EM Wave Theory

Prof. J. K. Goswamy
UIET, Panjab University
Chandigarh.
Overview of Presentation
❖ Vector Calculus

❖ Maxwell’s Equations

❖ EM Waves Propagation

❖ Laws of Optics
Vector Calculus
Introduction
 The development of the physics has been aided
by mathematical tools. These tools generalize
physical relations thereby offering deeper
interpretation.
 The understanding and applications of calculus
and vectors have played an important role in
treatise of physics.
 These two, when merged together, yield vector
calculus, which is one of the potent tools.
 We plan to introduce concepts of vector calculus.
Concept of Field
The field can be defined as the region of space in which a physical
quantity has unique value at each point.

 If the physical quantity is a scalar,  The region of space where

then in the region of space of the vector quantity has

interest, it has unique magnitude unique value (magnitude and
at every point and is referred to as direction) at every point, is
scalar field. referred to as vector field.

 Common scalar fields in physics  The common vector fields

are temperature, electrostatic are electric field, magnetic

potential, gravitational potential field, gravitational field etc.
   
etc. 
 E = E ( r ) = E ( x, y , z ) 

  
U = U ( x, y , z ) = U ( r )  E = ˆ
i E + ˆ
j E + kˆE z 
 x y 
Derivative of a Field
 The common properties associated
 The physical quantities, which are .
with derivatives of fields are:
the function of position coordinates, 
d  dA
are represented by scalar and (cA) = c
dt dt
vector fields depending upon  
requirements of their specification.
d
dt
( 
)

A B =
dA dB
dt dt

 
 When fields are treated in calculus, d
dt
( ) 
A B =
dA
dt
 
 B + A
dB
dt
they behave in same manner as  
functions of one or more variables.
dt
( )
d   dA   dB
A B =
dt
 B + A
dt
  
 The limits and continuity of field are
defined in the similar way as that for dt
(
d 
)
 dA    dB    dC
A.B  C =
dt
 B  C + A.  C + A.B 
dt dt

a function treated in calculus. d  d  dA
(A) = A+
dt dt dt

U U U
dU = dx + dy + dz
x y z
  
 E E E
dE = dx + dy + dz
x y z
 Gradient
 Consider a function f(x,y,z) dependent on three variables. Let’s give an
increment of dx, dy and dz to these variables, then change in f(x,y,z) is
given to be:

df =
f
x
dx +
f
y
dy +
f
z
 f
dz =  iˆ +
f ˆ f ˆ  ˆ
j+ (
k   i dx + ˆjdy + kˆdz )
 x y z 
( )( )
 
df = f  dl
 f ˆ f ˆ f ˆ
where f = i+ j+ k = Gradient of f ( x, y, z )
x y z

Find the gradient of the following functions :

1. r = x2 + y2 + z 2 2. f ( x, y, z ) = x 2 + y 3 + z 4
3. f ( x, y, z ) = x 2 y 3 z 4 4. f (r ) = r n
1
5. f ( x, y, z ) = e x sin y ln z 6. f (r ) = n
r
 
7. f (r ) = C  r
Interpretation of Gradient
Look around while standing on a hill

( )( )
   
df = f  dl = f dl cos 
 
 (df )max = f dl ( when cos  = 1)

For a fixed value of 𝑑𝑙 , change in the

function f(x,y,z) is maximum when system
moves along the direction of gradient of
f(x,y,z) • Direction of steepest slope
is the direction of gradient.
Or • Value of the slope along
this direction is the
Direction of gradient of f(x,y,z) is the one magnitude of gradient.
along which its slope is maximum.
Fundamental Theorem for Gradients
 If a path integral is evaluated for gradient of a scalar field f(x,y,z),
then its value depends solely on the value of scalar field at the
end points of the path in consideration.

 It does not depend anyway on the path taken between the end
points. This is referred to as fundamental theorem for gradients.

 It can be expressed mathematically as:

( )
b  
f  dl = f (b) − f (a)
a

 The path integral of gradient of scalar field over a closed loop is

always zero. This forms the definition of the conservative field.
The Del Operator
𝜕 𝜕 ෠ 𝜕
 The Del operator is expressed as 𝛻 = 𝑖Ƹ 𝜕𝑥
+ 𝑗Ƹ 𝜕𝑦
+𝑘 𝜕𝑧

 This operator, by itself, is:

▪ abstract in nature

▪ carries no physical significance.

▪ meaningful only when operating on a vector or a scalar field.

 The 𝛻 operator acts on the scalar or vector field to generate the following:

• Gradient is generated when acting on a scalar field.

• Divergence is scalar resultant through scalar product 𝛻 ∙ 𝐴Ԧ with vector field.

• Curl gives vector resultant through cross product 𝛻 × 𝐴Ԧ with vector field.
Divergence of a Vector Field
 The scalar product of the vector field function 𝐸 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧 , defined at point P,

with an element of area 𝑑𝑆 around the considered point, is referred to as flux

of the vector field. The flux is expressed mathematically as:
 
d = E  dS
 If a closed surface is considered, then total flux through it is given as:

 
 =  E  dS =  ( E cos  )dS =  En dS
S S S

 The scalar product gives the product of normal component of vector field

function with the area of the surface. It is also referred to as normal flux.

 The term flux was first introduced to describe velocity of flow of liquids as it
would yield volume of flow per unit time. However later, it was also adopted
for the quantities which actually do not flow.
 The divergence of a vector field is the ratio of

total normal flux through the closed surface

drawn around the point (of interest) to the
volume enclosed by the closed surface, when
this volume is shrunken to a vanishing value.
 1  
DivE = Limit
V →0 V 
S
[Link]

✓ The divergence of a vector field is a scalar quantity.

✓ It gives information about how the field spreads from the given point.
✓ It is sometimes also related to the density of source of flux.
Divergence of a Vector
Divergence of a vector field 𝐵 (𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) is expressed as:
Find divergence of following :

𝜕 𝜕
෡
𝜕 1. r = xiˆ + xˆj + zkˆ
𝑑𝑖𝑣𝐵 = 𝛻 ∙ 𝐵 = 𝑖෡ ෡
+𝑗 +𝑘 ∙ 𝑖෡𝐵𝑥 + 𝑗෡𝐵𝑦 + 𝑘෡ 𝐵𝑧 
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧 2. r = zkˆ

3. r = x 2iˆ + 3 xz 2 ˆj + 2 zkˆ
𝜕𝐵𝑥 𝜕𝐵𝑦 𝜕𝐵𝑧 
= + + 4. r = y 2iˆ + (2 xy + z 2 ) ˆj + 2 yzkˆ
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧

5. r = xyiˆ + 2 yz ˆj + 3 xzkˆ
Divergence of a vector function gives the information about
how much the vector field spreads around the point under
discussion.

