HEAT TRANSFER

Heat transfer refers to the flow of heat through matter from a region of high
temperature (hot body) to a region of low temperature (cold body).
Modes of heat transfer:
There are three ways by which heat is transferred and these are;
• Conduction.
• Convection.
• Radiation.

CONDUCTION:
This is the transfer of heat through matter from a region of high temperature to
a region of low temperature without movement of matter as a whole.
NOTE:
In conduction, heat flows as a result of direct contact of molecules of a
substance i.e. heat is transferred when one molecule contacts another molecule.
Therefore, conduction is best in solids (closely packed particles) and worst in
liquids and gases (widely spaced particles).

CONDUCTION IN SOLIDS:
Heat transfer in solids occurs a result of;
 Excess energy of vibrations being passed from one atom to another.
 The excess kinetic energy given to the free electrons near the source of
heat being carried by these electrons as they move to the colder region.

Explanation of conduction in a metal (solid) using kinetic theory of matter:

When one end of a metal is heated, the temperature of the molecules of the
metal near the heat source increases.
The increased temperature increases the kinetic energy of the molecules of the
solid thus they begin to vibrate violently. These molecules start to collide with
the nearby molecules transferring heat to them. The process continues until heat
is transferred to molecules at the other end of the metal.
NOTE:
 Heat transfer in conduction takes place by vibration of molecules but not
actual movement of the heated molecules.
 Conduction is faster in good conductors than in bad conductors.

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 Factors that affect the rate of heat in metals:
 Temperature difference between the ends of a metal:
Heat is transferred quickly when the temperature difference between the
ends of the metal is high.
 Length of the metal:
Much heat is transferred in a short time when the metal bar is short. Therefore,
the rate of heat transfer increases when the metal is of smaller length than when
the metal is of longer length
 Cross-sectional area of the metal:
When the metal is thicker, much heat is transferred in a shortest time than a
thin metal at the same time. The rate of heat transfer in metals with large
cross-sectional area and vice versa.
 Nature of material of the metal:
Different materials used to make the metal have different thermal
conductivities thus different rates of heat transfer.
Good conductors of heat:
These are materials that allow heat to pass through them easily. i.e. they
conduct heat easily. Examples include;
• All metals e.g. Iron, Aluminium, Copper, Steel etc.

Bad conductors of heat:

These are materials that do not allow heat to pass through them easily. i.e. they
don’t conduct heat easily.
Examples include;
• All non-metals e.g. Wood, Rubber, Plastics, Glass etc.

Applications (uses) of good and bad conductors of heat:

 Good conductors of heat are used in making of cooking utensils e.g.
saucepans, kettles, frying pans, etc.
 Bad conductors of heat are used in making handles of cooking utensils,
insulators since they don’t allow heat to pass through them.

Question 1:
Explain why a metal feels cold when touched on a cold day.
Since a metal is a good conductor of heat, it conducts all the heat away from the
hands. Thus, our hands lose heat and this gives a sensation of coldness.

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 Question 2:
Explain why a cemented floor feels colder than a carpeted floor.
When we put our feet on a cemented floor, it conducts all the heat away from
our feet since it is a good conductor of heat. Therefore, our feet lose heat and
become cold.
When we put our feet on a carpeted floor, it doesn’t conduct any heat from our
feet since it’s a bad conductor of heat. Therefore, our feet do not lose heat thus
they remain warm.
An experiment to compare conductivities of different solids
QN: Describe an experiment to compare the rate of heat transfer in different
conductors.

 Identical rods of different materials coated with wax are dipped in hot water.
 After sometime, the wax starts to melt along the rods.
 Wax melts fastest along the copper rod and slowest along the wood rod.
 This shows that copper is the best conductor of heat and wood is the worst
conductor of heat.

Experiment to show that wood is a poor conductor of heat:

𝑪𝒉𝒂𝒓𝒓𝒆𝒅 𝑼𝒏𝒄𝒉𝒂𝒓𝒓𝒆𝒅

𝑾𝒐𝒐𝒅 𝑷𝒂𝒑𝒆𝒓
𝑪𝒐𝒑𝒑𝒆𝒓
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  A composite rod is made by joining a wooden rod with a copper rod.
 A piece of paper is wrapped round the composite rod around the joint so
that the wooden and copper rod share the paper equally as shown below.
 The composite rod is passed through a Bunsen burner flame several times.

Observation:
 The part of the paper on the wood gets charred (burnt) while the part of
paper on copper remains uncharred (not burnt).

Explanation:
 Copper is a good conductor of heat. Therefore, copper conducts away heat
quickly from the paper thus the temperature of part of the paper on it
remains low. Hence, the part of the paper on copper does not char.
 Wood is a poor conductor of heat. Therefore, wood does not conduct away
heat from the paper thus the temperature of part of the paper on it remains
high. Hence, the part of the paper on wood chars.

CONDUCTION IN LIQUIDS AND GASES:

Liquids and gases transfer heat at a very slow rate i.e. they are relatively poor
conductors of heat. This is because their molecules are apart.

