Chapter 1- state of matter

Kinetic theory of matter: Changes of state: there are Endothermic and Exothermic processes
• Matter is made up of particles Elements, ions Melting and boiling are Endothermic processes
and molecules
Boiling: slow liquid particles gain kinetic energy; this decreases forces between particles so they move further apart changing into gas.
• Particles are always moving
Boiling differs from evaporation as it occurs throughout the liquid and at a specific temperature while evap. happens on the surface at
• Matter can be changed by Changing the temps below b.p
temperature
Melting: vibrating particles gain kinetic energy; this decreases energy between particles so they move further apart and slide over one
properties Solid Liquid Gas
another changing into liquid
Shape Fixed Not fixed Not fixed
Note that: pure substances have a sharp m.p and b.p while impure ones have m.p and b.p over a range of temperatures. impurities
Volume Fixed Fixed Not fixed
increase the B.p and decrease M.p
Fluidity Doesn’t flow Flow Flow

Motion Vibrate in Slide over Random movement Freezing and condensation are Exothermic processes
fixed each other
positions -Particles lose energy on cooling so forces of attraction get stronger, and particles get closer
Arrangement, Touching (no Touching Far apart
space) Sublimation is the direct change from solid to gas without passing through liquid state
separation Irregular Random arrangement
pattern Regular arrangement
arrangement
Heating curve A-B: solid particles vibrating faster
compression Not Slightly Can be compressed- because
compressible- compressible- there are large spaces B-C: Melting, all heat energy used to decrease forces
because because between particles
particles are particles are between particles
touching touching
C-D: Liquid state, temperature of liquid increases and
Density High Moderate Low
movement increases
Force Strong Weak Very weak D-E: Boiling, all heat energy used to decrease forces
between
particles
No force between particles

Pressure is how often particles hit the walls of the container; it increases when: Diffusion: random movement of particles from high concentratrion to low concentration

• A gas is heated, because particles will gain more kinetic energy and hit the Solids diffusion in liquids: liquids diffusion in gases:
walls of the container more often with a higher force -Solid dissolves in a liquid - liquid evaporates
• When particles are pushed into a smaller space, because particles will be
- then diffuses -diffuses then moves randomly from high to
closer together and hit the walls of the container more often
Factors affecting diffusion low conc(when perfume is sprayed in a room)
Brownian motion: random zigzag movement of solid particles - -Temperature
bombarded by smaller molecules - State of matter
-Molecular mass= Mr
 Ionic Covalent Metallic
Drawing a  Metal without outer most  showing only outer most shell
cross and dot shell.  Electron is shared between two atoms.
 Nonmetal gained electron  Don’t forget to draw lone pairs
diagram. showed by changing shape of
electron.

Definition\de Electrostatic attraction between Sharing of electrons between two non-metals. Electrostatic attraction
positive and negative ions. between positive ion and
scription. sea of electrons.
Structure. Giant ionic lattice. Simple molecules. Giant covalent molecules (Macromolecules). Giant metallic lattice.
All covalent
molecules are
simple except:

made up of Graphite. Diamond. Silicon Metals are malleable and

separate -soft so used as -very hard so used in oxide. ductile because layers of
molecules lubricant and drilling explain? each Si is positive ions slide over
pencil. Explain? Because each carbon bond to each other.
Because it’s made atom is bonded to four four O and
up of layers carbon atom with each O is
which can slide strong covalent bond. bond to
over each other. In tetrahedral structur. four Si
Conductivity. Only in liquid because ions are Not conductor Yes, electrons are Not conductor Not Yes, electrons are free to
free to move. free to move conductor move.
between layers.
Solubility in Soluble, The water molecules Not soluble in Not soluble in water. Not soluble in water.
separate the ions from each other. water.
water.
State at room Solid, because strong attraction Gas or liquid bec. Solid. Because strong force of attraction between atoms. Solid. because strong
force between ions weak attraction attraction force between
temperature force between positive ions (metal ion)
molecules. and sea of electron
 Chapter 9: The Periodic Table Group I
1
II
2
III
3
IV
4
V
5
VI
6
VII
7
Valency e-
Vertical rows are called Groups. Horizontal rows are called Periods Valency 1 2 3 4 3 2 1
Oxidation no +1 +2 +3 4 -3 -2 -1
Trends across period: Trends across the groups:
Metallic property (ability to lose electrons): Trends down the groups:
-Decreases across the period - Mass, size and density all increase down the group
Melting and boiling points: Melting and boiling points:
-Increases across metals - Decrease in metals
-Decreases across non-metals - Increase in non-metals
Reactivity: Reactivity:
-Decreases across metals - Increases in metals
-Increases across non-metals - Decreases in non-metals
PROPERTIES GROUP I GROUP VII- HALOGENS TRANSITION METALS
Physical properties -Lower m.p and b.p than transition metals - Slow gradual increase in melting point and boiling -High melting and boiling points
-Lower density than transition metals point -High density
-Softer than transition metals -Colour gets darker down the group -Hard
Chemical properties -Stored under oil -Diatomic molecules 1. coloured compounds:
1. Reactivity with water: (exothermic) [Link] with hydrogen (forms hydrogen halide): Fe2+ > green, Fe3+ > brown, Cu2+ > blue
2Li(s) + 2H2O(l) 2LiOH(aq)+H2(g) Cl2(g)+H2(g) 2HCl(g) (hydrogen chloride) CuO > black, CuCO3 > green
Observations: -fizzing, colorless bubbles HCl(g)+H2O HCl(aq) (hydrochloric acid) 2. Catalytic activity
- solid dissolves or disappears 2. Reaction with metals (forms metal halides): Fe > Haber process
-alkaline solution 2Mg+F2 2MgF V2O3 > Contact process
-K: catches fire, Na turns into a ball 3. Reactions with halides (displacement-redox): 3. Variable oxidation states:
2. Reactivity with oxygen: Cl2(g)+2KBr(aq) 2KCl(aq)+Br2(g) Fe2+, Fe3+
4K+O2 2K2O Colorless to orange or reddish brown Cu+, Cu2+
3. Reactivity with halogens: Oxidation: 2Br- Br2 + 2e-
2Na+Cl2 2NaCl Reduction: Cl2 2Cl- - 2e-
Reactivity down the gp Increases down the group because distance between Decreases down the group because distance between -----
valency electrons and +ve nucleus increases electrons to be gained and +ve nucleus increases
Examples Lithium (Li), Sodium (Na), Potassium (K), Rubidium Fluorine (yellow gas), chlorine (green gas), bromine (red Iron (Fe), copper (Cu), Manganese (Mn), nickel (Ni)
(Rb), Caesium (Cs) liquid), iodine (black solid)
Noble gases
Noble gas Use Reason Halogen Use
- They have low melting and boiling points Fluorine Toothpaste, drinking water
Helium Balloons Less dense than
Chlorine Kills bacteria in water treatment,
- Colorless gases air & unreactive
bleaching agent, PVC
Argon Lamps Provides an inert Medicine, fire retardant
-Unreactive, full outermost shells Bromine
atmosphere Medicine
Iodine
-Monoatomic gases Neon Advertisement Glows red
signs
Krypton Laser surgery ----
Xenon Car lamps, Bright white light
operating room
 It is the breakdown of ionic compound using electricity

How to set up an electrolyte cell: you need…

• Electrodes (cathode & anode)
• Electrolyte (can be molten or aqueous)
• Battery
Application of electrolysis:
 • give out energy • takes in energy
• (Ex: Combustion) Ex: Respiration

H = Reactant – Product

-ve +ve

Activation Energy: it is the energy needed to start the chemical reaction

It is change per unit time

What to measure?
1. Decrease in mass
2. Increase in volume (in a gas syringe)
Ex.1

Ex.2
 1)Universal indicator

2)
 Moles : number of carbon atoms in 12 g of c12

Mass of 1 mole = Ar/Mr in

grams %1000
mass
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠
Mole=
𝑀𝑟 mole Mr
cm3 dm3

Mole = volume /24 x1000

volume

mole 24

Molarity = concentration
𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒
M = 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 = mol/dm3
moles

M volume

𝑀𝑟
Molecular formula =
𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑖𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠

𝑝𝑢𝑟𝑒
% purity = x100
𝑖𝑚𝑝𝑢𝑟𝑒

𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙
% yield = x100
𝑒𝑥𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑒𝑑
 Chapter 2: Elements, compounds and mixtures
Elements: substance, which is made of one type of atom, e.g.: O2, H2, Cl2, graphite
Compounds: substance made of two or more different elements chemically combined, e.g.: sodium chloride (NaCl), iron oxide (Fe2O3), silver nitrate (AgNO3)
Mixtures: two or more different elements NOT chemically bonded, e.g.: sea water, air
Solutions: a solution is made up of solid dissolved in a liquid There is solution known as a saturated solution: which is a solution in which no more solute can be dissolved at a
- certain temp.
The solid is called the solute, and the liquid is called the solvent
• Different solids have different solubilities (ability to dissolve in the liquid)
• Increasing the temperature increases the solubility 1.

Separation techniques
A. Separating soluble solid in a liquid (separating a solution)
1. Evaporation: 2 Crystallization: 3. Simple distillation 2.
-heat the solution - heat till crystallization point - describe evaporation
-Solvent will evaporate and solute will remain on evaporating dish, obtain the solid -cool until crystals form - the solvent that evaporates turns into a gas then
-This depends on difference in boiling point -filtration it condenses when it cools in contact with the
-wash then dry between 2 filter papers condenser forming liquid droplets that are collected in
Note that in crystallization: -solution must be saturated a flask (condensation), obtain the liquid

-to check for crystals, put a glass rod in the solution and get it out on a cold surface - it depends on difference in boiling points 3.