     
B  0 Field is divergent from source. B  0 Field is convergent from source. B = 0 Field is uniform.
Gauss’ Divergence Theorem

It is a general relation which states that the total normal flux of

vector field through a closed surface is equal to the volume
integral of divergence of the vector field over the volume
enclosed by the closed surface.

  
 E  dS =  DivE dV
V

Gauss’ Divergence Theorem

Curl of a Vector Field
 Circulation: The line integral of a vector field function along a closed path in

the field is termed as circulation. It is expressed as C = ‫ 𝐵 ׯ‬. 𝑑𝑙

 Maximum Circulation: The value of the circulation depends upon the

orientation of the area bound by the closed curve with respect to the direction
of the vector field. It gets maximized for a particular orientation of the vector
area enclosed by the closed curve and is called maximum circulation.

 Maximum Circulation as Pseudo Vector: If the direction of vector field is

oblique to all the axes of the co-ordinate system, then we can generate three
components of maximum circulation by determining its finite value by orienting
the area of closed curve parallel to three principal planes of the co-ordinate
system. These three components define maximum circulation as a pseudo
vector, whose direction is ascertained (by right hand rule) by the sense
(clockwise or anticlockwise) in which the closed curve is traversed.
 Superposition of Circulation: If the surface enclosed by the loop is divided

into large number of smaller loops, then the net circulation is the sum of
circulation over the constituting loops. Hence we can write mathematically as:
  n  
 B  dl =   B  dl
C i =1 Ci

 Curl of Vector Field: The maximum value of circulation per unit area drawn

around a point, when the area enclosed by the curve shrinks to vanishing
value, gives the curl of the vector field. It can be expressed mathematically as:
 1  
CurlB = Lim
S →0 S 
C
B  dl

 Interpretation: The curl is associated with the whirling motion of a vector field
about the point. It is a pseudo vector along the direction of vector area.

 Components: The three components of Curl of vector field are given as:
(curlB ) ( )
  1  
x = curlB  iˆ = Lim
S x →0 S 
x Sx
B  d l

(curlB ) ( )
  1  
y = curlB  ˆj = Lim
S y →0 S 
y Sy
B  d l

(curlB ) ( )
  1  
z = curlB  kˆ = Lim  B  dl
S z →0 S
z Sz
Curl of a Vector
The curl of a vector field is given as :
iˆ ˆj kˆ
     ˆ  Bz B y  B
ˆj  Bx − Bz  + kˆ y − Bx 
 B = = i  −  +
x y z  y z   z x   x y 
Bx B y Bz

Curl of a vector yields information about how much the

vector field rotates about the point under discussion.

Find curl of the following :


1. r = xiˆ + xˆj + zkˆ

2. r = zkˆ

3. r = x 2iˆ + 3 xz 2 ˆj + 2 zkˆ

4. r = y 2iˆ + (2 xy + z 2 ) ˆj + 2 yzkˆ

5. r = xyiˆ + 2 yzˆj + 3 xzkˆ
 Stoke’s Theorem

This is general relation which states that circulation of vector field

over a closed loop is equal to surface integral of curl of vector
field over the area of the surface enclosed by the close loop used
in evaluation of circulation.

   
 B  dl =
C
 curlB  dS
S

Stoke’s Theorem
 Irrotational Fields Solenoidal Fields
 Vector fields, that obey the  Vector fields, that obey the
relation 𝛻 × 𝐸=0, are irrotational relation 𝛻. 𝐸 =0, are solenoidal
fields. fields.

 Such a field can be expressed  Such a field can be expressed

as gradient of scalar potential Ԧ as

as curl of vector potential (𝐴)
(V) as 𝐸=-𝛻V. Ԧ
𝐸=𝛻x𝐴.
 Line integral of such a field is  The surface integral of this field
given as: obeys the condition that:
b
 
 E  dl = E (b) − E (a)
a
‫𝐸 װ‬. 𝑑𝑎=0
 
 E  dl = 0
Del Operator: General Rules
The calculation of the ordinary derivative is facilitated by number of general
rules. We wish to enlist the corresponding general rules for scalar and
vector fields in this section:

 Rule I (Addition of functions)

d
( f + g) = +
df dg
dx dx dx
In the similar spirit we can have the following relations related to gradient,
divergence and curl of sum of fields:
  
( f + g ) = f + g
      
  ( A + B) =   A +   B
      
  ( A + B) =   A +   B
 Rule II(Multiplication by a constant)
d
(kf ) = k df
dx dx
 
( kf ) = kf
   
  ( kA) = k  A
   
  ( kA) = k  A
 Rule III (Product Rule)

d
( fg ) = f + g
dg df
dx dx dx
  
( fg) = fg + gf
( ) ( ) (
              
)( ) ( )
 A B = A   B + B    A + A  B + B   A
 
( )    
  fA = f  A + A   f
  
( )
     
(
  ( A  B) = B    A − A    B)

( )
    
  fA = f  A + A   f
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
              
  ( A  B) = B   A − A   B − A   B − B   A
Rule IV(Quotient Rule)

df dg
g − f
d  f  dx dx
  =
dx  g  g2

 
  f  gf − fg
  =
g g2
    
  A  g  A − A  g
    =
g g2
    
  A  g  A − A  g
    = 2
 
g g
Second Derivatives
Divergence of Gradient of scalar field

( )
   2  2  2
   = + 2 + 2 =  2
x 2
y z
We define Laplacian operator as :
2 2 2
 = 2+ 2+ 2
2

x y z

Curl of Gradient of scalar field

( ) ( )
   
   =     = 0

Divergence of Curl of vector field

( ) ( )
     
  E =   E = 0

Curl of Curl of vector field

( ) ( )
      
  E =   E − E 2
Numerical Problems
 Prove the following identities:

(a) 𝛻 ∙ 𝛻 × 𝐴Ԧ = 0 (b) 𝛻 × 𝛻𝑈 = 0 (c) 𝛻 ∙ 𝛻𝑈 = 0

(d) 𝛻 × 𝑈𝛻𝑈 = 0 (e) 𝛻 × 𝛻 × 𝐸 = −𝛻 2𝐸 + 𝛻 𝛻 ∙ 𝐸

 Calculate the surface integral of the vector field 𝑣Ԧ = 2𝑥𝑧𝑖Ƹ + 𝑥 + 2 𝑗Ƹ + 𝑦 𝑧 2 − 3 𝑘෠ over five
surfaces of a cube of side=2 and having one of it vertices at origin of coordinate system.
Exclude the surface of cube lying in the xy plane of the coordinate system.

