PART 2

Individual Behaviors
and Processes in
Organizations

CHAPTER 5

Motivating
Behavior

Chapter Learning Objectives

After studying this chapter you should be able to:

1. Characterize the nature of motivation, including its

importance and basic historical perspectives.
2. Identify and describe the need-based perspectives on
motivation.
3. Identify and describe the major process-based
perspectives on motivation.
4. Describe learning-based perspectives on motivation.

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The Nature of Motivation

• Motivation
–The set of forces that leads people to behave in
particular ways
• The Importance of Motivation
–Job performance (P) depends upon motivation (M),
ability (A), and environment (E)
•P = M + A + E

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 © 2019 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part, except for use as
permitted in a license distributed with a certain product or service or otherwise on a password-protected website for classroom use.

The Motivational Framework

• How Motivational Processes Occur:

–Need: anything an individual requires or wants
–Need deficiency: triggers attempts to satisfy the need
–Goal-directed behaviors result from individuals trying
to satisfy their need deficiencies
–Rewards and punishments are consequences of the
goal-directed behavior
–Reassessment of need deficiency occurs after the
person assesses the extent to which the outcome
addressed the original need deficiency

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Historical Perspectives on Motivation

• The Traditional Approach

–“Scientific Management” (Frederick Taylor) assumes
that employees are motivated solely by money
• The Human Relations Approach
–Assumes employees’ needs outweigh money and that
fostering favorable employee attitudes (the illusion of
involvement) results in motivation
• The Human Resource Approach
–Assumes people want to make genuine contributions;
managers should encourage their participation by
providing the proper working environment conditions

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 Self-Efficacy
The Three Dimensions of Self-Efficacy
Magnitude Beliefs about how difficult a task can be
accomplished
Strength Beliefs about how confident the person is that
the task can be accomplished
Generality Beliefs about the degree to which similar tasks
can be accomplished

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permitted in a license distributed with a certain product or service or otherwise on a password-protected website for classroom use.

Need-Based Perspectives on Motivation

• Need-Based Theories of Motivation
–Assume that need deficiencies cause behavior
• The Hierarchy of Needs (Maslow)
–Assumes that human needs are arranged in a
hierarchy of importance
• Basic (or deficiency) needs
– Physiological
– Security
– Belongingness
• Growth needs
– Esteem
– Self-actualization

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 Need-Based Perspectives… (cont’d)

• ERG Theory (Alderfer)

–Describes existence (E), relatedness (R), and
growth (G) needs
• Assumptions:
–More than one need may motivate a person at the
same time
–Satisfaction-progression and frustration-regression
components imply that a person may not stay at the
same level of need in Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs

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Need-Based Perspectives… (cont’d)

• Herzberg’s Two-Factor (Dual-Structure) Theory

–Assumes that motivation, as a construct, has two
separate dimensions:
• Motivation factors which affect satisfaction
• Hygiene factors which determine dissatisfaction
–Assumes motivation occurs through job enrichment
once hygiene factors are addressed
–Criticisms:
• May be both method and culture bound
• Fails to account for individual differences
• Factors (e.g., pay) may affect both dimensions

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 Needs-Based Perspectives… (cont’d)

• Acquired Needs Framework (McClelland)

–The Need for Achievement
• The desire to accomplish a task or goal more effectively than
was done in the past

–The Need for Affiliation

• The need for human companionship

–The Need for Power

• The desire to control the resources in one’s environment

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Process-Based Perspectives on Motivation

• Focus of Process-Based Perspectives

–Why people choose certain behavioral options to
satisfy their needs
–How people evaluate their satisfaction after they
have attained these goals

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Process-Based Perspectives… (cont’d)

• The Equity Theory of Motivation

– Focuses on the desire to be treated with equity and to
avoid perceived inequity
• Equity is a perceptual belief that one is being treated fairly in
relation to others
• Inequity is a perceptual belief that one is being treated unfairly
in relation to others

• The Equity Comparison

Outcomes (self) Outcomes (other)
compared with
Inputs (self) Inputs (other)

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 © 2019 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part, except for use as
permitted in a license distributed with a certain product or service or otherwise on a password-protected website for classroom use.

