Alternating Current (AC Theory)

An alternating current is one in which the current changes periodically. AC is important for
many reasons, but the primary reasons have to do with power technology and transmission and
processing of information. Power distribution systems, radio, television, satellite communication
systems etc. would be impossible without alternating emf’s. It can be represented by a sine curve
called sinusoidal waveform.

V0

0 t/s

V against t

I0

0 t/s

I against t

The form of alternating currents and voltages

An alternating current is produced by an alternating voltage source. The simplest of these

voltages are the sinusoidal ones, ie those that vary like a sine curve with constant amplitude and
frequency in such a way that they may be represented as V = V0sin ωt or V = V0sin 2πft where
V0 is the peak or maximum emf or amplitude voltage, ω is the angular velocity or frequency
expressed in radians per second, and f is the frequency expressed in hertz. Also ωt = phase angle.
The symbol for the source of alternating emf is and such a device is called an
alternating generator or alternator. If an alternating current varies sinusoidically with time, it
could be represented by the equation I = I0sin ωt or I = I0 sin 2πft. Similarly, I is the current at

1
 time t, I0 is the peak or maximum current or I = I0 sin (ωt+ϕ) = I0 sin (2πft+ϕ) where (ωt+ϕ) is the
phase of the current and ϕ is the phase angle.

Characteristics of AC Circuits

Cycle :- A cycle of wave is the portion which is repeated to form a continuous trace

Frequency:- This is the number of complete cycles of revolutions in a second. This is measured
in hertz (Hz). In Ghana power is transmitted at a frequency of 50 Hz while in the USA and other
developed countries, it is 60 Hz.

Period:- It is the time taken to complete one full cycle. It is measured in seconds. The frequency
1
of the wave and the period are related by the equation: T = 𝑓.

Peak current I0: This is the maximum current recorded in the flow of alternating current.

Mean Current:- This is the average value of current in an ac circuit.

Root-mean-square Current (Irms): The rms value of an alternating current is that direct current
which when passed through a pure resistor, dissipates power at the same rate

Or

RMS current is that steady current which will develop the same quantity of heat in the same time
𝐼
in the same resistance. The r.m.s. value for current is given by 0 = 0.707I0
√2

The effective value or rms value of ac

Although alternating currents and voltages are continuously changing, for practical purposes, it is
necessary to have a measure of their magnitude. The heating effect which is exhibited equally
well by both a.c and d.c current is used to determine the effective or rms value of a.c. Just as in
the case of dc., the rate at which energy is dissipated in a resistor by heating when an alternating
current passes is given by P = IV = I2R ……………1

For ac the instantaneous power dissipated is P = 𝐼02 R sin2ωt

The variation of power, P, with time is shown in the diagram below

Sin2ωt

t/s

T/2 T 2
Considering the average power dissipated in this resistor over one period of current alternation.
The average value of sin2ωt is ½. Therefore the average power dissipated is

P= 𝐼02 R (sin2ωt)av = 𝐼02 R/2. V = V0 sin 2πft = V0 sin ωt. Since ω= 2πf
𝑉 𝑉 sin 𝜔𝑡 𝑉
Analysing this with dc, P is written as I =.𝑅 = 0 𝑅 = I0 sin ωt since the quantity 𝑅0 = I0 is the peak
2 current. But P = I2R = 𝐼02 R sin2 ωt. The quantity sin2 ωt
P = R𝐼𝑒𝑓𝑓 = R𝐼02 /2 where 𝐼𝑒𝑓𝑓
2
= 𝐼02 /2
varies between 0 and 1 and its average value is ½. Therefore
P = ½𝐼02 R. Since power can also be written as
Or 𝑉02
P = V2/R = sin2ωt. We also have that the average power is
𝑅
Ieff = I0/√2 = 0.707I0 𝑉2
P = ½ 𝑅0 . The average or mean value of the square of the
current or voltage is thus what is important for calculating
1 1
average power 𝐼𝑎𝑣2
= 2 𝐼02 and 𝑉𝑎𝑣
2
= 2 𝑉02 . Since P/R = I2 and