 Check the divergence theorem using the function 𝑣Ԧ = 𝑦 2𝑖Ƹ + 2𝑥𝑦 + 𝑧 2 𝑗Ƹ + 2𝑦𝑧𝑘෠ and the unit
cube having of its vertices situated at the origin.

 Check the Stoke’s theorem for the vector field 𝑣Ԧ = 2𝑥𝑧 + 𝑦 2 𝑖Ƹ + 4𝑦𝑧 2𝑘෠ and the unit side
square lying in yz plane with one of its vertices situated at origin.
Integration of Fields

 The scalar and vector fields can be integrated

over a region of space.

 These integrals can be over a path defined by

a curve or surface generated by the field or the
volume enclosed in the region of interest.

 Such integrals give cumulative value of the

field over a curve or surface or volume.
Line Integrals
• The open line integral of a field represents its total value over a
given line segment. It is expressed as:

 
 B  dr =  Bx dx +  B y dy +  Bz dz
• The closed line integral represents the value of function over a
closed loop and are expressed as:
 
 B  dl
✓ Usually the line integral depends upon the path
taken from a to b.
✓ Vector field whose line integral is independent of
the path is known as conservative field.
Surface Integrals
• The open surface integral is cumulative value of field over an open
surface and is represented as
 
 B  dS =  Bx dS x +  B y dS y +  Bz dS z
• The surface area elements dSx is parallel to YZ plane. Similar is the
case for other surface area elements.
• The closed surface integral is cumulative value of field over a
closed surface and is represented as
 
 B  dS
✓ For open surface, the direction of the surface
integral can be inwards or outwards.
✓ For closed surface, the direction of surface
integral is always considered outwards.
Volume Integral

The volume integral is cumulative value of field over a volume and is

.
represented as:
 
 BdV
V

The volume integral represents a vector quantity.

Maxwell’s Equations
Introduction
 Field of electrodynamics is the study of behavior of charges in

electric field(s) and that of currents in magnetic field(s).

 This branch of physics has been pursued over centuries and

huge wealth of experimental data was collected which helped in

establishing facts and laws.

 Maxwell visited this experimental information and understood

various laws within a coherent theoretical framework.

 His efforts led to the condensation of whole knowledge of

electrodynamics into four Maxwell’s Equations.

The Maxwell’s equations along with Lorentz force law

account for the origin of electric and magnetic fields
and pronounce their effect on charges and currents.
Maxwell’s First Equation
Coulomb’s Law
 The electrostatic force between two charges is expressed
by Coulomb’s law as:
 1 qQ
F= rˆ
4 0 r 2

 Usually it is convenient to express force on test charge Q

in terms of electric field (due to other charge) at the
position of test charge. The electric field is expressed as:
 1 q
E= rˆ
4 0 r 2

 The electric field due to distribution of a number of discrete

charges is given by the principle of superposition as:
Coulomb’s law, in

 1 n
qi conjunction with the
E= 
4 0 i =1 ri
rˆ
2 i principle of superposition,
constitutes the basic
 If a charge Q suffers force (F) due to distribution of
framework to deal with the
discrete charges
  problems in electrostatics.
F = QE
Electric Field due to Continuous Charge Distribution
 If we have a continuous distribution of charges over a line or surface or
volume, then electric field due to it, in general, is given as:
 1 dq
E= 
4 0 r 2
rˆ
 The charge is integrated over a line or surface or volume. Hence the electric

field in different cases can be expressed as:

  1  (r )dl
E (r ) =
4 0 
length
r 2
rˆ Linear Ch arg e Distribution

  1  (r )dS
E (r ) =
4 0 
surface
r 2
rˆ Surface Ch arg e Distribution

  1  (r )dV
E (r ) =
4 0 
volume
r 2
rˆ Volume Ch arg e Distribution

The evaluation of electric field, being a vector quantity, due to continuous

(or even discrete) distribution of charges becomes mathematically
complicated in many cases. Hence this does not offer a practical approach.
Definition of Electric Flux
 The electric flux defines the number of electric field lines crossing a unit

surface area placed normal to the direction of lines. It is expressed as:

 
 = E  dS = EdS cos  = ( E cos  )dS
 = En dS
 The electric flux through an open surface is expressed as:

 
 =  E  dS
surface

 The electric flux through a closed surface is expressed as:

 
=  E  dS
closed Sureface
Gauss’ Theorem from Coulomb’s Law
 The electric flux through any closed surface is expressed as:
 
 =  E  dS
 Element of area can be expressed in spherical polar coordinates as:

dS = (r sin d )(rd )rˆ = (r 2 sin dd )rˆ
For a closed surface, we have :
 : 0 →  and  : 0 → 2 .
Hence total electric flux through closed surface is :
  1  q  2
 E  d S = S 4 0  r 2 rˆ   (r sin dd )rˆ
  q
 E  dS = 0
Gauss' Law Gauss’ law is derivable from
Coulomb’s law as the latter is an
inverse square law.
Gauss’ Theorem for Charge Distributions
• According to the Gauss’ Law, the total electric flux linked with a
closed surface is (1/0) times the net charge enclosed by the closed
surface.
  qi
 =  E  da = 
S
o
• Limitation of Coulomb’s Law Approach: The electric field
determination due to continuous charge distribution becomes difficult
by using conventional definition of electric field.
• Gaussian Approach: The Gauss’ law provides an easy method to
evaluate electric field by exploiting the symmetry of charge
distribution. To determine electric field due to some charge
distribution, an imaginary surface (called Gaussian Surface) is
chosen such that at all point on its surface, the electric field lines are
normal and possess same intensity. The choice of Gaussian surface
simplifies the surface integral.
   q 1
 E  dS = =
S
0 0  dV
V

Using Gauss’ divergence theorem, we get:

  1
   EdV = 0  dV
V
Maxwell’s
First
Equation
  
E =
0

• This time independent differential equation is Maxwell’s first equation,

which forms the basis for all phenomena in electrostatics.
• The Gauss’ law was preferred over Coulomb’s law of electrostatics for
forming the basis of electrostatics by Maxwell.
• This equation implies that source of electric field is the charge density
and can be estimated through spatial variation of the electric field.
Curl of Electric Field
1 𝑞
The electric field due to a charge is expressed as 𝐸= 𝑟Ƹ
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟 2

𝑏
The line integral of the electric field along path 1 is ‫𝐸 𝑎׬‬. 𝑑𝑙
𝑎
The line integral of the electric field along path 1 is ‫𝐸 𝑏׬‬. 𝑑𝑙

The quantity 𝑑𝑙 = 𝑑𝑟𝑟Ƹ + 𝑟𝑑𝜃 𝜃෠ + 𝑟𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑑𝜙 𝜙෠