B. separating an insoluble solid in liquid C. Immiscible liquid D. Miscible liquids E. Solid in solid F. Gas in gas
1. Decanting:(large particles) e.g., oil and water 1. Fractional distillation 1. Melting 1. Diffusion
- leave suspension until all the solid settles down 1. Separating funnel - Describe: evaporation and then condensation 2. Magnet 2. Fractional distillation of liquid air
- pour off the liquid - according to difference in density - depends on difference in boiling point 3. Solvent extraction
2. filtration - - using water bath because of alcohol 4. Sublimation
(Small particles)

Method Upward Downward Over water Gas syringe

HOW TO COLLECT displacement displacement
GASES: of air of air
Use when The gas is The gas is The gas is You want to measure
heavier than lighter than air sparingly soluble the volume accurately
air in water
Apparatus

Examples CO2, SO2, HCL Ammonia, H2 CO2, H2, O2 Any gas

 Acid and Base

Acids Bases
What is an acid? What is a base?
Proton donor Proton acceptor
Properties of an acid: Properties of a base:
Sour taste Soapy
Corrosive Corrosive
Good conductor of electricity Conduct electricity when molten or aqueous
pH<7 pH>7

Strong acid (complete

ionization)
Examples:
HCl H+ +Cl‾
H2SO4 2H+ + SO4-2
HNO3 H+ + NO3‾
H3PO4 3H+ + PO4-3

Weak acid (partial ionization)

Examples:
H2CO3 2H+ +CO3-2
Alkali: soluble bases
All group 1 ex: KOH,KO
Group 2 hydroxide: Ca(OH)2 /Ba(OH)2
Aqueous ammonia: NH3 + H2O NH4OH

Indicators:
Any substance which gives a color in acid and a different color in base

Indicator Acid Neutral Base

Litmus solution Red Purple Blue
Methyl orange Red Orange Yellow
Phenolphthalein Colorless Colorless Pink
 Oxides
Types of
oxides

Acidic
(non- Neutral
metal)
Basic Amphoteric
(metal)

SO3 Al2O3 / ZnO H2O

SO2 CaO Al(OH)3 / Zn(OH)2
NO2 CO
ZnO + HCl ZnCl2 + H2O
CO2 CuO
ZnO + NaOH Na2ZnO2 + H2O NO
SO3 + H2O H2SO4 MgO Al2O3 + 6HCl 2AlCl3 + 3H2O
CO2 + H2O H2CO3 Al2O3 +NaOH Na2AlO2 + H2O
CO2 + 2NaOH NaCO3 + H2O Na2O

Salts Solubility of salts:

What is a salt?
 A compound in which H ion of an acid is insoluble
replaced by a metal or NH4+ Ag+ Pb2+
Hg2+
 HCl chlorides: NaCl, KCl, LiCl, NH4Cl
Halides
 HNO3 nitrates: NaNO3, Soluble: Group 7
Ca(NO3)2,Cu(NO3)2, NH4NO3
Group 1
 H2SO4 sulfates: MgSO4,CaSO4,
NH4+
(NH4)2SO4
NO3

Neutralization
Group 1 Sulfates,
Metal OH + Acid Salt + H2O SO42-
NH4+
 NaOH + HCl NaCl + H2O Ca2+
CO32-
Metal O + Acid Salt +H2O Ba2+ Pb2+
Carbonates
 Na2O + 2HCl 2NaCl + H2O
Metal2 CO3 + Acid Salt + H2O + CO2
 Na2CO3 + HCl NaCl + H2O + CO2
Metal HCO3 + Acid Salt + H2O + CO2  All group 1, NH4+, NO3‾ are soluble
 Mg(HCO3)2 + 2HCl MgCl2 + H2O + CO2  All halides are soluble except: Hg2+,Ag+, Pb2+
Metal + Acid Salt + H2  All sulfates are soluble except:
 Fe + 2HCl FeCl2 + H2 Ca2+,Ba2+,Pb2+
NH3 + Acid Ammonium salt  All carbonates are insoluble except group 1,
 2NH3 + H2SO4 (NH4)2SO4 NH4+
 Salt preparation

How to make a salt Insoluble

Soluble

Titration
“Alkali” Precipitation
Excess

Titration: Excess: Precipitation:

 Add 25 cm3 of Alkali to conical flask  Add excess insoluble base or metal  When a solid is formed starting from two
 Add few drops of indicator (MAZIT) to a beaker containing acid ( to solutions
(phenolphthalein/methyl orange) make sure all acid reacted)  For example:
 Add acid from burette, drop wise and shake  Filter to remove excess base
 AgNO3 (aq) + NaCl AgCl(s) + NaNO3 (aq)
until color changes  Crystallization:
 To remove indicator:  Heat the filtrate till crystallization point  Ag(aq)‾ + Cl‾ AgCl(s)
 Repeat experiment using same volume  Cool until crystal form  Mix two solutions together
of acid and alkali without indicator  Filter to obtain crystals and wash with
 Filter to obtain insoluble salt
 Add charcoal then filter distilled water
 Evaporation or crystallization  Dry between two filter papers  Rinse to remove soluble impurities
 Dry between two filter paper
ORGANIC CHEMISTRY