An experiment to show that water is a poor conductor of heat:

 Ice is wrapped in a wire gauze and then placed in the test tube. The wire
gauze is used to keep ice at the bottom of the test tube.
 The test tube is then filled with water.
 The water near the mouth of the test tube is heated.
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  It is observed that water at the top starts to boil before the ice at the bottom
starts to melt.
 This shows that there is little conduction of heat from the top to the bottom
by water hence water is a poor conductor of heat

an experiment to show that mercury is a better conductor of heat than water:

 Two test tubes are filled with equal volumes of water and mercury respectively.
 A cork is attached to the bottom of each test tube.
 A piece of thick copper rod is bent twice at right angles and its ends are
put in the test tubes respectively as shown above.
 The centre of the copper rod is heated such that heat is conducted equally
into water and mercury test tubes.
 After a short period of time, wax on the mercury-filled test tube melts and
the cork falls while that on the water-filled test tube remains attached for a
long period of time.
 This shows that heat reaches the wax faster through mercury than in
water hence mercury is a better conductor of heat than water.

CONVECTION:
This is the transfer of heat through a fluid from a region of high temperature to a
region of low temperature by movement of the fluid itself.
NOTE:
 Convection occurs in only fluids (i.e. liquids and gases) because they
can flow easily and cannot occur in solids since they can’t flow.
 Convection cannot occur in a vacuum because it requires a material medium.

Explanation of convection in fluids:

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 When a fluid is heated, it expands and becomes less dense than the
surrounding cold fluid. The heated fluid rises upwards and the space left
is filled with the surrounding cold fluid.
As the warm fluid rises, it gives heat to the surrounding cold fluid thus forming
a cyclic movement called convectional currents.

Definition:
Convectional currents are rising and falling fluid caused by a change in
temperature and density of a fluid.

𝑯𝒐𝒕, 𝒍𝒆𝒔𝒔 𝒅𝒆𝒏𝒔𝒆 𝒘𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒓 𝒓𝒊𝒔𝒆𝒔

𝑪𝒐𝒏𝒗𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒄𝒖𝒓𝒓𝒆𝒏𝒕 𝑪𝒐𝒍𝒅 , 𝒎𝒐𝒓𝒆 𝒅𝒆𝒏𝒔𝒆 𝒘𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒓 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒌𝒔

An experiment to show convectional currents in liquids:

Procedures:
 A round bottomed flask is filled with clean water.
 A few crystals of potassium permanganate are placed at the bottom of
the flask using a glass tube.
 The bottom of the flask is gently heated.

Observation:
 It is observed that the purple colour of potassium permanganate is seen
moving upwards and on reaching the top, it spreads and then moves
downwards forming convectional currents.
Explanation:
 When the solution at the bottom of the flask is heated, it expands and
become less dense than the surrounding water thus moving upwards. The
surrounding cold and dense water flows to the bottom to replace the risen
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 water.
 So, the water circulates in the flask hence forming convectional currents.

An experiment to show convectional currents in gases:

Procedures:
 Fit two glass chimneys to the top of a box with a glass window.
 Light a candle and place it below chimney A.
 Introduce smoke into the box by placing a piece of smouldering paper in the
other chimney B.
Observation:
 It is observed that all the smoke from chimney B moves out of the box
through chimney A above the candle.

Explanation:
 When the air above the candle is heated, it expands and becomes less dense
than the surrounding air thus rises and moves out through chimney A.
 Since the surrounding air (smoke) is cooler and denser, therefore, it sinks
into the box through chimney B to replace the risen hot air.
 The difference in densities of the air at the different chimneys sets up a
convectional current.

NOTE:
Convection occurs much more readily in gases than in liquids because they expand
much more than liquids when heated.

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 APPLICATIONS OF CONVECTIONAL CURRENTS IN DAILY LIFE
a) Sea breeze:
This is the cool air that blows from sea to land during day time.

 During day, the land is heated more than the sea by the sun because
land is a good absorber of heat and has a lower specific heat capacity
than the sea.
 The increase in temperature of land causes the air above the land to
expand and become less dense thus rising up.
 The space left by the warm air above the land is filled up by the cold air
that blows from sea. This results into a sea breeze during day time

b) Land breeze:
This is the cool air that blows from land to sea at night.

 At night, the land is no longer heated by the sun so it cools very rapidly
than the sea since land is a good emitter of heat than the sea. Therefore,
the sea is warmer than the land at night.
 The warm air above the sea rises up since it is less dense.
 The space left by the warm air above the sea is filled up by the cold air that
blows from land.
 This results into a land breeze at night.

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 c) Ventilation:
 Air inside a room is heated up on a hot day. This heated air (warm air)
expands and becomes less dense thus rising up and flow out through the
ventilators.
 The space left by the risen warm air is filled up with fresh cool air
which passes through the windows and the doors.
 This results into circulation of air in the room thus forming convectional
currents.

Question1:
Explain why ventilators are constructed above the windows and doors.
The ventilators help to move out hot air from the room. Since hot air is less
dense than cold air, it rises up and moves out of the room through these
ventilators. The cool air which is denser sinks into the room through the
windows and doors. This circulation of air helps to cool the room.
If the ventilators were put near the floor, the hot air would not leave the
room but just stays at the upper part of the room thus keeping the room hot.

d) Hot water domestic supply system:

 Cold water is supplied to the boiler through the cold-water supply pipes A and
B.
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 
In the boiler, cold water is heated, expands and becomes less dense thus
raising up to the hot water storage tank through pipe C. At the same time
an equal volume of cold-water flows to the boiler through the supply.
 As more cold water is supplied to the boiler, hot water is displaced upwards
and supplied to the hot water supply taps.
NOTE:
 The expansion pipe D allows escape of dissolved air which comes out of
the water when it is heated. Therefore, if the expansion pipe is not there, the
dissolved air which comes out when water is heated may cause air locks in
the pipes thus causing explosion.