The line integral of electric field along paths 1 and 2 are expressed as:
𝑏 𝑞 𝑞 1 1
‫𝐸 𝑎׬‬. 𝑑𝑙 = 4𝜋𝜀 2 𝑟.Ƹ 𝑑𝑟𝑟Ƹ + 𝑟𝑑𝜃 𝜃෠ + 𝑟𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑑𝜙𝜙෠ = −
0𝑟 4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟𝑎 𝑟𝑏

𝑎 𝑞 𝑞 1 1
‫𝐸 𝑏׬‬. 𝑑𝑙 = 4𝜋𝜀 ෠ ෠
2 𝑟.Ƹ 𝑑𝑟𝑟Ƹ + 𝑟𝑑𝜃 𝜃 + 𝑟𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑑𝜙 𝜙 = −
0𝑟 4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟𝑏 𝑟𝑎

𝑏 𝑎
‫𝐸 ׯ‬. 𝑑𝑙 = ‫ 𝐸 × ∇ װ‬. 𝑑𝑎 = ‫𝐸 𝑎׬‬. 𝑑𝑙 + ‫𝐸 𝑏׬‬. 𝑑𝑙 = 0

⇒∇ ×𝐸 =0

𝜌
The equations ∇. 𝐸 = 𝜀 𝑎𝑛𝑑 ∇ × 𝐸 = 0 uniquely define the electric
0

field revealing that its source is charge density and is irrotational in nature.
Maxwell’s Second Equation
Biot – Savert’s Law & Divergence of Magnetic Field
 The magnetic field intensity due to a steady state current (I), flowing in a

conductor, can be written, using Biot-Savert’s law, as:

   
   I dl  r  0 I dl  r
B(r ) = 0
4  r 2
=
4  r2
 The divergence of the magnetic field is given as:

   0 I  I  r
B =
4    2 dl
r
U sin g product rule
• The total magnetic flux, due to system of
  
( )
     
( )
  ( A  B) = B    A − A    B magnets or sources of magnetic field,

B =  (
   0 I       dl
4 
) ( )
r   I − I  r 2 = 0
r
through a closed surface is always zero.
• It implies that each magnet or source of
We know that :
( )
  magnetic field enclosed contributes equal
 I = 0 (current independent of r ) outward and inward magnetic flux.
( )
 
  r = 0 (Cross product of two parallel vectors) • This is possible if a magnet or source of
  magnetic field always exists as a dipole.
B = 0
 Maxwell’s 2nd Equation : Qualitative Basis
 Every magnet comprises of a north and a south pole.

 If the magnet is divided into two pieces, it results in formation of two new

magnets, each having its own north and south poles.

 This process of disintegration of a magnet may be carried out to any extent

but two poles of any magnet are inseparable from each other and they
always coexist.

 If the magnetic field produced due to a magnet is viewed, then following

features are observed:

o outside the magnet, the field lines emerge out from the N-pole and

enter into S- pole.

o inside the magnet, the field lines traverse from south to north pole.

o Intensity of magnetic field at a point is related to crowding of field lines

in the vicinity of that point.

 If such a magnet is enclosed in a closed surface, the total outward flux

will be equal to the flux penetrating into the surface thereby resulting in
overall zero magnetic flux.

 The situation remains same even when many magnets are enclosed by
a common surface.

 Hence it can be concluded with a generality that if we have a distribution

of magnets enclosed within a volume, then total magnetic flux through

the enclosing surface always vanishes.

 
 B  dS = 0 Maxwell’s
  Second
   BdV = 0 Equation
 
B = 0
Maxwell’s Third Equation
Faraday’s Experiments
 Michael Faraday in 1831 performed a series of experiments to
relate time variation in the magnetic flux through a circuit with the
emf developed across its ends.

 From the observations of these experiments, following laws were

enunciated:

➢ First Law: Whenever there is a variation of magnetic flux

through a loop or circuit, an emf is induced in the circuit.

➢ Second Law: The magnitude of emf is directly

proportional to time rate of change of magnetic flux
through the circuit. Mathematically, it is given as:

d
e=−
dt
 The Faraday’s law states that time variation of magnetic flux through a

circuit induces an emf in it, which can be expressed as:

d d  
e=− = −  B  dS
dt dt
  d  
e =  E  dl = −  B  dS • It is time dependent equation.
dt
• This indicates that time variation
   d  
   E  dS = − dt  B  dS in magnetic field yields electric
field varying in space.
 • This equation gives the desired
  dB
 E = − transformation of magnetic field

dt to electric field.

For static magnetic field,

we have 𝛻 × 𝐸 = 0 Maxwell’s 3rd Equation
Maxwell’s Fourth Equation
Curl of Magnetic Field
 The magnetic field due to steady line current is expressed as:
   
   I r 0 I dl  r
B(r ) = 0
4  r2
dl =
4  r2
 The magnetic field due to infinitely long current carrying wire is:
0 I
B=
2r
 Line integral around the circular path of radius r centred around the wire is:
  o I o I
 B  dl =  2r dl =
2r
(2r ) =  o I
 
If J = Current density then I =  J  dS
   
 B  dl =o  J  dS
( )
    
U sin g Stoke' s Theorem we have  B  dl =    B  dS
( )
    
   B  dS =o  J  dS
  
  B = o J Ampere Circuital Rule
Inconsistency in Ampere’s Law
 Let’s calculate divergence of curl of electric field.

( ) ( )
     
  E = −B = 0
t
From the above expression, the magnetic field can be expressed in
terms of another quantity called vector magnetic potential as 𝑩 = 𝜵 × 𝑨.

 Let’s calculate divergence of curl of the magnetic field.

(
   
) ( )

    B =   0 J = 0
   
  J = 0 for steady currents   J  0 for var ying currents

Hence Ampere’s circuital rule is valid for magnetostatics (i.e. where the
magnetic field due to current is uniform everywhere) only.

 Using the continuity equation, we can write that:

  
    ( 0  E )  E
 J = − =− = −  ( 0 )
t t t
 
  E 
( )
    E
   J +  0  = 0 =   J + Jd
 where J d =  0 = Displacement current
 t  t
Ampere-Maxwell Law

   dE  Maxwell’s Fourth Equation
  B =  0  J +  0 
 dt 

• Ampere-Maxwell’s law indicates that there are possible two sources

of magnetic field:
✓ Conventional current flowing in a conductor.
✓ Time variation of electric field resulting in displacement current.
• In absence of any current flow, this law brings symmetry in the
transformation of electric and magnetic fields into each other.
Propagation of EM Waves
Overview of Presentation
▪ Propagation of EM Waves in Dielectric Medium.

▪ Propagation of EM Waves in Conducting Medium.

