NOTES PREPARED BY MR.

OMONDI

STRUCTURE AND BONDING

A Chemical Bond is the mutual force of attraction that holds the particles of atoms of the same

or different elements together.

Structure is a regular pattern in which chemical bonds hold the particles of a substance together.

Atoms of other elements achieve the stable electron arrangement of noble gases by gaining,

losing or sharing the valence electrons. The attraction between unlike charges and repulsion

forces between like charges forms an important basis in bonding.

Ionic Bond (electrovalent bond) is the electrostatic force of attraction between ions with

opposite charges.

An ionic bond is formed when there is complete transfer of valence electrons from one atom to

another resulting in two ions with opposite charges which mutually attract one another.

The resulting compound is known as an ionic compound.

Generally, the reaction between metals and non-metals results in the formation of ionic

compounds. For example, sodium reacts with chlorine to form sodium chloride. The sodium

atom reacts by losing its single valence electron to the chlorine atom. The resulting sodium

particle has 10 electrons and 11 protons. This results in the formation of a sodium ion with a net

positive charge, Na + . The chlorine atom on the other hand, accepts the electron donated by the

sodium atom into its outermost energy level. Thus the chloride ion formed has net negative

charge, Cl - . The sodium ion with a net positive charge and the chloride ion with a net negative
charge attract each other in an ionic bond and the resulting compound is referred to as an ionic

compound .

Other examples of ionic compounds include potassium fluoride, magnesium oxide and

magnesium chloride .

Giant Ionic Structures Substances with ionic bonds are crystals with giant ionic structures.

A crystal is a solid form of a substance in which the particles are arranged in a definite pattern

repeated regularly in three dimensions.

Most ionic substances are crystalline in nature.

For example, the sodium chloride structure consists of many sodium ions and chloride ions that

are arranged and packed in a regular pattern.

Each sodium ion is surrounded by six chloride ions that are equidistant from it. Similarly, each

chloride ion is surrounded by six sodium ions.

This pattern repeats itself many times in all directions. The result is the formation of a giant ionic

structure.

Other examples of i

onic substances with giant ionic structures include potassium nitrate, sodium iodide, potassium

bromide and calcium nitrate.

Discussion Questions 1. Comment on the solubility of ionic substances in water.

ANSWER Most ionic substances dissolve in water because they are made up of oppositely

charged ions which are attracted by the polar water molecules.

2. Explain why the melting and boiling points of ionic compounds are generally high.
ANSWER Ionic substances have high melting and boiling points. This is because ionic bonds

are strong .

Melting and boiling involve breaking these ionic bonds. A lot of heat energy is required to break

the bonds.

3. Explain why ionic compounds conduct electricity in the molten state and in aqueous solution

but not in the solid state.

ANSWER Ionic compounds do not conduct electricity in the solid state .

This is because the ions forming the structure are not mobile but occupy fixed positions in the

structure .

In the molten state or aqueous solutions, the ions are mobile within the molten liquid or solution

and therefore conduct electricity.

Ionic substances conduct electricity by use of molten ions.

2. Covalent and Co-ordinate Bond

Covalent bond

A covalent bond is a bond formed when the combining atoms share a pair (or pairs) of electrons

between them , each donating an electron to the shared pair.

Covalent bonding occurs when atoms of non-metals combine. The combining atoms could be of

the same element or from different elements.

It is common in molecules . Substances with covalent bonds either have molecular or giant

atomic structures.
A molecule is a group of atoms (two or more) of the same or different elements that are held

together by strong covalent bonds .

Substances consisting of molecules include water, most gases, sugar, oils, fats, naphthalene,

paraffin wax and sulphur.

Substances consisting of molecules are referred to as molecular substances. For example, two

hydrogen atoms can combine to form a hydrogen molecule.

Each hydrogen atom has only one electron in its occupied energy level.

It therefore needs to gain one electron to attain the stable electron arrangement of 2 helium

(duplet state).

Since the combing atoms are of the same element, none would readily lose an electron to the

other.

