➢ Commonly used for frost resistance in concrete.
located near stagnant or running water.
• Expansive Cement
• Low Heat Cement ➢ Can grow slightly over time without shrinking during
➢ Produced by monitoring the percentage of tricalcium the hardening process.
aluminate in the mixture to ensure it stays below 6% ➢ Beneficial for projects like grouting anchor bolts or
of the whole. This helps maintain low heat during the concrete ducts.
hydration process, making this cement type more ➢ Can also be used in structure joints or to reinforce
resistant to sulfates and less reactive than other other concrete structures.
types of cement.
➢ Suitable for mass concrete construction or projects • Hydrographic Cement
to help prevent cracking due to heat. ➢ Created by mixing in water- repelling chemicals.
‘ ➢ Has high workability and strength and also repels
• Sulfate-resisting Cement water to prevent weather damage.
➢ Helps reduce the risk of sulfate side effects on ➢ Used for projects such as dams, water tanks,
concrete. spillways and water retaining structures.
➢ Common use is for constructing foundations in soil
with high sulfate content.
➢ Beneficial for projects like canal linings, culverts and
retaining walls.

• Blast Furnace Slag Cement

➢ Produced by grinding clinker with up to 60% slag.
This creates cement with many of the same
properties as OPC.
➢ However, it may be less expensive to produce than
other types, making it a good choice for financially
conscious projects.

• High-Alumina Cement
➢ A type of rapid-hardening cement created by melting
bauxite and lime together and grinding it with a
clinker.
➢ Has high compressive strength and may be more
flexible and workable than OPC.
➢ Used for projects where cement is subject to
extreme weather like high temperatures or frost.

• White Cement
➢ A type of OPC that's white instead of Gray.
➢ Prepared from raw materials that don't include iron
oxide and may be more expensive than other
cement types.
➢ Often useful in architectural projects and interior and
exterior decorative projects like designing garden
paths, floors, swimming pools and ornamental
concrete products.