▪ Energetics in EM Waves.
Propagation of EM Waves in Dielectric Medium
Maxwell Equations in Perfect Dielectric Medium
 A perfect dielectric medium is characterized by:

✓ Finite value of  and .

✓ Vanishing conductivity (σ = 0).
✓ No free charge ( = 0).
✓ No flow of charges (J=0).

 The Maxwell’s equations in the perfect dielectric medium are:

     
  D =   E = 0  E = 0 (1)
     
  B = .H = 0  H = 0 ( 2)
 
  B H
 E = − = − (3)
t t
 
  D E
 H = = ( 4)
t t
Wave Equations in Dielectric Medium
 Let’s derive the wave equation for oscillations of electric field vector
using the Maxwell’s equations.

 Take curl on both sides of equation (3):


    B
  (  E ) = − 
t
( ) ( )
         
(  E ) −  E = −
2
  B = −  H
t t
 
Since   E = 0
 
 D   E
2
−  2 E = − ( )   2 E = 
t t t 2

1  1  E
2
Putting  = 2 we get 2 E − 2 =0 (5)
v v t 2
 Equation (5) represents the three dimensional electric wave
generated due to oscillations of the electric field vector.
 The magnetic wave can be obtained using equation (4) as:

 1 H
2
 H − 2 2 =0
2
(6)
v t
 The electric and magnetic waves propagate in a perfect dielectric

1
medium with the same velocity i.e 𝑣 = .
𝜀𝜇

1
 If the medium is air, then speed is 𝑐 =
𝜀0 𝜇0

Given 𝜺𝟎 = 𝟖. 𝟖𝟓 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟏𝟐𝑭/𝒎

𝝁𝟎 = 𝟒𝝅 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟕 𝑯/𝒎

Then 𝒄 = 𝟑 × 𝟏𝟎𝟖 𝒎/𝒔.

 Hence the EM waves propagate with same speed as that of light.

The wave equations for electric and magnetic waves, propagating in the
dielectric medium, are identical in the respect that they have the same
frequency and phase of oscillation and also propagate with same velocity.

The electric and magnetic waves are inseparable from each other and
propagate together in space as EM wave.
➢ The time variation of magnetic field generates electric field
varying in space as per Faraday’s law of EM induction.
➢ Similarly time varying electric field produces space varying
magnetic field in accordance with Ampere-Maxwell law.
Transverse Nature of EM Waves
 A plane wave is one in which the wave variables are constant in a

plane perpendicular to the direction of the propagation of wave.

 Let’s consider an EM wave propagating in the x direction. According

to the definition of the plane wave, the value of 𝐸 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐻 , in any

plane parallel to the YZ plane shall remain constant.
E y E y E z E z
= = = =0 (9)
y z y z
H y H y H z H z
= = = =0 (10)
y z y z
 Considering the Maxwell’s first equation in the free space:
  E x E y E z
E = + + =0
x y z
 Using the plane wave conditions given in (9), we get:
E x
=0 (11)
x
 Similarly applying Maxwell’s second equation to free space

and using plane wave conditions given in the equation (10),

we have:
  H x H y H z
H = + + =0
x y z
H x
=0 (12)
x

The x-components of both electric and magnetic fields do not show any
variation along x-direction (i.e. along the direction of propagation of EM wave)
and hence can be considered to be a constant quantity.
 Using third Maxwell’s
 equation and plane wave conditions
  B H
 E = − = −
t t
E z E y H x H x
− = −  =0 (13)
y z t t
E x E z H y E z H y
− = −  = (14)
z x t x t
E y E x H z E y H z
− = −  = − (15)
x y t x t

 Using Maxwell’s fourth equation and plane wave conditions

E x • The x-components of two fields are

=0 (16)
t constant with position and time along
H z E y
= − (17) direction of propagation of EM wave.
x t
• Hence the longitudinal component of
H y E
= z (18) two fields is absent.
x t
Indicates transverse nature of EM waves.
 𝜕𝐸𝑧 𝜕𝐻𝑦 𝜕𝐻𝑦 𝜕𝐸𝑧
 The equations =𝜇 and = −𝜀
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑡

define an EM wave propagating along x-direction

with its electric field vector oscillating along z-

direction and magnetic field vector oscillating along

y-direction.

𝜕𝐻𝑧 𝜕𝐸𝑦 𝜕𝐸𝑦 𝜕𝐻𝑧

 The equations = −𝜀 and =𝜇
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑡

define an EM wave propagating along x-direction

with its electric field vector oscillating along y-

direction and magnetic field vector oscillating along Two fields are interwoven
as well as inseparable as
z-direction.
the time variation in one
 The solutions of differential equations (5) and (6) field generates the other
i (t − kx )
are: 
 E y = E0 e 
 field with space variation.
 i (t − kx )
 (19)

 z
H = H 0 e 

Relation of E and H Fields in EM Waves
 When the EM waves propagate in free space or perfect

dielectric medium, then its electric and magnetic field vectors

oscillate in same phase while their directions of oscillations
are mutually perpendicular to each other and also
perpendicular to the direction of propagation of the EM wave.

 The relation between time variation of magnetic field and

space variation of the electric field is given as:

E y H z
= −
x t
− ikE y = −iH z (20)
Ey   
= = v = = =Z
Hz k  
 The ratio of electric field vector (Ey) to the magnetic field vector (Hz) is called

impedance (Z) offered by the medium.

Ey E0 0
Z= = =  377
Hz H0 0
✓ When EM waves propagate in free
 Transverse nature of light can also space or air, the electric field vector is
about 377 times more intense than
be expressed by generalized field
the magnetic field vector.
transformation equation as: ✓ In the wave theory of light, only
electric vector oscillations are
Bz = (E y )
k
considered due to this reason.

✓
( )
Even retina of our eye is more
 1 
ˆ
 Bz = k  E y (21) sensitive to electric vector oscillations
v
than those of magnetic field.
Propagation of EM Waves in Conducting Medium
EM Waves in Conducting Medium
 The conducting medium is characterized by 𝜎 ≠ 0 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝜌 = 0.

 The current density in a conductor medium is given by microscopic form of

Ohm’s law as 𝐽Ԧ = 𝜎𝐸.