OR PR = V2. The square root of each of these is the rms (root-

mean-square) value of the current or voltage.
𝐼2 𝑉2
Irms = √ 20 =I0/√2 =0.707I0 and Vrms=√ 20 =V0/√2 = 0.707V0

The effective current Ieff is known as the root-mean-square (rms) value. This is because 𝐼02 /2 is
the mean of the square of the current over one period. Thus Irms = I0/√2 = Ieff
Similarly, Veff = V0/√2 = Vrms
It is always the practice to express voltages and currents in ac circuits in terms of their r.m.s.
values. Thus, if power supply voltage is quoted as 230V, this means that Vrms = 230V. The actual
voltage lies between V0 and –V0 where the voltage amplitude or peak voltage has maximum
value V0.
V0 = Vrms x √2 = 230 x √2 = 325V
. Alternating Currents in Resistors, capacitors and Inductors

VC C
V VR R V V VL L

fig 1 fig 2 fig 3

3
Resistance (R) by definition is the opposition to current flow in an ac circuit with the dissipation
of energy and is measured in Ohms. Capacitors on other hand oppose current flow like a resistor,
but a resistor dissipates energy, whereas a capacitor stores energy (when it charges) and then
gives back its energy into circuit (when it discharges). Because of this difference, a new term had
to be used to describe the opposition offered by a capacitor.

Capacitive reactance (Xc), by definition, is the opposition to current flow in an ac circuit without
the dissipation of energy, and is also measured in Ohms.

Inductive reactance (XL) is also the opposition to current flow in an ac circuit offered by an
inductor without the dissipation of energy. It is measured in Ohms. Taking into consideration fig
1 above, when an ac voltage VR is applied across a resistor R, a current I flows in it so that V=IR.
Clearly, from the relation V=IR, when voltage is maximum, the current will also be maximum.
When voltage is zero, current is zero as well, just as shown in the diagram below.

VR, IR

V0

I0

¼T ½T ¾T T

Phase Diagram

IR VR Pure resistance (ϴ =0, IR and VR are in phase )

It could be clearly seen from the diagram above that voltage reaches its peak at the same time as
current, they are therefore said to be in phase.

From Ohms law, V=IR

𝑉
Thus the current is given by I = 𝑅

If we put VR=V0sinωt, then the current is also given by

𝑉 𝑉0 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜔𝑡
IR = =
𝑅 𝑅

𝑉0
But = I0
𝑅
4
The equations for the above diagrams then becomes

IR = I0 sinωt = I0sin2πft

The voltmeter and ammeter connected in the circuit will read the rms values of the voltage and
𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠
current. Hence, we can also write as Irms = I = 𝑅

Both current and voltage have the same frequency, but V0= I0R, where V0 and I0 are the peak
values of voltage and current.

From I0 =Irms√2 and V0= Vrms√2

𝑉0 𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠
The resistance R = =
𝐼0 𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠

Power dissipated in a resistor

P = IV, but I = I0 sin ωt and V = V0 sin ωt

P = I0 sin ωt x V0 sin ωt

P = I0V0 sin2 ωt

But the average of sin2 ωt = ½

Therefore P = ½ I0V0

Pure Capacitive Circuit

Referring to fig 2 above which is an ac voltage Vc = V0sinωt connected across a pure capacitor
𝜋
of capacitance C (Farads), it could be shown that Ic = I0 sin(ωt +2 ) whiles the voltage remains
Vc= V0sinωt. For a sinusoidically applied voltage, the current in the capacitor always leads the
voltage across the capacitor by 900 or π/2. When an alternating pd is applied to a capacitor, the
capacitor is continuously charging and discharging and in the process it represents a resistance to
the current flow in the circuit. This resistance is called capacitive reactance.