Pipes A and B are connected to bottom part of hot water storage tank
and boiler respectively because they carry cold water which is denser.
 Pipe C leaves the boiler at the top and enters the hot water storage tank at
the top part because it carries hot water which is less dense.
Question 2:
Explain how a chimney makes life comfortable in a kitchen.
A chimney helps to drive out smoke and oily-filled air during cooking thus
reducing indoor pollution in the kitchen.
During cooking, smoke and some oily-filled air which are denser are
produced thus rising up and moves out of the kitchen through the chimneys
thus making the kitchen more conducive.

e) Electric kettles have their heating coil at the bottom:

The heating coil (element) of an electric kettle is placed at the bottom.
Therefore, one can boil any amount of water that can cover the element
effectively. Hot water which is less dense than cold water rises above the
hot element to the top of the water and the denser cold water sinks down to
the hot element. This sets up convection currents which make the water to
boil uniformly

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 RADIATION:
This is the transfer of heat from one place to another by means of electromagnetic
waves.
Since electromagnetic waves do not require a material medium to transfer their
energy, therefore radiation does not need a material medium for heat energy to
be transmitted.
Examples of heat transfer by radiation include;
□ Heat from the sun reaching the earth.
□A hot body or fire losing heat to the
surrounding.
NOTE:
 Heat transferred by means of radiation can travel through a vacuum.
 Radiation is the fastest means of heat transfer since it travels at the speed of
light.
 The energy from a hot body is called radiant energy.

Factors affecting the rate of heat transfer by radiation:

• Temperature of the body: A hotter body radiates heat faster compared to a cold
body.
• Surface area of the body: Bodies with large surface areas (bigger
areas) radiate much heat energy per second.
• Nature of the surface of the body: Dull surfaces radiate heat energy faster
than highly polished surfaces.
GOOD AND BAD ABSORBERS OF HEAT

Good These absorb most of the heat radiations and reflects less heat
absorbers: energy.
Dull and black surfaces absorb most of the heat and reflect a
few so they are
good absorbers of heat.
Bad These don’t absorb most of the heat radiations but reflect
absorbers: most of heat
radiations.
Shiny or polished surfaces reflect most of the heat radiations
so they are bad
absorbers of heat.

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An experiment to show the absorption of radiation in a surface:

𝑫𝒖𝒍𝒍 𝒔𝒖𝒓𝒇𝒂𝒄𝒆 𝑺𝒉𝒊𝒏𝒚 𝒔𝒖𝒓𝒇𝒂𝒄𝒆 (𝒑𝒐𝒍𝒊𝒔𝒉𝒆𝒅)

𝑪𝒐𝒓𝒌

𝑾𝒂𝒙 𝑯𝒆𝒂𝒕 𝒔𝒐𝒖𝒓𝒄𝒆

Procedures:
 A dull and shiny (polished) surface are placed vertically at a short distance from
each other.
 A cork is fixed on the back side of each surface by using wax.
 A heat source is placed mid-way between the two surfaces so that each
surface receives the same amount of radiation.
Observation:
 It is observed that the wax on the dull surface melts first and the cork falls
off before the wax on the shiny surface melts.
Explanation:
 A dull surface absorbed much heat faster than the shiny surface thus a dull
surface is a good absorber of heat radiation than the shiny one. The shiny
surface just reflects the heat away from it.
Applications of good and bad absorbers
 Buildings in hot countries are painted white and roof surfaces are made
shiny because white and shiny surfaces are bad absorbers of heat radiation
thus keeping the rooms cool.
 Petrol tanks on vehicles are polished to reflect away radiant heat.
 White coloured clothes are worn in dry season so that they reflect away heat
thus keep us cool
 Sweaters and blankets are made with dull colours to absorb heat.
 The bottoms of cooking utensils are made black to absorb heat from the fire.

GOOD AND BAD EMITTERS OF HEAT

Basically, we say that the body emits heat if it can cause the temperature of a
nearby body to increase. A body relatively can’t emit heat if it can’t absorb it.

Good emitters: These absorb most of the heat radiations and reflects less
heat energy. Dull and black surfaces emit most of the heat
so they are good emitters of heat.
 These don’t absorb most of the heat radiations but
Bad emitters: reflect most of heat radiations.
Shiny or polished surfaces reflect most of the heat radiations
so they are bad emitters of heat.

NOTE:
□ Good absorbers of heat are also good emitters of heat.
□ Bad absorbers of heat are also bad emitters of heat.
An experiment to show good and bad emitters of heat (radiators of heat)

Procedures:
 A hollow copper cube (Leslie’s cube) with each side having a different
surface (i.e. black, white and shiny surface) is used.
 The cube is filled with hot water.
 The radiation from each surface is detected by a thermopile and
the deflection of the galvanometer observed.
Observation:
 The deflection of the galvanometer is greatest when the thermopile is
facing the black surface and least when facing the shiny surface.
Explanation:
 The dull black surface emits a lot of heat radiation than the shiny surface
thus a great deflection of the thermopile. Therefore, the dull and black
surface is a good radiator or emitter of heat while a shiny or polished surface
is a poor emitter of heat radiations.

Applications of good and bad emitters

 Tea pots and kettles are polished so that they don’t emit heat to the
surrounding thus keeping liquids inside hot.
 Cooling fins on refrigerators are painted black so that they can emit
heat quickly to the surrounding.
APPLICATIONS OF RADIATION
 VACUUM FLASK (THERMOS FLASK):
This is a flask with two silvered walls enclosing a vacuum which keeps its
contents at a fairly constant temperature.
The vacuum is designed to either keep hot things hot or cold things cold.

