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The document is a textbook on functions of a complex variable, intended for first-year graduate students with a basic understanding of calculus. It covers fundamental concepts such as real and complex numbers, differentiation, integration, and the properties of analytic functions, while also introducing necessary background on real variables. The text emphasizes the development of complex analysis through mapping and transformations, culminating in discussions on single-valued and multiple-valued functions.
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0% found this document useful (0 votes)
70 views392 pagesFuncs Complex Var:townsend:1915
The document is a textbook on functions of a complex variable, intended for first-year graduate students with a basic understanding of calculus. It covers fundamental concepts such as real and complex numbers, differentiation, integration, and the properties of analytic functions, while also introducing necessary background on real variables. The text emphasizes the development of complex analysis through mapping and transformations, culminating in discussions on single-valued and multiple-valued functions.
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© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
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Download as PDF or read online on Scribd
FUNCTIONS
OF A
COMPLEX VARIABLE
BY
KE. J. TOWNSEND, Pu.D.
PROFESSOR OF MATHE! RS: PREFACE
Tue present volume is based on a course of lectures given by the
author for a number of years at the University of Illinois. It is in-
tended as an introductory course suitable for first year graduate
students and assumes a knowledge of only such fundamental prin-
ciples of analysis as the student will have had upon completing the
usual first course in calculus. Such additional information concern-
ing functions of real variables as is needed in the development of
the subject has been introduced as a regular part of the text. Thus
a discussion of the general properties of line-integrals, a proof of
Green’s theorem, etc., have been included. The material chosen
deals for the most part with the general properties of functions of a
complex variable, and but little is said concerning the properties of
some of the more special classes of functions, as for example elliptic
functions, etc., since in a first course these subjects can hardly be
treated in a satisfactory manner.
The course presupposes no previous knowledge of complex numbers
and the order of development is much as that commonly followed in
the calculus of real variables. Integration is introduced early, in
connection with differentiation. In fact the first statement of the
necessary and sufficient condition that a function is holomorphic in
a given region is made in terms of an integral. By this order of
arrangement, it is possible to establish carly in the course the fact
that the continuity of the derivative follows from its existence, and
consequently the Cauchy-Goursat and allied theorems can be dem-
onstrated without any assumption as to such continuity. Likewise,
it can thus be shown that Laplace’s differential equation is satisfied
without making the usual assumptions as to the existence of the
derivatives of second order. The term holomorphic, often omitted,
has been used as expressing an important property of single-valued
functions, reserving the use of the term analytic for use in connection
with functions derived from a given element by means of analytic
continuation. While the Cauchy-Riemann viewpoint is that first
introduced, attention is called to the Weierstrass development in the
iff iv PREFACE
chapter on series, and in subsequent discussions either definition of
an analytic function is used as best suits the purpose in hand.
In Chapter IV much use is made of mapping, thus enabling us to
consider in connection with the definition of certain elementary
functions some of their more important uses in physics. For the
same reasou in Chapter V the consideration of linear fractional
transformation is especially emphasized and discussed as a kinematic
problem. The discussion of series in Chapter VI lays the foundation.
for the consideration of the fundamental properties of single-valued
functions discussed in the following chapter. In the final chapter,
it is pointed out how these properties may be extended to the con-
sideration of multiple-valued functions.
The author wishes to express his appreciation of the helpful sug-
gestions which have been given to him by Professor J. L. Markley of
the University of Michigan, Professor A. Dresden of the University
of Wisconsin, Professor W. A. Hurwitz of Cornell University, and to
Dr. Otto Dunkel of the University of Missouri, who have read the
proof sheets. He is also under obligations to his colleagues Dr.
Denton and Dr. Kempner, who have read the manuscript. Finally,
he wishes to express especially his obligations to Dr. George Rut-
ledge, who has rendered him valuable assistance in the preparation
of the manuscript.
E. J. TOWNSEND.
Universrry oF Inuinois
July, 1915 CONTENTS
CHAPTER I
REAL AND COMPLEX NUMBERS
ARTICLE
3.
10.
u.
12.
13,
m4.
15.
16.
1.
18.
19.
20)
21.
22.
23,
24,
25.
. Rational Numbers. .
. Irrational Numbers
. Geometric Representation
. Comparison of Complex Numbers..........
| Multiplication of Complex Numbers.
. Division of Complex Numbers ....
Syatem of Real Numbers.