VC VR Vc = V0sinωt

t/s

π/2

5
Ic = I0 sin (ωt + π/2)
Phasor Diagram

Pure capacitance (Ic leads Vc by 900)

Vc

From the relation Q=VC

V = V0sinωt

Hence

Q = V0Csinωt
𝜕𝑄
But current I = 𝜕𝑡 = V0Cωcosωt → I0cosωt

Where I0 = V0Cω
𝑉 1 𝑉
Therefore 𝐼0 = = 𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠
0 𝜔𝐶 𝑟𝑚𝑠

𝑉0
But = Xc
𝐼0

𝑉 1
Therefore Xc = 𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠 = 2𝜋𝑓𝐶 since ω = 2πf
𝑟𝑚𝑠

1
Xc =2𝜋𝑓𝐶

For a capacitor, reactance falls with frequency

Xc is called capacitive reactance and is a measure of the opposition of the capacitor to ac.

Power dissipated in a purely capacitive circuit

P = IV but I = I0 cos ωt and V = V0 sin ωt

P = I0 cos ωt x V0 sin ωt

P = I0V0 cos ωt sin ωt

From trigonometry sin 2A = 2cos A sinA

This implies that ½ sin 2A = cos A sinA

6
Therefore cos ωt sin ωt = ½ sin 2ωt

P = ½ I0V0 sin 2ωt

Energy is stored in the electric field of the capacitor when it is charged and return to the source
on discharge. The average power dissipated over a full cycle is zero.

Pure Inductive Circuit (from fig 3 above)

VL IL VL = V0 sinωt

t/s

π/2

IL = I0 sin (ωt - π/2)

Phasor Diagram

VL

Pure inductance (VL leads IL by 900)

Considering fig 3 which is a self-inductive coil connected across an ac source as shown above.
When the key is switched on, the changing current induces a changing magnetic flux which in
turn produces an emf to oppose the flow of current in the circuit. The voltage source is
𝜋 𝑉0
VL = V0 sin ωt but the current is given by IL = I0sin(ωt- ) where I0 =
2 𝜔𝐿

For a sinusoidically applied voltage, the current in an inductor always lags behind the voltage
across the capacitor by 900 or π/2
𝜕𝐼
From V =- L
𝜕𝑡

Let the current in the circuit be I = I0sinωt, then

7
 𝜕𝐼0 sinωt
V =- L 𝜕𝑡

V = - LI0ωcosωt

Applied pd V = - back emf

This implies that

V = LI0ωcosωt

V= V0cos ωt

Therefore V0 = LI0ω
𝑉0 𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠
= ωL =
𝐼0 𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠

But ω = 2πf

Therefore
𝑉0
= XL = 2πfL
𝐼0

For any inductor, reactance increases with frequency

Power dissipated in a purely inductive circuit

P = IV but I = I0 sin ωt and V = V0 cos ωt

P = I0 sin ωt x V0 cos ωt

P = I0V0 cos ωt sin ωt

P = ½ I0V0 sin 2 ωt

Sometimes energy is stored in the magnetic field of the inductor and sometimes return to the
source. This situation changes every quarter cycle.

Examples

1. Find the reactance for a capacitor C = 100µF and an inductor L = 2.0mH at frequencies f 1
= 200Hz and f2 = 2000Hz
Solution
1 1
Xc =2𝜋𝑓𝐶 = = 8.0Ω
2 𝑥 3.142 𝑥 200 𝑥 100 𝑥10−6

Using

XL = 2πfL = 2 x 3.142 x200 x 0.002 = 2.5Ω

8
 Since reactance is directly proportional to frequency, for an inductor, at ten times the
frequency XL = 25Ω

2. A 50µF capacitor is connected to an ac source of 240V, 50Hz. What is the capacitive

reactance and the current flowing through the circuit? Assume negligible resistance in the
circuit.
Solution
C = 50µF = 50x10-6F, f = 50Hz, Vc = 240V
1 1
Xc =2𝜋𝑓𝐶 = = 63.7Ω
2 𝜋 𝑥 50 𝑥 50 𝑥10−6
But Vc = IXc
𝑉 240
I = 𝑋𝑐 = 63.7 = 3.77
𝑐
I = 3.77A
3. An inductor of 2H and negligible resistance is connected to 12 V main supply. If the
frequency is 50Hz, find the average current flowing
Solution
f = 50Hz, L =2H, VL = 12V
XL = 2πfL = 2π x 50 x 2 = 628Ω
𝑉 12
I = 𝑋 𝐿 = 628 = 0.0191A
𝐿
4. A 30mH of inductor of negligible resistance is connected to a 120V, 60Hz supply.
Calculate the
i. Angular velocity
ii. Inductive reactance
iii. Current in the inductor