How heat losses are minimised in a vacuum flask:

 Cork: A cork is a poor conductor of heats so it doesn’t allow heat

to pass through it. Therefore, it minimizes heat loss by
conduction.
 Vacuum: A vacuum is a space without air. It minimizes heat loss
by convection and conduction.
 Silvered surfaces: These are highly polished surfaces which
minimize heat loss by radiation.
Silvered surfaces are poor radiators (emitters) of heat,
therefore no heat is allowed to go in and out of the
flask.
NOTE:
□ The vacuum seal seals the vacuum. Therefore, if its broken, the vacuum
will no longer exist thus causing heat losses through convection and
conduction.
□ When the hot liquid is kept in a vacuum flask for a long period of time,
it eventually gets cold. This is because little heat is lost at a smaller rate
since all flasks are not too perfect whereby some corks may conduct
some heat, frequent opening of the flask etc.
 CHOICE OF DRESSES AND CLOTHES:
On a hot day, a white dress is preferred to a dull dress because it reflects
most of the heat radiations that fall on it hence keeping the body cool.
On cold days, a dull or black woollen dress is preferred because it absorbs
most of the heat radiations thus retaining it for a longer period of time.

a) GREEN HOUSE EFFECT:

The greenhouse effect is a natural process that warms the Earth’s surface.
When the radiations from the sun reaches the earth’s atmosphere, some it is
reflected back and the rest is absorbed by the greenhouse gases in the
atmosphere. The greenhouse gases include water vapour, carbon dioxide,
ozone and other gases.
After absorbing the radiations from the sun, these greenhouse gases re-
radiate these heat radiations to the earth thus warming the atmosphere of the
earth’s surface.
NOTE:
□ When human activities like land clearing, deforestation, and burning
fossil fuels increase, they increase the concentration of the
greenhouse gases in the atmosphere thus causing them to absorb
more heat from the sun. This increased absorption of heat radiations
from the sun leads to excessive warming of the earth. This is called
global warming.

GREEN HOUSE
A green house is a house that supports plant growth by allowing in radiations from sun
and preventing radiations emitted by the green plants from escaping

𝑺𝒉𝒐𝒓𝒕
𝒘𝒂𝒗𝒆𝒍𝒆𝒏𝒈𝒕𝒉
𝒓𝒂𝒅𝒊𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏𝒔

𝑮𝒍𝒂𝒔𝒔 𝒘𝒂𝒍𝒍𝒔

𝑳𝒐𝒏𝒈 𝒘𝒂𝒗𝒆𝒍𝒆𝒏𝒈𝒕𝒉 𝒓𝒂𝒅𝒊𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏𝒔

𝒆𝒎𝒊𝒕𝒕𝒆𝒅 𝒃𝒚 𝒑𝒍𝒂𝒏𝒕𝒔

: 15
How a green house works:
 The sun emits radiations of short wavelength to the earth. These radiations
enter the green house through the glass walls.
 The plants and soil in the green house absorb these radiations hence their
temperature is raised thus becoming warmer.
 The warm plants and soil in the green house re-radiate (re-emit) radiations of
long wavelength.
 Since long wavelength radiations are less penetrative, they are unable to
pass through the glass walls of the green house thus causing the
temperature inside to continue rising.

EXERCISE:
1. a) Explain why the sea remains cooler than land during daytime and warmer
than land at night.
b) State two factors that affects the rate of heat transfer along a metallic rod.
c) Describe an experiment to show that water is a poor conductor of heat.

2. a) Draw a well labelled diagram of a thermos flask.

b) Explain how the features on the thermos flask above enables to keep a liquid
warm.
3. State two circumstances where the warm liquid in the flask above can get
ultimately cold. Explain the following observations;
i) A person should crawl on the floor in a smoke-filled room.
ii) Ventilators are put near the ceilings of houses.
iii) Houses in North-African countries like Egypt are painted white.
iv) Flames of fire move upwards.

4. a) Distinguish between Conduction and radiation.

b) Explain why the metallic blade of the knife feels cold on a cold day.
c) Describe an experiment to show that wood is poor conductor of heat than
copper.

5. a) Explain why a black coat is usually worn on a cold otherwise not on a hot
day.
b) In an experiment to demonstrate the poor conductivity of water, ice is
wrapped in a wire gauze. Explain why this is so.

6. a) Define the term radiation.

: 16
 b) Explain how a vacuum flask is able to keep a cold liquid cool for a long
period of time.
c) Explain how global warming occurs in the earth’s atmosphere.

7. Explain the following observations;

i) Blankets are made of dull colours.
ii) Car radiators are coiled and painted black.

8. A swimmer prefers to put on a wet cloth when diving in cold water. a) Define
the term good emitter of radiation.
b) Describe how a green house is able to support plant growth.

9. a) Explain the greenhouse effect and how it affects the earth’s atmosphere.
b) Explain why solar panels are painted black.

10. a) Describe an experiment to show convection in liquids.

b) Explain why electric kettles have their heating element at the bottom.

: 17
 THERMAL EXPANSION OF MATTER

All the three states of matter (solids, liquids and gases) change in volume when
heated
Definition:
Expansion is the increase in size of matter whenever
matter is heated. This increase in size of an object occurs in
all directions.
Definition:
Contraction is the decrease in size of matter whenever matter is cooled.