Complex Numbers vee
mplex Numbers
Addition and Subtraction of Complex Numbers
CHAPTER II
FUNDAMENTAL DEFINITIONS CONCERNING FUNCTIONS
Constants, Variables.
Definition and Classification
Limits.
Continuity.
CHAPTER Ili
DIFFERENTIATION AND INTEGRATION
Ditfereatiation; Definition of ar. Analytic Funetion.
Line-integrais. .
Green's Theorem
Integral ot f (2)..
Change of Variable, Complex to Real.
Cauchy-Goursat, Theorem. .
Cauchy’s integral Formula.
Cauchy-Riemann Differential Equations.
Caange of Compiex Variabie
Indefinite Integrals. .....
Laplace's Differential Equation.
Applications to Physics...
i
&
Sr enonane
zi
23
33 vi CONTENTS
CHAPTER IV
MAPPING, WITH APPLICATIONS TO ELEMENTARY FUNCTIONS
ARTICLE PAGE
26. Conjuga. Functions. 101
27. Conformal . ‘opping 104
28, The Function w = 2". ua
29, Definition and Properties of ef. 122
30. The Function w = logz... 133
31. Trigonometric Functions . 144
82. Hyperbolic Functions. 150
CHAPTER V
LINEAR FRACTIONAL TRANSFORMATIONS
83. Definition of Linear Fractional Transformations 156
34. Point at Infinity.. : 157
35. The Transformation w = 2+ 8 . 159
86, ‘The ‘Transformation w = az. 159
87, ‘The Transformation w = az-+ 8
88. The Transformation w= +
39. General Properties of the Transformation w = 173
40. Stercogrephic Projection
41. Classification of Linear Fractional Transformations
CHAPTER VI
INFINITE SERIES
42. Series with Complex Terms. 198
43. Operations with Series 206
44. Double Series 213
45. Uniform Convergence. 217
46. Integration and Differentiation of Series. 222
41, Power Series... 226
48. Expansion of a Function in Power Series. 238
CHAPTER VII
GENERAL PROPERTIES OF SINGLE-VALUED FUNCTIONS
49. Analytic Continuation .... 245
50. Definition of Analytic Funetion 257
51. Singular Points, Zero Points. 262
62. Laurent’s Expansion . 275
53. Residues... 284
64. Rational Functions, Fundamental ‘Theorem of Algebra. CONTENTS vii
ARTICLE PAGE
55. Transcendental Functions . 300
56. Mittag-Leffier's Theorem 303
67, Expansion of Functions ee Infinite Products. 308
68. Periodic Functions......:...........0.+5 3h7
CHAPTER VIIL
MULTIPLE-VALUED FUNCTIONS
69. Fundamental Definitions .......
60. Riemann Surface for w — 3 w —
61. Riemann Surface for w= V2z— 2% + V-
62. Riemanr, Surface for w = log z
68. Branch-points, Branch-cuts. .
64. Stereographie Projection of a Riemann Surface.
65. General Properties of Riemann Surfaces. .
66. Singular Points of Multiple-valued Functions.........
67. Functions Defined on a Riemann Surface. Physical Appliations. te
68. Function of a Funetion.
69. Algebraic Functions. . CHAPTER I
REAL AND COMPLEX NUMBERS
1, Rational numbers. Some understanding of the nature of a
number, the classes into which numbers may be divided, and the
gencral laws governing the fundamental operations with them is
essential to the study of the theory of functions. We obtain our
first notion of numbers when we undertake to enumerate the indi-
viduals composing a group of objects. The process of counting
leads, however, only to the positive integers. We arrive at the
same result when we assume the existence of unity and a certain
mathematical process known as addition. Furthermore, the posi-
tive integers obey the following law:
Given any two positive integers a and b(b > a), there exists one and
only one positive integer x such that
atx=b.
Tt becomes at once apparent that the positive integers do not
completely serve the purpose of analysis when we attempt to solve
the above equation for the case where a = b. In order to give any
interpretation at all to the solution in this case, it is necessary to
introduce a new number called zero, defined by the identity
a+0=a.
If a is allowed to be greater than 6, it is again necessary to ex-
tend the domain of the number-systcm by the introduction of nega-
tive numbers in order to give an interpretation to the solution of
the above equation. Even with this extension of the number-
system, it is impossible to solve all linear equations. Suppose, for
example, it is required to find the value of z from the equation
at = b, a0.