Solution

L = 30mH = 3 x 10-3H, VL = 120V, f = 60Hz

i. ω = 2πf = 2π x 60 = 377.0 rads-1

ii. XL = 2πfL = 377 x 30x10-3 = 11.3Ω
𝑉 120
iii. I = 𝑋 𝐿 = 11.3 = 10.6A
𝐿
5. A 4µF capacitor is used in a radio circuit through which a percentage mA of alternating
electric current of frequency 60 Hz flows. Determine
i. The reactance of the capacitor
ii. The pd across the capacitor

Solution

C = 4 x 10-6, f = 60Hz,
1 1 1
Xc = 𝜔𝐶 = 2𝜋𝑓𝐶 = = 663.15Ω
2𝜋 𝑥 60 𝑥 4 𝑥 10−6

9
Exercises

1. In a pure inductive ac circuit L = 25mH and the rms voltage is 150V. Calculate the
inductive reactance and rms current in the circuit if frequency is 60Hz.
Ans. i. 9.42 Ω
ii. 15.94A
2. Calculate the inductive reactance and rms current in the circuit if the frequency is 6kHz
Ans. 942 Ω 0.159A
3. An 8µF capacitor is connected to terminals of a 60Hz ac generator whose rms voltage is
150 V. Find the capacitive reactance and the rms current in the circuit
Ans 332Ω
0.452A
If the frequency is doubled, what happens to the capacitive reactance and the current
Ans Xc is halved and Imax is doubled
4. Calculate the reactance of a 0.1 μF capacitor on an ac mains frequency of 50 Hz.
5. A pd of 240V is established across a capacitor of 0.04μF. If the frequency is 50Hz,
calculate the current flowing.

CIRCUIT COMBINATION OF ac CIRCUIT COMPONENTS [IMPEDANCE (Z)]

The combined opposition to current flow due to the effect of both reactance and resistance in an
ac circuit is called impedance (Z) of the circuit. The unit for measuring impedance is Ohm (Ω).
maximum voltage across the ac source V0
Thus Impedance (Z) = maximum current flowing through the circuit = I0

Or
rms voltage across the ac source Vrms
Z= =
rms current through the circuit Irms

Series circuits

1. Resistor and capacitor in series (R-C circuit)

R C

VR Vc

ac
Resistor and capacitor in series

10
 VR I
ɸ
Xc
Z
Vc V

ɸ
R I
The vector diagram vector diagram of capacitive reactance and resistance

Current is common to all components in series

The vector sum of the applied pd (V) is given by

V 2 = VR2 + VC2
V 2 =I 2 (R2 + XC2 )

V = I√R2 + XC2
The quantity (𝑅2 + 𝑋𝐶2 )½ is called the impedance Z of the circuit and it is the measure of
total opposition to ac.
Therefore V = IZ
V 𝐼𝑋𝑐 𝑋𝑐
Phase angle is given by tanɸ = 𝑉 c = =
R 𝐼𝑅 𝑅

Example 1

100Ω 10µF

90V, 25Hz

Calculate the following from the R-C series circuit shown above
i. The reactance of the capacitor
ii. The impedance of the circuit
iii. The current through the circuit
iv. The voltage across the capacitor
v. The average power dissipated in the circuit
Solution
f = 25Hz, C = 10µF = 10 x 10-6F, V = 90V, R = 100Ω
1 1
i. Xc = = = 636.6Ω
2𝜋𝑓𝐶 2𝜋 𝑥 25 𝑥 10 𝑥 10−6

11
 ii. Z = √R2 + XC2 = √1002 + 636.62 = 644.4Ω
𝑉 90
iii. I = 𝑍 = 644.4 = 0.14A
iv. V 2 = VR2 + VC2
𝑉𝐶 = √V 2 − VR2 or Vc = IXc
Vc = 0.14 x 636.6 = 89V
v. Average power in the circuit = IV
= 0.14 x 89
= 12.6W