 The differential equation for propagation of the electric wave in a

conducting medium can be obtained as:

 
  B H
 E = − = −
t t

    H   
    E = −  (  ) = − (  H )
t t
 
   D   E
−  E = −
2
(J + ) = − (E +  )
t t t t
 
 E  E
2
 E − 
2
−  =0 (22)
t t 2
 Similar equation for the magnetic wave propagation is:
 
 H  H
2
 H − 
2
−  2 = 0 (23)
t t
 If we assume that wave is propagating in the x-direction and electric and
magnetic field vector oscillations are along y- and z-directions respectively,
then
E y  0, E x = E z = 0 H z  0, H x = H y = 0 (24)
 Using these conditions (24), equations (22, 23) take the form as:
2 Ey 2 Ey E y
−  −  =0 (25)
x 2
t 2
t
2H z 2H z H z
−  −  =0 (26)
x 2
t 2
t
 The equations (25) and (26) define the differential equations for
propagation of plane electric and magnetic waves in the conducting
medium.
 The wave equations are similar to those in the perfect dielectric medium

𝜕𝐸
but for the magnetic diffusivity term 𝜇𝜎 𝜕𝑡 , which arises as a result of the

finite conductivity of the medium.

 The solution for the equation (25) is expressed as:

Ey = E0e−(it x ) (27)

 Using this solution in the differential equation (25), we get:

 + i +  = 0
2 2 2
 = −i −  = −  (i + ) (28)
2


For good conductors we have   

 2 = −i = − (2i )  = − (1 − 1 + 2i )  = − 1 + 2i + (i ) 2 

1 1 1
2 2 2

 2 = −(1 + i ) 2
2

 =  (1 + i ) =  (1 + i )k (29)
2
  Electric field oscillatio ns are given as
E y = ( E0e −kx )ei ( kx −t ) (30)

The equation (30) is the progressive but damped electric wave in a conducting
medium. The amplitude of the wave decays as it penetrates deeper into the
conducting medium due to energy loss caused by Joule’s heating. This
phenomenon is termed as the skin effect.

 The skin depth () is defined as the distance traversed by the EM waves,

at which its electric field is attenuated to 1/e of its value at the surface.
1 2
= = (31)
k 

The skin depth is frequency dependent and the skin effect is severe at
the high frequencies of EM waves.
Anomalous Dispersion of EM Waves in a Conductor
 The dispersion of EM waves occurs in a medium when their phase and

group velocities are not equal.

 The electric field vector oscillations in the propagating electric waves in the

conductor are represented as 𝐸𝑦 = 𝐸0 𝑒 −𝑘𝑥 𝑒 −𝑖(𝜔𝑡−𝑘𝑥)

 The phase velocity of such a wave is given as:


v= =  = 2f
k
f = 2f
The penetration depth depends

 = upon the wavelength.
2

 The phase velocity of EM waves in the conducting medium and free

space can also be expressed as:

1 1
v= c=
  0 0
    c2
r = = = =
 0  0  r  o 0  r v 2
 c2 =  rv2 (  r  1 for conductor )

 Differentiating w.r.t λ, we get:

 dv  d dv v d r
 r  2v  + v 2 r = 0  =−
 d  d d 2 r d

 Phase and group velocities are related as:

dv   d r 
vg = v −  = v 1 +  (32)
d  2 r d 

As group velocity (vg) is greater than phase velocity (v),

EM waves suffer anomalous dispersion in conductors.

Impedance of Conductor to EM Waves
 The impedance offered by the medium to the propagation of EM waves is
defined as the ratio of instantaneous value of the electric vector to that of the
magnetic vector.

 If the plane EM wave is propagating along x-direction with electric vector

oscillations along y-axis and magnetic vector oscillations along z-axis, It is

expressed as:
Ey
Z =
Hz

𝜕𝐸𝑦 𝜕𝐻𝑧
 Two electric fields are related to each other as = −𝜇
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑡

 The oscillating electric and magnetic vectors for EM wave propagation in the

conductor are expressed as:

E y = E0 e ( it −x )
H z = H 0 e ( it −x )
  The impedance of the conductor to propagation of EM waves is given
as:
E y 
x
=
x
( )
E0 e ( it −x ) = −E y

H z 
t
=
t
( )
H 0 e ( it −x ) = iH z

− E y = −iH z
Ey i
Z = =
Hz 

Putting  = (1 + i )
, we get :
2
2  i  2  1 + i    1 + i    1 i     
Z=  =  =  =  + =  cos + i sin 
 1+ i    2    2   2 2   4 4

 i 4
Z= e (33) Impedance of Conductor

When EM waves propagate through a conductor, the electric and magnetic field oscillations
differ by a phase of π/4.
Response of Medium to EM Waves
The ratio of current density to displacement current density is:

J E y   i2
= =− = e (34)
JD E y i 

t

✓ Displacement current lags conduction current by phase of 90o .

✓ A good conductor at low  becomes a poor conductor for high .

Material
 Remarks

Conductor ~100 Conduction current dominates.
Semiconductor 0.01 to 100 -
Dielectric ~0.01 Displacement current dominates.
Energetics in EM Waves
Work Done (Energy) in the Electric Field
 Total electric potential energy associated with discrete distribution of charges

in space is given as:

1 n
W =  qiV (ri )
2 i =1
For continuous volume ch arg e distribution, we have :
1 1  
W = Vdv =   0 (  E )Vdv
2 v 2 V
Integration by parts, we get :
1     
W =  0 −  E  (V )dv + VE  da 
2  v 

1
W =  0  E dv
2
(35)
2 v
Work Done (Energy) in the Magnetic Field
 The energy associated with flow of current (I) in the inductor (L) is given as:

1 2
W = LI
2
      
 = LI =  B  da =  (  A)  da =  A  dl

1 1
W = ( LI ) I = I
2 2
1   1  
W = I  A  dl =  A  ( Idl )
2 2
  
We know that Idl = Jdadl = Jdv
1  
W =  ( A  J )dv
2
U sin g Maxwell fourth equation, we get :
1    1   
W =
20  A  (  B )dv =
20  (  A)  Bdv

Integration by parts, we get :

1
W =  dv
2
B (36)
20
Concept of Poynting Vector
 The cross-product of electric and magnetic field vectors is called
Poynting vector. Mathematically it is expressed as:
  
S = EH (37)
 If we consider an EM wave propagating in x-direction with its electric

and magnetic vectors oscillating along y and z directions

respectively, then Poynting vector is expressed as:

Sx = Ey H z

S x  = E y H z  = V . A = VA2 = W2 (38)

m m m m

The Poynting vector denotes the time rate of flow of energy per unit area
of the medium through which the EM wave is propagating. It is often

called Intensity (or Flux or Brightness or Luminosity) of the EM wave.

Poynting Vector of EM Waves Propagating in Free Space
 Let’s consider EM waves propagating along x-direction with electric

and magnetic vector oscillations in y- and z-directions respectively.