EXPANSION IN SOLIDS
All solids expand when heated. Some solids expand greatly and others very little.

An experiment to demonstrate thermal expansion in solids:

𝑴𝒆𝒕𝒂𝒍 𝒃𝒂𝒍𝒍
𝑴𝒆𝒕𝒂𝒍 𝒓𝒊𝒏𝒈

𝑩𝒆𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒆 𝒉𝒆𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑨𝒇𝒕𝒆𝒓 𝒉𝒆𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒏𝒈

 A metal ball which just passes through the metal ring is used.
 The metal ball is heated for some time.
 It is observed that after heating the ball, it could not pass through the metal
ring. This is because the ball has expanded when heated.
 When the metal ball is cooled, it passes through the metal ring again.
This indicated that on cooling, the metal ball had contracted.

APPLICATIONS OF THERMAL EXPANSION

Thermal expansion in solids is applied in the following;
a) Bimetallic strip:
This is a strip made when two metals of different expansion rates are joined
together e.g. Brass

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When a bimetallic strip is heated, it forms a curve with a metal that expands more on
the outside and the metal that expands less on the inside.
Uses of bimetallic strips:
□ They are used in ringing bells of fire alarms.
□ They are used in thermostats in electrical appliances.

Fire alarms:

𝑬𝒍𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒓𝒊𝒄 𝒃𝒆𝒍𝒍

𝑪𝒐𝒏𝒕𝒂𝒄𝒕

𝑩𝒊𝒎𝒆𝒕𝒂𝒍𝒍𝒊𝒄 𝒔𝒕𝒓𝒊𝒑

 When there is a fire outbreak in a room, the bimetallic strip is heated by

fire. This causes it to bend outwards thus completing the electrical circuit.
 When the circuit is complete, current flows to the electric bell thus causing it to
ring.

Thermostats:
A thermostat is a device that keeps the temperature of a room or an electrical
appliance to remain constant.
Thermostats are used in the heating circuits of electric flat irons.

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  The control knob is set to the required temperature.
 On reaching the required temperature, the bimetallic strip bends away thus
breaking the circuit at the contacts. This switches off the heater.
 On cooling, the bimetallic strip makes returns back to its original shape and
makes contact again thus completing the circuit. This switches on the heater.

Other applications of thermal expansion (Disadvantages of expansion):

b) Bridges:
Girders in bridges are made of mainly steel. During cold days bridges
contract and during hot days, the bridges expand. In order to allow room for
expansion and contraction in bridges, the bridge is constructed with one end
fixed and the other end placed on rollers. This helps it contract and expand
freely without damaging the bridge.
𝑭𝒊𝒙𝒆𝒅
𝑹𝒐𝒍𝒍𝒆𝒓𝒔

𝑩𝒓𝒊𝒅𝒈𝒆

c) Railways:
On a hot day, the rails are heated and they and they are bent due to
expansion. This causes them to get seriously damaged.

𝑹𝒂𝒊𝒍
𝑶𝒏 𝒄𝒐𝒍𝒅 𝒅𝒂𝒚𝒔 𝑶𝒏 𝒉𝒐𝒕 𝒅𝒂𝒚𝒔
In order to give room for expansion during hot days, railway lines are
constructed with gaps between the rails.

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 𝑹𝒂𝒊𝒍𝒔

𝑶𝒏 𝒄𝒐𝒍𝒅 𝒅𝒂𝒚𝒔 𝑶𝒏 𝒉𝒐𝒕 𝒅𝒂𝒚𝒔

d) Transmission wires:
the wires used in transmission of electricity and telephone cables are loosely
fixed (sag) in order to allow them expand freely during hot days and contract

freely during cold days.

e) Rivets:
Rivets are tight joints obtained by riveting two metals together.
A hot rivet is pushed through a hole between two metals to be joined
together and its end is hammered flat. On cooling, it contracts and pulls
the two metals together.
𝑹𝒊𝒗𝒆𝒕

𝑩𝒆𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒆 𝒉𝒂𝒎𝒎𝒆𝒓𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑨𝒇𝒕𝒆𝒓 𝒉𝒂𝒎𝒎𝒆𝒓𝒊𝒏𝒈

EXPANSION IN LIQUIDS:
Liquids expand when heated. Different liquids have different expansion rates
when equally heated. Liquids expand more than solids since their molecule are
far apart compared to those of solids thus their intermolecular forces are weak.
An experiment to demonstrate expansion of a liquid e.g. water:

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  The flask is completely filled with coloured water.
 A narrow glass tube is passed through the hole of the cork and the cork is
fixed tightly into the flask.
 The initial level of water in the narrow glass tube is observed.
 The bottom of the flask is then heated.
 The new level of water in the narrow glass tube is observed.
Observation:
It is observed that the level of water in the narrow glass tube first falls and then
starts to rise again.
Explanation:
 When the flask is heated, the flask gets heated first before the heat is passed
to the water inside it. Therefore, the flask expands first and increase in
volume before the water causing a fall in the water level.
 However, when the heat reaches the water, it expands and increase in
volume thus its level starts to rise in the narrow tube.
An experiment to compare the expansions of different liquids:

 Three identical glass flasks are filled with water, ethanol and ether respectively
to the same level.
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  The glass flasks are heated by placing them in hot water which is
maintained at the same temperature.
 It is observed that after some time, the liquid levels rise to different
levels. This shows that different liquids expand differently for the same
temperature change.
 It is also observed that ether expands more than ethanol and water.
ANOMALOUS (ABNORMAL) EXPANSION OF WATER
Liquids expand steadily when heated i.e. when their temperature increases.
Water has an abnormal behaviour whereby when its temperature rises from 0℃
to 4℃, it contractsinstead of expanding. This situation is referred to as the
anomalous expansion of water.
Definition:
Anomalous expansion of water is the abnormal behaviour of water whereby it
contracts instead of expanding when its temperature rises from 0℃ to 4℃.