A uumber-system that includes only positive and negative integers is
inadequate to interpret the result
Eel
a
7 2 REAL AND COMPLEX NUMBERS {Cuar. I.
whenever 6 is not an integral multiple of a. A further extension
of the number-system now becomes necessary and this extension is
gained by the introduction of fractions.
The numbers thus far discussed, that is integers including zero,
and fractions, constitute a system of numbers called rational num-
bers.* A characteristic property of such numbers is that they may
always be expressed in the form 2, where a and b are integers prime
to each other and a0, By the aid of the symbols for the funda-
mental operations of arithmetic rational numbers can always be
expressed by a finite number of digits. It is possible and often con-
venient to express such numbers by means of an infinite sequence
of digits, but it is not necessary to do so. Thus 3 is a rational
number, but when expressed in the form of a decimal fraction we
have
$= 0.3333... .
2. Irrational numbers. If we undertake to solve equations of a
higher degree than the first, the system of rational numbers often
proves insufficient. For example, if we have given the equation
a@—2=0
to find the value of z, we have = -+ V2, a result that has no
interpretation in the domain of rational numbers. To show that
no sueh interpretation is possible, assume 5 = + V2, a and b being
integers prime to each other. We have then
a
P
The number 2 is then a factor of a? and as all prime factors appear
an even number of times in a perfect square, 2 must appear an
even number of times in a*. Consequently, 2 must also appear as a
factor of 2? an even number of times. This, however, is impos-
sible, as it must then appear as a factor of b* itself and indeed an
even number of times. As 2 cannot be a factor of one member of
the identity an even number of times and of the other an odd num-
ber of times, the assumption that V2 is a rational number is not
valid.
* For a more complete discussion of rational numbers the reader is referred to
Pierpont, Theory of Functions of Real Variables, Vol. I, Chap. I.
=2 aah, Anr, 2] IRRATIONAL NUMBERS 3
We shall see later that it is characteristic of a new class of num-
bers, called irrational numbers to distinguish them from the num-
bers discussed in the preceding article, that they do not admit of
expression in the form E
To see more clearly the nature of irrational numbers, let us con-
sider the totality of rational numbers. Suppose we separate these
numbers into two sets such that each number of the first set is
greater than every number of the second set. Such a separation of
the rational system of numbers is called a partition.* We have,
for example, a partition if we select any rational number a and put
into one set A, all those rational numbers that are equal to or greater
than a and into a second set A: all rational numbers that are less
than a. In this case the number a is itself an element of the set Ai.
We may likewise establish a partition by putting into the set Ay
all of those rational numbers greater than a and into A: all those
equal to or less than a. In this case the number a belongs to set Ax.
It will be noticed that by the first partition there is a smallest number
in A, and by the second partition there is a largest number in As.
In each case this number is the rational number a itself.
It is possible, however, to establish a partition of the entire sys-
tem of rational numbers in such a manner that in the one set Ay
there shall be no smallest number and at the same time in the seo-
ond set A2, there shall be no largest number. For example, let us
consider again V2. As we have seen, this number is not a rational
number. Put into set Ai all of those rational numbers whose squares
are greater than 2 and into A: all rational numbers whose squares
are less than 2. The two sets A, and A: then fulfill the conditions
that each number of A; is greater than any number of Az and there
is no smallest number in A; and no largest number in As; for, no
matter how near to 2 the square of a particular rational number
may be, there are always other rational numbers whose squares lie
between the square of the one selected and 2.
The notion of the partition of the system of rational numbers
affords a convenient means of defining irrational numbers. For this
purpose suppose the totality of rational numbers to be divided in
any manner whatever into two groups Aj, A: having the following
properties:
* Introduced by Dedekind, Stetigkeit und irrationale Zahlen, Braunschweig,
1872, 4 REAL AND COMPLEX NUMBERS {Cuar. I.
(1) Each number of the set A, shall be greater than any number
of the set Ax
(2) There shall be no smallest number in A, and no largest number
in Ay
In the case where @ was the smallest rational number in’ A, or
the largest one in Az, it could be said that the partition defined
uniquely the rational number a. In the present casc, it can no
longer be said that the partition defines a rational number; for,
every rational number belongs either to set A, or set As, and since
by (2) there can be no smallest number in A; and no largest one in
A», the partition can not define a number in either set. Conse-
quently, the partition may be said to define a new number; we call
such a number an irrational number. The fundamental operations
of arithmetic may be defined for irrational numbers in a manner
consistent with the corresponding definitions for rational numbers.*
3. System of real numbers. The rational numbers and the irra-
tional numbers taken together constitute a system of numbers known
as real numbers. It is this sysicm of numbers that lies at the hasis
of the calculus of real variables. This system constitutes 9 closed
group with respect to the fundamental operations of arithmetic and
obeys. certain laws already familiar to the student froin his study of
algebra. For any numbers a, b, c of this system, we have from the
definitions of those fundamental operations
I. For addition:
(1) The commutative law: a-++b =b-+a.