E y = ˆjE0 sin(t − kx)

H z = kˆH 0 sin(t − kx)
  
S = E y  H z = iˆE y H z
Ey 0 1
= = 0 = c 0
Hz 0  0 0
 E y = c 0 H z
 S = c 0 H z2
Magnitude of
 Similarly, we can also write as: Poynting Vector
0 2 for Plane EM
S= E y = c 0 E y2 Wave.
0

S = c 0 E y2 = c 0 H z2 (39)
Average Value of Poynting Vector
 The time average of the Poynting vector is expressed as:
 1
T
E H
T
S av = iˆ  E y H z dt = iˆ 0 0  (t − kx)dt
sin 2

T 0 T 0
 E H
S av = iˆ 0 0
2
  E  H 
S av = ˆj  0   kˆ 0 
 2  2
  
 S av = Erms  H rms

 The average Poynting vector can also be expressed as:

 1 1
ˆ ˆ
S av = i c 0 E y + i c 0 H z2
2
(40)
2 2

Electric Energy Magnetic Energy

Density of EM Wave Density of EM Wave
Poynting Vector Theorem

Restating the Conservation of Energy for propagating EM waves.

 Let’s consider an elementary surface of area 𝑑𝐴 through which EM waves

are propagating and 𝑆Ԧ denotes the associated Poynting vector.

 The power through the elementary area is 𝑑𝑃 = 𝑆Ԧ ∙ 𝑑𝐴

 Total power through the closed surface is:

   
P =  S  dA =    S dV
V
          
  S =   ( E  H ) = H  (  E ) + E  ( H  )
       
   S = H  (  E ) − E  (  H )
 Using Maxwell’s third
 and fourth equations,
 we get:
  B    D
  S = (− )  H − E  (J + )
t t
 
  B    D 
 S = − H − J E − E
t t

 Using product rule of calculus, we can write that:


1    B 
(B  H ) = H
2 t t

1    D 
(D  E) = E
2 t t
Ԧ we get:
 Using above identities in expression for 𝛻 ∙ 𝑆,
  1       
S = − (D  E + B  H ) − J  E
2 t

 we
Total power transmitted through closed surface is expressed as:

The rate of flow of electromagnetic

The loss of EM energy due to
energy per unit volume enclosed
Joule’s heating per unit volume
by the closed surface.

   1         
 S  dA =  −
V 
2 t
( D  E + B  H ) − J  E  dV
 
(41)

Power flux associated with EM waves through the closed surface

equals the time rate of change of electromagnetic energy density
through the volume enclosed by the closed surface and Joule heating
per unit volume of the enclosed medium.
Momentum, Intensity and Radiation Pressure of EM Waves
 Momentum density stored in the field is:

 1  1  1
p = 2 S =  0 E02 cos 2 (kx − t +  )iˆ  p = uemiˆ (42)
c c c

 The time averaged value of momentum is expressed as:

 1
p =  0 E02iˆ (43)
2c

 The intensity of the EM waves is given as:

1
I = S = c 0 E02 (44)
2
Laws of Optics
Reflection & Transmission of EM Waves : Normal Incidence
 Let an EM wave be incident normally at the boundary of two media of

impedance Z1 and Z2 respectively.

 The incident, reflected and transmitted components of electric vector be

denoted by Ei, Er and Et and that for magnetic field vectors be denoted
by Hi, Hr and Ht respectively.

 When EM waves are incident normally on the interface of two media,

the directions of incidence and reflection are opposite to each other.

 The impedance of two media can be expressed as:

Ei Er
=− = Z1 (46)
Hi Hr
Et
= Z2 (47)
Ht
 At normal incidence, the normal components of electric and magnetic field

vectors must be continuous at boundary of two media. Hence:

Ei + Er = Et (48) Hi + Hr = Ht (49)
 Using equations (46, 47) in equation (49), we get:

Ei Er Et Z
− =  Ei − Er = 1 Et (50)
Z1 Z1 Z 2 Z2
 From (48) and (50), we get:

 Z1 + Z 2  Et  Z − Z1  Et
Ei =   (51) Er =  2  (52)
 Z2  2  Z2  2

 The reflection and transmission coefficients of amplitude are expressed as:

E r  Z 2 − Z1 
r= =   (53)
Ei  Z1 + Z 2 
Et  2Z 2 
t = =   (54)
Ei  Z1 + Z 2 
 Case I: EM waves are incident from air to conducting medium, then Z 1>>Z2.

Et Z
t= =2 2
Ei Z1
When EM waves are incident on conductor from air :
Et E
=2 i  H t = 2H i (55) ✓ Incident electric vector suffers phase reversal on
Z2 Z1 reflection.
Er ✓ Transmitted magnetic field vector is twice in
r= = −1  Er = − Ei (56)
Ei magnitude as compared to the incident one.

 Case II: EM waves propagate from conducting medium into air then Z1<< Z2.

Et 2Z 2
t= = =2  Et = 2 Ei (57)
Ei Z 2 When EM waves propagate from conductor to air :
Er Z 2 ✓ Reflected components of electric and magnetic
r= = =1  Er = Ei (58) fields remain same in magnitude without any
Ei Z 2
phase reversal.
E E
Also r = i  Hr = Hi (59) ✓ Transmitted electric vector is twice in magnitude
Z1 Z1 as compared to incident one.
Relation Between Impedance & Refractive Index
 The refractive index of the medium is expressed as:

c 1  
n= = .  = . = r r
v  0 0 0  0
 r = 1 for non − magnetic subs tan ces
n = r (60)
 If Z0 and Z are impedance of free space and medium, then we get:
0  Zo
Z0 = Z=  = r = n (61)
0  Z
 The reflection and transmission coefficients of amplitude are given as:
Z −Z 2 Z1
r= 2 1 t=
Z 2 + Z1 Z 2 + Z1
Let Z 2 = Z and Z1 = Z 0 then
1− n
r= (62)
1+ n
2
t= (63)
1+ n
 The reflection coefficients of energy is given as:
Si EH
R= = i i
Sr Er H r
0 0
H i = Ei H r = Er
0 0
2
E  1− n 
2

 R =  r  = r 2 =  
 Ei   1 + n 
2
 Er  1− n 
2

 R =   = r 2 =   (64)
 i
E  1 + n 
 The transmission coefficients of energy is given as:

St EH
T= = t t
Si Ei H i
1− n 
2
4n
T = 1− R = 1−   =
1+ n  (1 + n )2
4n
T = (65)
(1 + n) 2
Reflection & Transmission of EM Waves: Oblique Incidence
 Let’s consider two media of refractive indices n1 and n2 having interface at XY

plane defined by the plane at z=0.

 Further let’s consider that a monochromatic plane wave is incident at interface

of two media making an angle θi with z-axis (normal to the interface).

 Let the angles made by reflected and transmitted waves with z-axis be θr and

θt respectively.