The atoms therefore end up sharing a pair of electrons, each atom contributing an electron to the

shared pair.

The covalent bond formed by the two hydrogen atoms in a hydrogen molecule can also be

represented as follows.

The single line ( - ) between the hydrogen atoms represents a covalent bond consisting of a

shared pair of electrons.

A single shared pair of electrons is represented by a single line ( - ) and is called a single

covalent bond e.g. H - H.

Two8 shared pairs of electrons are represented by two lines (=) and are called a double covalent

bond e.g. O=O Three shared pairs of electrons are represented by three lines thus: ( ≡ ) and are

referred to as a triple covalent bond e.g. N ≡ N. When drawing the structures, only the valence
electrons are shown. Other examples of substances which are covalently bonded include: (i)

Water molecule,

Chlorine molecule, Cl 2 (iii) Oxygen molecule, O2 (iv) Nitrogen molecule, N 2 (v) Ammonia,

NH 3

(vi) Carbon (IV) oxide, CO 2

Co-ordinate Bond (Dative bond) A co-ordinate bond is a type of a covalent bond in which the

shared pair of electrons forming the bond is contributed by only one of the atoms forming the

bond .

Examples of substances which have coordinate bonds include ammonium ion (NH 4 + ) ;carbon

(II) oxide, CO, ;hydroxonium ion, H 3 O + ;Ozone, O 3, aluminum chloride dimer, Al 2 Cl 6 and

nitric (v) acid, HNO 3 (i) Ammonium ion (NH 4 + ). In the case of ammonium ion, the pair of

electrons forming the co-ordinate bond is contributed by the ammonia molecule.

A hydrogen ion (H + ) and an ammonia molecule (NH 3 ) combine to form an ammonium ion

(NH 4 + ). The hydrogen ion has no electron around its nucleus

. On the other hand, the ammonia molecule has an unshared pair of valence electrons that has not

been used in bonding.

When the hydrogen ion combines with the ammonia molecule, the hydrogen ion accepts the pair

of electrons into its empty first energy level.

The total number of protons in the ammonium ion is more than the total number of electrons

resulting in a net positive charge. (ii) Carbon (II) oxide. In carbon (II) oxide, Oxygen donates

one of its two unshared pairs of electrons to form a co-ordinate bond with the carbon atom. A

carbon atom has four valence electrons and therefore needs to gain four electrons to fill its

outermost energy level. Oxygen on the other hand has six valence electrons and needs two
electrons to attain the stable configuration of 2.8. The oxygen atom and the carbon atom in

carbon (II) oxide form two covalent bonds and a co-ordinate bond. (iii) Hydroxonium ion

(H3O+) In hydroxonium ion, a water molecule donates one of its unshared pair of electrons to

form a coordinate bond with the hydrogen ion. The resulting ion has a net positive charge as

shown below. (iv) Aluminium chloride dimer. Two aluminium chloride molecules then combine

through coordinate bonds to form a dimer as shown below. (v) Ozone, O 3 (vi) Nitric (V) acid ,

HNO 3 Molecular Structures Most molecular substances are gases or liquids at room

temperature.

Discussion Question: Using the structure of iodine, differentiate between a covalent bond and

Van der waals forces. Van der Waals forces are weak forces of attraction between molecules or

atoms which exist only when the particles are close together.

In molecules such as iodine, the atoms forming the molecules are held together by strong

covalent bonds.

The molecules in the solid substance are in turn held together in a regular pattern by weak van

der Waals forces.

The regular pattern repeats itself many times resulting to a molecular structure as shown below.

The van der Waals forces hold the iodine molecules together in layers.

This arrangement explains the flaky nature of iodine crystals. Physical Properties of Substances

with Molecular Structures.

The table below gives the physical properties of molecular substances.

Discussion Questions 1. Give the reasons why molecular substances are poor conductors of

electricity?. This is because they have structures composed of molecules.

There are no ions or delocalised electrons in the structures to enable them to conduct electricity.
2. What is the general trend in the melting and boiling points in relation to the molecular masses?