Volume against temperature graph showing expansion of water

AB: As ice is heated, it expands until when its temperature reaches 0℃ where it
melts to form water.
BC: Ice melts to form water at 0℃.
CD: As the temperature rises, the water 0℃ contracts until 4℃.
DE: As the temperature exceeds 4℃, water starts to expand steadily.
From the graph, water has its minimum volume at 4℃. Thus, the density of
water is maximum when the temperature is 4℃.
Density against temperature graph showing expansion of water

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 From the graph, the density of water is maximum at 4℃.
NOTE:
□ At 0℃, the volume of ice is greater than the volume of water.
Therefore, the density of ice is less than the density of water. This
explains why ice floats when mixed with water.
Question: Explain why ice floats on water.
This is because for a given mass of ice at 𝟎℃, its volume is always
greater than the volume of water. Therefore, the density of ice is
always less than the density of water thus causing it to float on water.

Biological importance of anomalous expansion of water

QN: Explain how anomalous expansion of water helps to preserve the lives of
aquatic animals.
Preserving aquatic life in ponds and lakes:
The effect of anomalous expansion of water is that the coldest water always
floats on top of the surface of the other water since it is less dense.
Since water at 4℃ is the heaviest (denser), this water settles at the bottom of
the lake and the lightest(less dense) water settles at the top layer of the lake.
During winter, the water at the top is the first to freeze to ice. Since ice is a poor
conductor of heat, it insulates the rest of the water below it from the coldness of the
winter.
This helps to preserve the lives of aquatic animals in water.

NOTE: Anomalous expansion also helps in weathering of rocks.

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 Disadvantages of the abnormal expansion of water:
 It prevents water from being used as a thermometric liquid.
 It causes the bursting of water pipes when water flowing through them freezes

EXPANSION IN GASES

When a gas is heated, the gas molecules gain more energy and move further
apart thus occupying more space. Therefore, gases expand more than the liquids
and solids since their molecules are widely spaced and their intermolecular
forces are very weak.

An experiment to show expansion in gases:

 Water is poured in a beaker.

 A narrow glass tube is passed through the hole of the cork and the cork is
fixed tightly into the flask.
 The flask is then inverted and dipped in the beaker filled in water.
 The flask is then gently heated.
 It is observed that level of water in the narrow glass tube falls and air
bubbles are seen coming out from the other end of the tube. This shows that
air expands when heated and pushes the water in the tube downwards.
 On cooling the flask, air in the flask contracts and water rises up in the
narrow glass tube since more space has been created in the flask.

APPLICATIONS OF EXPANSION IN GASES:

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 It is applied in;
Hot air balloons:
When air in the balloon is heated, it expands and becomes less dense thus rising.

LIGHT
Light is a form of energy that travels in a straight line and
enables us to see. Light is often produced by very hot bodies.
The study of light is called optics .Objects are only seen if
light from them enters our eyes.

LUMINOUS AND NON LUMINOUS OBJECTS

Luminous objects are objects are objects that produce their own light.
Examples include: The sun, candles, the torch, bulb, lamps.
Non luminous objects are objects that we see but don’t produce their own light.
They reflect it from luminous sources.
Examples include: The moon, human body, a wall, books, plants.

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 OPAQUE, TRANSLUSCENT, TRANSPARENT OBJECTS
1. OPAQUE OBJECTS
These are objects which do not allow light to pass
through them. They include the following;
• Wall
• Human body
• Wood
• Etc
2. TRANSLUSCENT OBJECTS
These are objects which allow little light to pass through but we cannot
see through them. They include the following;
• Oiled paper
• Some glasses used in toilet and bathroom windows
• Some iron sheets
3. TRANSPARENT OBJECTS
These are objects which allow light to pass through and we can see
through them. Examples include;
• Glass car windscreens
• Colourless liquids
• Spectacles
TERMS USED IN LIGHT

(i) A ray
This is the direction of the path followed by light.
It is represented in diagrams by a straight line and an arrow.

(ii) A beam
This is a group of light rays.
Types of beams
(a) Parallel beam

(b) Converging beam

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 (c) Diverging beam

PROPERTIES OF LIGHT
 Can travel in a straight line
 Can be reflected and refracted.
 Can be polarized
 Has a velocity of 3.0 x108m/s in vacuum or air.
 Can travel through a vacuum.

RECTILINEAR PROPAGATION OF LIGHT

This is a property of light travelling in a straight line.

AN EXPERIMENT TO SHOW THAT LIGHT TRAVELS IN A STRAIGHT

LIGHT
Three cardboards with holes in their centres are set up so that their holes are in a
straight line. To ensure that the holes are in a straight line, a thread is passed through
them.
A candle is lit and then placed at one end of the cardboards. When observed from
the opposite end, the light is seen through the holes.
If one of the cardboards is displaced slightly, light is not seen. This shows that light
travels in a straight line.

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 APPLICATIONS/ USES OF RECTILINEAR PROPAGATION OF LIGHT
(i) It is used in the pin hole camera
(ii) It is used in the formation of shadows by opaque objects
(iii) It is used in the occurrence of eclipses

THE PIN-HOLE CAMERA

This is a camera which consists of closed box with a small hole on one face and

a screen on the opposite face.