 The electric and magnetic field oscillations in incident, reflected and

transmitted waves are expressed as:

   i (k r −t )
Ei ( r , t ) = E0i e i ;
 
Bi ( r , t ) = (
1  
v1
ki  Ei) (66)

   i (k r −t )

E r ( r , t ) = E0 r e r ;
 
Br ( r , t ) = (
1 
v1

k r  Er ) (67)

   i (k r −t )

Et ( r , t ) = E0t e t ;
 
Bt ( r , t ) = (
1  
v2
kt  Et ) (68)
 The continuity demands that at interface z=0 of two media, we must have:
 i (k r −t )  i (k r −t )  i (k r −t )
E0i e i + E0 r e r = E0t e t
 This boundary condition must hold at all points on the z=0 plane and at all
points of time. Thus we can write :
     
ki  r = k r  r = kt  r (69)
 As all the three waves have same frequency, it can be written that:

ki v1 = k r v1 = kt v2 =  (70)
 More explicitly, the condition given by equation (69) can be expressed as:

xkix + ykiy = xk rx + yk ry = xktx + ykty (71)

 The equation (71) can hold only if the individual components of propagation

constants are equal. Hence we can have the condition that

kix = k rx = ktx (if y = 0)

  (82)
kiy = k ry = kty (if x = 0) 
 Now if 𝑘𝑖 lies in the xz plane then 𝑘𝑟 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑘𝑡 must also lie in same plane.

It implies that incident, reflected and transmitted wave vectors form a

plane (plane of incidence) which also includes the normal to the surface.
This is the first law of reflection and refraction.

 From equation (72), we have:

kix = ki sin  i k rx = k r sin  r
kix = k rx  ki sin  i = k r sin  r
As ki = k r then
i =  r (73) II nd Law of Re flection
 For the transmitted angle, we have:
 
ki sin  i = kt sin  t  sin  i = sin  t
v1 v2
sin  i v1 c / v2 n2
= = =
sin  t v2 c / v1 n1
sin  i n2
= (74) Snell ' s Law of Re fraction
sin  t n1
 The boundary conditions on components of electric and magnetic fields at
the interface of two media having no free charge or current densities are
expressed as:

 1 E1⊥ =  2 E2⊥ 
 II 
 1
E = E II
2 
 ⊥ ⊥

 B1 = B2  (75)
 
 1 B II = 1 B II 
 1 
2 
 1 2 
 Applying boundary conditions given in equations (76) using the equations

(66-68), we get:

 1 (E0i + E0 r )z =  2 (E0t )z 
 
( E
 0i + E )
0r x, y = ( E )
0t x , y 
 
(B0i + B0 r )z = (B0t )z  (76)
 
 (B + B ) =
1 1
(B0t )x , y 

 1
0i 0r x, y
1 

 Let’s consider that the polarization of incident wave is parallel to the plane of
incidence (i.e. XZ plane) and reflected and transmitted waves are also
polarized in the same plane.

 The condition in (76) reduces to the form:

1 (− E0i sin  i + E0 r sin  r ) = − E0t sin  t (77)

E0i cos  i + E0 r cos  r = E0t cos  t (78)
1
( E0 i − E0 r ) = 1 E0 t (79)
1v1  2 v2
cos  t
Let = (80)
cos  i
1v1 1n2
= = (81)
 2v2  2 n1
  −   
 0 r 
E =  E0i 
 We can write that:   +   
  (82) Fresenel ' s Equations
E =   
 E0i 
2
  
1+  
0 t
 
 Case I: If θi=90o, then the coefficient α diverges and equation (92) takes the

form as E0r=E0i.

 Case II: Let’s consider intermediate angle θb where the reflected wave is

completely extinguished.

We can write as:

 −  
E0 r = 0 =   E0i   = 
 +  
2
n 
1 −  1 sin  b  Brewester’s law states that
cos  t 1 − sin 2  t  n2 
= = =
cos  b cos  b cos  b at angle of incidence equal
1n2 n2
=  to polarizing angle (θb), the
 2 n1 n1
tangent of angle of
2
n 
1 −  1 sin  b  polarization gives relative
n  n2 
 2 = = tan  b refractive index of medium.
n1 cos  b

n2
tan  b = (93) Brewester ' s Law
n1
Numerical Problems
 Show that in EM waves, electrostatic energy density is equal to magnetic

energy density.

 Show that the energy flux in a plane EM polarized wave propagating in free

space is the product of energy density and velocity of EM waves.

 An EM wave in which rms value of E = 20V/m falls normally on an

absorbing mass of 1mg/cm 2 and specific heat 0.1cal/g0C. Assuming that no

heat is lost, calculate the rate at which temperature of absorber rises

(0.24oC/s)
2 
 Show that the skin depth in poor conductor is and hence independent
 
of frequency of EM waves.
 If alternating electric field 𝐸 = 𝐸0 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜔𝑡 is applied to a conductor, show that
the displacement current is negligible as compared to conduction current at
any frequency lower than the optical frequencies.
 Calculate the skin depth for silver at afrequency of 100GHz. Given that
σ=2x107S/m and μ=4πx107.

 Show that Sav = 1.327 x 10-3Emax Jm2s-1 if given that Emax = 27.45√Sav V/m

and Hmax = 72.85 x 10-3√Sav A/m.

 Calculate the poynting vector at the surface of sun. Given that it radiates

3.8 x 1026W and radius of sun is 0.7Gm. Also evaluate the electric and
magnetic field vector amplitudes. (1340W/m2, 10004V/m, 2.27A/m).

 Show that in a conductor the magnitude of electric vector reduces to about

1% at a distance of 0.73c, where c is the wavelength of EM waves in the

conductor.
 Calculate the characteristic impedance of visible light in polystyrene of refractive
index n=1.58. (238Ω)

 Calculate the coefficient of reflection and transmission of the energy of the

normally incident EM waves on the surface of water with 𝜀𝑟 = 81. (R=0.64,
T=0.36)

 Starting with continuity equation and assuming ohm’s law, show that the charge
𝜎𝜚 𝜕𝜚
density obeys the equation + = 0. Solve this equation and discuss the
𝜀 𝜕𝑡

results for good conductors and good insulators.

 The EM wave has the electric and magnetic field vectors in the conductor

𝜎
expressed as 𝐸𝑥 = 𝐴𝑒 −𝑘𝑧 𝑒 𝑖(𝜔𝑡−𝑘𝑧) , 𝐻𝑦 = 𝐴 𝑒 −𝑘𝑧 𝑒 𝑖(𝜔𝑡−𝑘𝑧) 𝑒 𝑖𝜋/4 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑘 =
𝜔𝜇

𝜔𝜇𝜎
. Show that the average value of Poynting vector in the conductor is 𝑆𝑎𝑣 =
2

𝐴2 𝜎
𝑒 −2𝑘𝑧 .
2 2𝜇𝜔