Molecular substances have low melting and boiling points .

Although the atoms forming a molecule are held by strong covalent bonds, the intermolecular

forces are usually the weak van der Waals forces.

As melting and boiling involves breaking the weak van der Waals forces, the melting and boiling

points are low. Melting and boiling points of molecular substances increase with the increase in

relative molecular mass. 3. Explain the effect of hydrogen bonds on melting and boiling points of

molecular substances

Although the melting point and boiling point of molecular substances increases with increase in

molecular mass, some substances however, display a disparity. For example, water (H 2 O) with

relative molecular mass of 18 has a higher melting point of (°C) than hydrogen sulphide with a

relative molecular mass 34 and a melting point of - 85°C. In water the molecules are held

together by hydrogen bonds while molecules in H 2 S are held by the weak van der Waals forces.

STRUCTURE and BONDING 11 A hydrogen bond is an intermolecular force in which the

electropositive hydrogen atom of one molecule is attracted to an electronegative atom of another

molecule . In water, the electropositive hydrogen of one molecule is attracted to the

electronegative oxygen of another molecule. A hydrogen bond is stronger than the van der Waals

forces but weaker than a covalent bond. The influence of hydrogen bonding on the physical

properties of molecular substances is also illustrated by ethanol (C 2 H 5 OH) and dimethyl ether

(C 2 H 6 O).

Both substances have the same relative mass, 46. However, dimethyl ether boils at - 24°C while

ethanol boils at 78.4°C.

the weaker van der Waals forces. 4. State and explain the differences in the solubility of

molecular substances? Most molecular substances are insoluble in water.

However, some such as sugar, ethanol and ethanoic acid are soluble due to the presence of

hydrogen bonding. Giant Covalent Structure (Giant Atomic structures ) A giant covalent

structure is a structure that consists of an indefinite number of atoms which are all covalently

bonded together. The pattern repeats itself and extends in all directions . Substances with giant

atomic structures include diamond, graphite and silicon (IV) oxide. Diamond Diamond is an

allotrope of carbon. Allotropes are different forms of an element in the same physical state.

In the structure of diamond each carbon atom is bonded to other carbon atoms by strong covalent

bonds. The carbon atoms in diamond form an octahedral structure as shown below. The pattern

repeats itself in all directions resulting in a giant atomic structure. In diamond, all the valence

electrons of each carbon atom are used in bonding.

There are therefore no delocalised electrons in the structure. Thus, diamond is a poor conductor

of heat and electricity.

Diamond is the hardest known substance . This is because all the bonds in diamond are strong

covalent bonds and the atoms in the structure are closely packed . For this reasons its melting

point is very high (3700°C) Graphite Each carbon atom in graphite is bonded to three other

carbon atoms. Because only three of the four valence electrons in each atom are used in bonding,

the forth valence electron is delocalized in the structure.

The structure of graphite consists of layers in which the carbon atoms are held together by strong

covalent bonds forming hexagonal arrangement as shown below. Each layer is held to the other

by van der Waals forces. The presence of delocalised electrons in the structure of graphite
explains its electrical conductivity . Layers of graphite are held together by van der Waals forces,

therefore easily slide over each other when pressed and this gives graphite its slippery feel .

Silicon (IV) Oxide Silicon has four electrons in its outer occupied energy level. Each silicon

atom is bonded covalently to four oxygen atoms forming a giant covalent structure as below. .

The Metallic Bond Metallic bond is the electrostatic force of attraction between the positive

nuclei and the delocalised valence electrons in the metallic structure. In a metallic structure there

are many atoms surrounding any one atom. The valence electrons are therefore mutually

attracted to many nuclei. This gives rise to a situation where the positive nuclei appear to be

immersed in a sea of mobile electrons. The mobile electrons in the structure are said to be

delocalised. Metallic bonds are strong bonds. The pattern is repeated many times resulting in a

giant metallic structure. Physical Properties of Metals The table below gives a summary of some

physical properties of metals.