(2) The associative law: a+ (b-++c) = (a+b) +e.
IL. For multiplication:
(1) The commutative law: ab = ba.
(2) The associative law: a(bc) = (ab) c.
(3) The distributive law: (a +b) c = ac + be
(4) Factor law: If ab = 0, then a = 0 or b = 0.
It is customary to introduce subtraction and division as the in-
verse operations of addition and multiplication. From the defini-
tion of these inverse operations and the foregoing fundamental laws
follow, as purely formal consequences, all of the rules of operation
for real numbers.t
* See Fine, The Number-System of Algebra, Ait. 26,
t Ibid., Arts 10, 18. Arr, 4.) REAL N
MBERS, COMPLEX NUMBERS: 5
We assume the existence of a one-to-one correspondence between
the totality of real numbers and the points on a straight line; that
is to say, we assume that to each real number can be assigned a
definite point on the line and conversely to every such point there
may be assigned one and only one real number.* This assumption
makes possible a geometric interpretation of the results of our dis-
cussion and the applications of analysis to geometry.
4, Complex numbers. It will be observed that all real numbers
arise from the assumption of a single unit, namely 1. By assuming
the additional fundamental unit “—i, which we shall represent
by é, a very important extension of the number-system thus’ far
discussed can be made. By the use of these two units, 1 and 7, we
can construct the numbers of the type a + ib, where a and 6 are real
numbers. It becomes necessary to extend the number-system so as
to-include numbers of this type if the solution of the equation
ax? + br +6 = 0,
where B® — 4.a¢ <0. is to have any meaning. Such numbers are
complex numbers and form the basis of that special branch of
tle theory of functions to be considered in this volume. It will be
seen that since a and b may take all real values, therefore including
zero, real numbers are a special case of complex numbers, that
is, compicx numbers where b = 0. In considering the arithmetic
of complex numbers, the question arises as to what is to be under-
stwod by such terms as “equal to,” “greater than,” ete, and by
the fundamental operations of addition, subtraction, ‘ete. More-
over, it cannot be assumed in advance that the laws of operation
with real numbers may be extended without qualification to this
broader field. Since real numbers appear as a special case of com-
plex numbers, it is necessary to define these expressions and the
fundamental operations in such 2 manner that the corresponding
relations between real numbers shall appear as Special cases. These
definitions will be considered in the following articies.
Complex numbers involving more than two units have been used
by mathematicians. For cxample, Hamilton, a distinguished Eng-
lish matheraatician, introduced higher complex numbers known as
* For references to the mathematical literature where this subject is discussed
Eneyclopéire des Sriences Mathemswiques, Tome I, Vol. I, pp. 146-147, or
Staude’s Analytische Geometrie des Punliles, der geraden Linie, und der Ebene,
p. 422 (10). 6 REAL AND COMPLEX NUMBERS {Cuar. I.
quaternions. For this purpose, he made use of the unit 1 and the
additional units i, j,k, connected by the following relations:
Papa k = ijk=-1.
No use will be made of quaternions or of other higher complex
numbers in this volume, and the subject is mentioned merely to
illustrate the possibility of further extensions of the number concept.
5. Geometric representation of complex numbers. The as-
sumption which we have made as to the one-to-one correspondence
between points on a straight line and the totality of real numbers,
makes it possible to give a geometric representation to complex
numbers. For this purpose, we introduce a system of rectangular
codrdinates similar to those used in Cartesian geometry.
To represent the number * a + 1b, lay off on OX, called the axis
of reals, the distance a and on OY, calied the axis of imaginaries,
the distance b. Draw through A a line parallel to OY and through
Ba line parallel to OX. The intersection P of these lines represents
the complex number a + ib. The numbers a and b may be any
real numbers, positive or negative. From these considerations, it
follows that there exists a one-to-one correspondence between the
points of the plane and the totality of complex numbers. We shall
refer to the plane, used in this way, as the complex plane. From
the relation between the points of the complex plane and the totality
of complex numbers, it follows that the complex numbers constitute
a continuous system.