The image of the object is formed on the screen.

PROPERTIES OF THE IMAGES FORMED IN A PIN-HOLE CAMERA

• It is upside down (inverted)
• It is real because is formed on the screen
Note: The image formed will be seen more clearly if the experiment is done in
a dark room with the camera facing a bright object outside.

EFFECTS OF THE SIZE OF THE HOLE OF A PIN HOLE CAMERA

If the size of the hole is increased, the image will be blurred and brighter. This is
because the bigger hole is equivalent to a group of small holes close together
where each hole produces its own image and these images overlap.

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 EFFECT OF HAVING TWO OR MORE HOLES
If there are two holes, two images will be formed because each hole forms its own
image.

MAGNIFICATION OF A PIN-HOLE CAMERA

Magnification is the ratio of image height (size) to object height.

Note: Magnification has no units. This is because it is a ratio of two similar units.

FACTORS AFFECTING THE SIZE OF THE IMAGE

(i) The distance of the object from the hole. The bigger the distance of the
object from the hole, the smaller the size of the image and vice versa.
(ii) The distance of the screen from the hole. The bigger the distance of the
screen from the hole, the bigger the image.
Note: The image may be diminished or magnified depending on the above factors.
EXAMPLES
1. An object of height 20cm is placed 10cm away from the hole of a pin hole
camera. If the screen of the camera is 2.5cm away from the hole, find;
(i) the magnification
(ii) the height of the image
Solution

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 2. Calculate the height of a building 300m away from the pin hole camera
which produces an image 2.5cm high if the distance between the screen
and the pin hole is 5cm.
Solution

EXERCISE
1. The length of a pinhole camera is 2.5cm. An object 2m high is placed
10m from the pin. Calculate the height of the image produced.
2. The length of a pinhole camera is 20cm. Determine the height of a storied
building 300m away from the pinhole if the image formed on the screen of
the pinhole camera is 2.5cm high.
3. The distance between the pin-hole and the screen of the pin-hole camera is
10cm. the height of the screen is 20cm. At what distance from the pin-hole
must a man 1.6m tall stand if a full length image is required?
4. An object of height 5m is placed 10m away from the pin hole camera.
Calculate the size of the image and the length of the pin-hole camera if the
magnification is 0.01?
5. The screen of a pin-hole camera is 20cm away from the pin-hole. A
student of height 1.6m stands 8m from the pin-hole. Find the height of
the student’s image.
6. An object 20cm high forms an image on a screen of the pin-hole camera. If
the distance between the object and screen is 24cm and the distance between
the object and the pin hole is 6cm find
(a) The magnification of the image.
(b) The size of the image

SHADOWS
A shadow is a region of darkness formed behind an opaque object when it obstructs
light.
When an opaque object is placed between a source of light and a screen, a
shadow is formed on the screen. This is because light travels in a straight line
and is not able to go round the object.

SHADOW FORMED BY A POINT SOURCE OF LIGHT

A point source is a very small source of light. It gives a sharp shadow which is
equally dark all over. This shadow is called umbra.
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 The point source can simply be made by putting a small hole in a tin inside which a
source of light is placed.

SHADOW FORMED BY AN EXTENDED SOURCE OF LIGHT

An extended source is a large source of light. It forms a fully dark shadow at
the central region surrounded by a partial dark shadow of an opaque object.
The fully dark shadow is the umbra and the partially dark shadow is the
penumbra.

ECLIPSES
An eclipse is a shadow formed on the moon or on the earth due to obstruction of
light from the sun.

TYPES OF ECLIPSES
There are mainly two eclipses;
(i) Solar eclipse (eclipse of the sun by the moon)
(ii) Lunar eclipse (eclipse of the moon)

SOLAR ECLIPSE (ECLIPSE OF THE SUN)

This type of eclipse includes the following;
(a) Total solar eclipse
(b) Annular solar eclipse

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 (a) TOTAL SOLAR ECLIPSE
An eclipse of the sun (solar eclipse) occurs when the moon passes between the sun
and the earth and all are in a straight line.
The shadow of the moon falls on
the earth. The sun acts as an
extended source of light.

At point A or C, a partial eclipse of the sun occurs i.e part of the sun is not seen.

At point B, total eclipse of the sun occurs i.e the sun cannot be seen at all.

At point D or E, no eclipse occurs i.e the sun is fully seen.

(b) ANNULAR SOLAR ECLIPSE

This is an eclipse of the sun which occurs when the moon is very far from the
earth and the tip of the umbra does not reach the earth.

It is caused by the fact that the moon does not move around the earth in a perfect
circle.
At point A, a partial eclipse of the sun occurs i.e only part of the sun is seen.

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 At point B, an annular eclipse is seen i.e only the outer part of the sun is seen but
the central region is hidden.

NOTE: A total eclipse seen from one place may last about seven (7) minutes.
In this time, the sky appears dark and stars can be seen although it is day.

LUNAR ECLIPSE (ECLIPSE OF THE MOON)

Lunar eclipse occurs when the earth is between the moon and the earth and the
three are in a straight line.

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 The shadow of the earth falls on the moon and the moon cannot be seen because it
receives no light for reflection.
At M1, total eclipse of the moon
occurs.At M2, partial eclipse of
the moon occurs. At M3, no
eclipse occurs.
Note: During eclipse of the moon (lunar eclipse), some small amount of light may
fall on the moon, making it visible as an outline.