Discussion Questions

1. Why are metals good conductors of electricity? All metals are good conductors of both heat

and electricity. This is because there are delocalised electrons in the metallic structure.

2. Thermal and electrical conductivity increases with the increased number of delocalised

electrons from each atom in the structure.

3. This explains why aluminium is a better conductor than magnesium.

2. Explain why Metals have high melting points. Metals have relatively high melting and boiling

points. This is because the metallic bond is a strong bond.

3. Explain why potassium has a lower melting point than lithium.

The melting point of lithium is higher than that of potassium because lithium has a smaller

atomic size than potassium, therefore it has a stronger metallic bond.

melting point and boiling point than magnesium.

This is because aluminium has a smaller atomic size than magnesium therefore it has stronger

metallic bonds.

Aluminium also has more delocalized electrons than magnesium which also contribute to the

strength of the metallic bond.

4. Aluminium is a better electrical and thermal conductor than magnesium. Explain. Thermal

and electrical conductivity increases with the increased number of delocalised electrons from

each atom in the structure. This explains why aluminium is a better conductor than

magnesium. Types of Bonds Across a Period Bond types vary from metallic to covalent

across a period. The structures also vary from giant metallic, giant covalent to molecular. It

is expected that similar compounds of the elements in period 3 will exhibit variation in bond

types, structure and properties. This can be illustrated by studying the bond types and

properties of oxides and chlorides of elements in period 3. Oxides of Elements in Period 3

● The elements in period 3 form oxides when they react with oxygen.

● The oxides of sodium and magnesium dissolve in water to form alkaline solutions.

● Aluminum oxide does not dissolve in water.

● The oxides of the non-metals dissolve in water to form acidic solutions, however silicon (IV)

oxide does not dissolve in water.

● Oxides of sodium and magnesium react with acids to form a salt and water.

● Aluminium oxide reacts with both acids and alkalis and therefore it is an amphoteric oxide .

● Oxides of the non-metals do not react with acids but react with alkalis. ● All the oxides of

elements in period 3 except those of sulphur and chlorine are solids . Sulphur (IV) oxide is a gas
at room temperature. Several gaseous oxides of chlorine do exist, however they cannot be

prepared in the laboratory.

Discussion Questions

1. Explain why sulphur (IV) oxide is a gas at room temperature.

ANSWER The atoms of sulphur and oxygen are held together by covalent bonds but the

molecules of sulphur (IV) oxide are attracted to each other by weak van der Waals forces.

2. Why is the melting point of magnesium oxide higher than that of sodium oxide?

ANSWER Both sodium oxide and magnesium oxide have a giant ionic structure.

However, the melting point of magnesium oxide is higher because the electrostatic forces

of attraction between magnesium ions and oxide ions are stronger. This is due to the fact

that the magnesium ion has a charge of + 2 and is smaller in size than the sodium ion.

3. Explain the high melting and boiling points of silicon (IV) oxide.

ANSWER Silicon (IV) oxide has a giant covalent structure. Each silicon atom is attached

to four oxygen atoms and each oxygen atom is attached to two silicon atoms. Silicon uses

all its valency electrons to form strong covalent bonds with oxygen. The covalent bonds

in silicon are extra ordinarily strong. This explains the high melting point of silicon

(2231°C).

4. What is the general trend in the bond types of the oxides of elements across period 3?

ANSWER In general the bond types change from ionic to covalent across the period.

The structure of the oxides changes from giant ionic, to giant atomic and finally to

molecular. This explains the trends in properties of the oxides. Chlorides of Elements in

Period 3 Most elements of period 3 form stable chlorides.

variation across the period as shown in the table below.

Discussion Questions Explain how the chlorides of elements in Period 3 dissolve in water.

● Sodium chloride dissolves in water resulting in a slight drop in temperature. Magnesium

chloride dissolves readily with a small increase in temperature. Both chlorides form neutral

solutions. These chlorides are ionic and therefore fully dissociate into ions.