By making use of the trigonometric functions, it is possible and
frequently convenient to represent complex numbers in another
form. From Fig. 1, we have
a=pcosé, b=psind
We may therefore vine
a+b = p(cos@ +isinc).
The distance OP = p is called the modulus of the complex num-
ber, and the angle @ is called the amplitude of the complex number.
* The first mathematician to propose a geometric interpretation of the imagi-
nary number V—1 was Kiibn of Danzig in 1750-1751. The idea was extended
by Argand in 1806 to include a representation of complex numbers of the form
a+bWV=—T, a representation that was later used by Gauss. The complex plane
is frequently referred to as the Argand plane or the Gauss plane. Arr. 5) GEOMETRIC REPRESENTATION 7
It will be observed that for any given number a + 7b the modulus p
is a single-valued function of the real numbers a and }, while the
amplitude @ is a multiple-valued function of these numbers. The
number a*-+ b* = »* is frequently y
referred to as the norm of the com-
plex number a+ ib. The value of
6 lying in the interval —7 <9 Sa
is called the chief amplitude. The
amplitude is measured positively
in a counter-clockwise direction.
The modulus is always to be con-
sidered as positive, and hence is
often referred to as the absolute
value of the complex number.
We frequently indicate the modu-
lus or absolute value of any com-
plex number a by placing a vertical
line before and after the number, thus | q |, read “the absolute value
of @.”
Other geometric interpretations of complex numbers are possible.
We shall have occasion later to point out, for example, how complex
numbers may be represented by points on a sphere by showing that
there exists a one-to-one correspondence between the points of the
complex plane and those on the surface of a sphere.
From what has already been said, it will be seen that complex
numbers are directed numbers, that is, numbers that have both
magnitude and direction. Consequently, we may when convenient
think of the complex number a + + + + fa(z) = 0,
where fo(z), fi(z), fa(2), - . . , fa(2) are rational integral functions of z.
We say that this equation is irreducible if it is not possible to write
the left-hand member as the product of two polynomials, neither of
which is a constant. It will be seen that all rational functions, for
example, are algebraic functions.
All functions that are not algebraic are called transcendental
functions. Such functions include the trigonometric, exponential,
and logarithmic functions.
12. Limits. From the study of elementary mathematics, and
particularly from the study of the calculus, the student is familiar
with the general notion and properties of limits. We shall recall
some of the fundamental properties by way of emphasis and extend
the notion of a limit to the realm of complex numbers.
If we have given, for example, the sequence of numbers
2,1%,1%...,18,...,
it is at once seen that by taking n sufficiently large the terms of the
sequence can be made to ultimately differ from unity by as little as
we please. We express this fact by saying that the sequence has
the limit 1. Likewise, the sequences
Lb beees dees
bases dee
have the limit zero. If we may assign at pleasure to a number
values which are numerically as small as we may choose, then the
number is said to be arbitrarily small. We shall usually denote
such a number by «. We may now define the limit of a sequence
more exactly as follows:
Suppose we have given an infinite sequence of real numbers
fan} = a, G2, ds, 21. Gn ess 24 DEFINITIONS CONCERNING FUNCTIONS (Cuar. IL.
If there exists a definite number a, and, corresponding to an arbi-
trarily small positive number ¢, a positive integer m such that for all
values of n > m, we have
la,-alm ql)
We then write
Lanza.
Since the relation given by (1) holds for ail integral values of
n > m, it likewise holds for a particular set of values of n > m, say
for the even values of n > m. In other words, any subsequence
selected from the given sequence will have the same limiting value
as the given sequence.
The foregoing definition of the limit of a sequence may be expressed
in terms of a and b, where
a= ati, on = On + iy;
for, we have the following theorem.
Trwores I. The necessary and sufficient condition that the se-
quence of complex numbers
My O2, OB, ey Any eee
converges to a limit a = a + ib is that
La, = Lb, =b. Q)
wen nas Ant. 12.] LIMITS 25
We have
a, + iby ~ a — tb
(an ~~ a) + ib, — 8),
whence |
Jan —a@| = |a,—aj/+ |b, — ob], (3)
and
lus-a|#la—al, [b-6|=]en—al. (4)
‘The condition stated in the theorem is necessary; for, if the given
sequence has the limit a, we ray write
Jan al