REFLECTION OF LIGHT
This is the bouncing back of light rays from a shiny surface.
Reflection of light depends on the nature of the surface. The surface may be smooth
or rough.

TYPES OF REFLECTION
They include;
(i) Regular reflection
(ii) Irregular reflection or diffuse reflection

REGULAR REFLECTION
This is the type of reflection which occurs on a smooth surface.
In regular reflection, a parallel beam is reflected as a parallel beam.

IRREGULAR REFLECTION

This is the type of reflection which occurs on a rough surface.

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 In irregular reflection, a parallel beam of light is reflected in all directions.

TERMS USED IN REFLECTION

O is the point of
incidence i is the
angle of incidence r
is the angle of
reflection
(i) The incident ray
This is the ray that strikes the reflecting surface at the point incidence.
(ii) The reflected ray
This is the ray that is bounced off the reflecting surface at the point of incidence.
(iii) The normal: Is a line drawn perpendicular to the reflecting surface at the
point of incidence.
(iv) Angle of incidence ( i )
This is the angle between the incident ray and the normal at the point of incidence.
(v) Angle of reflection ( r )
This is the angle between the reflected ray and the normal at the point incidence.

THE LAWS OF REFLECTION OF LIGHT

There are two laws of reflection:
(i) The incident ray, the normal and the reflected ray at the point of
incidence all lie in the same plane.
(ii) The angle of incidence is equal to the angle of reflection.
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 AN EXPERIMENT TO VERIFY THE LAWS OF REFLECTION
Procedure
 The white sheet of paper is fixed on a soft board and a straight horizontal
line AOB is drawn on the paper at its centre.
 A perpendicular line ON is drawn at a point O using a protractor to
represent the normal. Using a protractor, an angle i = 20 0 is measured
and a line XO is drawn.
 Pins P1 and P2 are fixed vertically on line XO and a plane mirror is set up on
AOB vertically with its reflecting surface facing the pins.
 Looking through the mirror, two pins P3 and P4 are fixed on the opposite
side of ON such that they appear to be in a straight line with I1 and I2,
the images of P1 and P2 respectively as seen from side Y.
 A line OY is drawn through P3 and P4 and the angle of reflection r is
measured and recorded.
 The experiment is repeated for values if i = 30 0 ,40 ,50 ,60 , 70 and the
results are recorded in a table.

 It is observed that each values of angle of incidence i equals its angle of

reflection, r .
 It is also observed that the incident rays, the reflected rays and the normal
all lie in the same plane on the paper.
This verifies the laws of reflection of light.

IMAGE FORMATION IN PLANE MIRRORS

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 The image of an object in front of a plane mirror is formed behind the mirror.
Rays from the object are reflected by the mirror and appear to be coming from
behind the mirror.
The images are thus virtual because they are formed by an apparent intersection of

rays and cannot be formed on a screen.

Definitions
(i) A real image is an image formed by actual intersection of light rays and
can be formed on a screen.
(ii) A virtual image is an image formed by apparent intersection of light rays
and cannot be formed on a screen.
LATERAL INVERSION
This is the tendency of left and right hand sides of an image to be interchanged in a
plane mirror.
For example, if you close your right eye, your image in a plane mirror seems to

have closed the left eye. This is because of lateral inversion of the image.

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 PROPERTIES OF IMAGES FORMED IN PLANE MIRRORS
(i) The image is of the same size as the object
(ii) The image is at the same distance behind the mirror as the object in front of
the mirror.
(iii) The image is laterally inverted.
(iv) The image is virtual.
(v) The image is upright (erect).

IMAGES FORMED IN TWO INCLINED PLANE MORRORS

If the angle between two plane mirrors M1 and M2 is then the number (n) of
images seen is given by;
360
𝑛= −1
𝜃
EXAMPLES
1. Find the number of images seen when two plane mirrors are inclined at;
(i) 90̊

(ii) 60̊
(iii) 45̊
(iv) 120̊
(v) 30
2. When two plane mirrors are inclined at an angle to each other, 7 images
are formed. Find the angle of inclination of the mirrors.

USES OF PLANE MIRRORS

(i) They are used in periscopes
(ii) They are used in kaleidoscopes
(iii) They are used in salons as shaving and make-up mirrors
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 (iv) They are used in sextants
(v) They are used as dressing mirrors

THE PERISCOPE
This is an instrument used to see objects over obstacles.
It consists of a long tube containing two plane mirrors fixed and facing each other
angles of 450 to the line joining them
At each reflection, light from the object is turned through 90 0 such that the final
image appears upright.

Question
In the diagram below, B is a boy and G is a girl all standing in front of a plane

mirror.
If the girl is 8m from the boy’s image, how far is G from B?
Question
Give four examples where a periscope is used.

THE KALEIDOSCOPE
The kaleidoscope consists of two strips of plane mirrors M1 and M2 about 15cm
long, placed at an angle of 60 0 a tube. At the bottom of the tube is a ground-glass
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 plate to let in light.
Small pieces of brightly coloured glass are scattered on the ground glass plate.
These pieces of coloured glass act as objects and on looking down the tube, five
images are seen, which together with the object from a symmetrical pattern in six
sectors.
Every time the tube is shaken to rearrange the pieces, more new patterns are formed.
PARALLEL MIRRORS
If two plane mirrors are placed parallel to each other and an object is placed
between them, an infinite number of images is formed since the angle of inclination is
zero

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