● Anhydrous aluminium chloride differs from the other metallic chlorides because it exists in

molecular form. Aluminium combines with chlorine by forming covalent bonds to form a

molecule of aluminium chloride (Al 2 Cl 3 ). Two aluminium chloride molecules then combine

through coordinate bonds to form a dimer as shown below. Formation of a dimer in aluminium

chloride Aluminium chloride is hydrolysed by water to form an acidic solution and therefore

behaves as a covalent rather than an ionic chloride. Hydrolysis is a reaction that involves

breaking down a substance by water. Molecular chlorides undergo hydrolysis .

● Silicon (IV) chloride is also hydrolysed by water to form a solution which is acidic. Alot of

heat is given out and fumes of hydrogen chloride gas are given out. Silicon (IV) chloride + Water

Silicon (IV) Oxide + Hydrogen chloride SiCl 4 (l) + 2H 2 O (l) SiO 2 (s) + 4HCl(aq)

● Phosphorus (III) chloride or phosphorus (V) chloride react vigorously with water to form

an acidic solution. A lot of heat is also evolved and this makes the temperature of the water to

rise. Phosphorus (III) chloride + Water Phosphorous acid + Hydrogen chloride PCl 3 (s) + 3H 2

O(l) H 3 PO 3 (s) + 3HCl(g) Phosphorus (V) chloride + Water Phosphoric acid + hydrogen

chloride PCl 5 ( s) + 4H 2 O(l) H 3 PO 4 (aq) + 5HCl

SAMPLE QUESTIONS
1. 2006 Q 5 P1 The atomic numbers of elements C and D are 19 and 9 respectively.

State and explain the electrical conductivity of the compound CD in:

(a) Solid state (1½marks)

(b) aqueous state. (1½ marks)

2. 2006 Q 20 P1 (a) Distinguish between a covalent bond and a co-ordinate bond. (2 marks)

(b) Draw a diagram to show bonding in an ammonium ion. (1 mark)

3. 2006 Q21 P1 (a) Explain why the metals magnesium and aluminium are good conductors of

electricity. (1 mark)

(b) Other than cost, give two reasons why aluminium is used for making electric cables while

magnesium is not. (2 marks)

4. 2007 Q 3b P2 Both chlorine and iodine are halogens. (a) What are halogens? (1mark)

(b) In terms of structure and bonding, explain why the boiling point of chlorine is lower than that

of iodine. (2 marks)

Give a reason. (2 marks)

7. 2008 Q 11 P1 The table below gives atomic numbers of elements represented by the letters A,

B, C and D. Element A B C D Atomic number 15 16 17 20 Use the information to answer the

questions that follow.

(a) Name the type of bonding that exists in the compound formed when A and D react (1 mark)

(b) Select the letter which represents the best oxidizing agent. Give a reason for your answer. (2

marks)

2009 Q 5 P1 In terms of structure and bonding, explain why the melting point of oxygen is much

lower than that of sodium. (3 marks)

(a) The compound formed when nitrogen reacts with fluorine. (Atomic numbers F= 9, N=7) (2

marks)

(b) Sodium oxide. (Atomic numbers Na = 11, O= 8) (1 mark)

2010 Q 27 P1 The atomic numbers of phosphorus, sulphur and potassium are 15, 16 and 19

respectively. The formulae of their ions are P 3- , S 2- and K + .

These ions have the same number of electrons.

(a) Write the electron arrangement for the ions. (1 mark)

(b) Arrange the ions in the order of increasing ionic radius starting with the smallest. Give a

reason for the order. (2 marks)

28. 2018 Q11 P1 Element U has atomic number 12 while element V has atomic number 16. How

do the melting points of their oxides compare?

Explain. (3 marks)

29. 2019 P1 Q8. Table 1 shows the properties of two chlorides, D and E.

Table 1 Chloride Melting Points(°C) Electrical Conductivity(liquid)

D 1074 Good

E 203 Poor

(a) State the type of bond present in:

(i) D ....................... (1 mark)

(ii) E ....................... (1 mark)

(b) Explain in terms of structure and bonding, the difference in electrical activity of the chlorides

D and E. (1 mark)
 THE END