Process-Based Perspectives… (cont’d)

• The Expectancy Theory of Motivation (Vroom)

–Motivation depends on how much we want something
and how likely we think we are to get it
• Key Components
Effort-to-performance The perceived probability that effort will
expectancy lead to performance
Performance-to-outcome The perceived probability that performance
expectancy will lead to certain outcomes
Outcome Anything that results from performing
a behavior
Valence The degree of attractiveness or
unattractiveness (value) that a particular
outcome has for a person
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 Process-Based Perspectives…(cont’d)

• The Porter-Lawler Model

–Focuses on the relationship between satisfaction and
performance
–Assumes that:
• If rewards are adequate, high levels of performance may lead
to satisfaction
• Satisfaction is determined by the perceived equity of intrinsic
(intangible) and extrinsic (tangible) rewards for performance

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Guidelines for Using Expectancy Theory

• Determine the primary outcomes each employee wants

• Decide what levels/kinds of performance are needed to
meet organizational goals
• Make sure the desired levels of performance are
possible
• Link desired outcomes and desired performance
• Analyze the situation for conflicting expectancies
• Make sure the rewards are large enough
• Make sure the overall system is equitable for everyone

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 Learning-Based Perspectives on Motivation

• Learning
–A relatively permanent change in behavior or
behavioral potential resulting from direct or indirect
experience
• How Learning Occurs
–Traditional View: Classical Conditioning
• A simple form of learning that links a conditioned response
with an unconditioned stimulus
–Contemporary View: Learning as a Cognitive Process
• Assumes people are conscious, active participants in how
they learn

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Learning-Based Perspectives… (cont’d)

• Reinforcement Theory and Learning

–Operant Conditioning (Skinner)
• Behavior is a function of its consequences
• Reinforcement is the consequence of behavior
–Types of Reinforcement
Positive reinforcement A reward or other desirable consequence that
a person receives after exhibiting behavior

Negative reinforcement The opportunity to avoid or escape from an

(avoidance) unpleasant circumstance after exhibiting behavior

Extinction Decreases the frequency of behavior by

eliminating a reward or desirable consequence
that follows that behavior

Punishment An unpleasant or aversive consequence that

results from behavior
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 Learning-Based Perspectives… (cont’d)

• Social Learning in Organizations

–Occurs when people observe the behaviors of others,
recognize their consequences, and alter their own
behavior as a result
–Conditions for social learning:
• Behavior being observed and imitated must be relatively
simple
• Observed and imitated behavior must be concrete, not
intellectual
• Learner must have the physical ability to imitate the observed
behavior

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Learning-Based Perspectives… (cont’d)

• Organizational Behavior Modification (OB Mod)

–The application of reinforcement theory to people in
organizational settings

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Schedules of Reinforcement

SCHEDULE OF NATURE OF
REINFORCEMENT REINFORCEMENT
Continuous Behavior is reinforced every time it occurs
Fixed-Interval Behavior is reinforced according to some
predetermined, constant schedule based on time
Variable-Interval Behavior is reinforced after periods of time, but the
time span varies from one time to the next
Fixed-Ratio Behavior is reinforced according to the number of
behaviors exhibited, with the number of behaviors
needed to gain reinforcement held constant

Variable-Ratio Behavior is reinforced according to the number of

behaviors exhibited, but the number of behaviors
needed to gain reinforcement varies from one time to
the next

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 Organizational Behavior in Action

• After reading this chapter:

–Which intrinsic needs does happiness at work fulfill
for employees?
–What examples from your own experience support
Maslow’s hierarchy of needs theory? Refute it?
–On what occasions have you experienced each of the
four types of reinforcement?

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