Example 2
A 10µF capacitor is connected in series with 200Ω resistor and the circuit draws 2.5 A
from 60Hz ac supply voltage. Calculate the supply voltage and the reactive phase angle.
Solution
F = 60Hz, R= 200Ω, C = 10 x 10-6F, I = 2.5A

V = IZ but Z = √R2 + XC2

1 1
Also Xc = = = 265.4Ω
2𝜋𝑓𝐶 2𝜋 𝑥 60 𝑥 10 𝑥 10−6
Then

Z = √2002 + 265.42 = 332.3Ω

Therefore
V = 2.5 x 332.3 = 830.8V
VR
ɸ

V
Vc

V 𝐼𝑋𝑐 𝑋𝑐 265.4
tanɸ = 𝑉 c = = =
R 𝐼𝑅 𝑅 200

265.4
ɸ = tan-1 ( 200 ) = 530

2. Resistor and inductor in series (R-L)

R L

VR VL
12

ac
 VL XL
V Z

ɸ ɸ
VR XR
When the same pd is applied across a resistor and inductance L, the same current flows
through them. This pd, VL across L leads the current IL by 900 and the pd VR across R is
in phase with IR. The applied pd V is given as
V 2 = VR2 + VL2
V 2 =I 2 (R2 + XL2 )

V = I√R2 + XL2 …………….1

By Ohms law
V = IZ
Therefore equation 1 becomes

IZ = I√R2 + XL2
The impedance

Z = √R2 + XL2
V 𝐼𝑋𝐿 𝑋𝐿
tanɸ = 𝑉 L = =
R 𝐼𝑅 𝑅

Example
A 40mH inductor is connected in series with 70Ω resistor. A 60 Hz alternating voltage
source is connected across the combination. Given that the root mean square value of the
voltage is 110 V, calculate
i. The pd across the resistor and inductor
ii. The phase angle between the applied voltage and the current in the circuit.

Solution

R L

70Ω 40mH

ac
110V 60Hz
13
 i. XL = 2πfL f = 60Hz L = 40 x 10-3 H
XL = 2π x 60 x 40 x 10-3 = 15.082Ω

Z = √R2 + XL2 = √702 + 15.0822 = 71.61Ω

V = IZ
𝑉 110
I = 𝑍 = 71.61 = 1.54A
Voltage across the resistor VR = IR
VR = 1.54 x 70 = 107.8 V
Voltage across the inductor VL = IXL
VL = 1.54 x 15.082 = 22.62 V

𝑋𝐿 15.082
ii. tan φ = = = 0.216
𝑅 70
φ = tan 0.216 = 12.20
-1

Exercises
1. A 15V, 60Hz ac source supplies a current of 0.03 A to an impedance consisting of an
inductor L and a resistor R in series. If R = 80Ω, calculate the value of L in terms of π
2. A circuit consists of a 2μF and a resistor of 1000 Ω. An alternating emf of 12V (rms) and
frequency 50Hz is applied. Find
i. The current flowing Ans. 6.4 x 10-3 A
ii. The voltage across the capacitor Ans. 10.2V
iii. The phase angle between the applied emf and current. Ans. 580
iv. The average power supplied Ans. 0.04W
3. An iron-core coil of 2H and 50 Ω resistance is placed in series with a resistor of 450 Ω
and a 100V, 50 Hz ac supply is connected across the arrangement. Find
i. The current flowing in the coil Ans 12.5 x 10-3 A
ii. Its phase angle relative to the voltage supply Ans. 51.50
iii. The voltage across the coil Ans. 7.9V
4.
3. L-R-C in Series
The diagram below shows An L-R-C series circuit with capacitance C, inductance L and
resistance R. VL leads C, inductance L and resistance R. VL leads the current by 900, Vc
lags on it by 900 and VR is in phase with it. VL and Vc are therefore 1800 (half of a cycle)
out of phase.

R C L

VR Vc VL

ac 14
 VL

VL-Vc V The pd across the resistor is in phase with current

The pd across the capacitor will be lagging the current by 900
and the pd across the inductor will be leading the current by 900
VR

Vc
Phasor Diagram

In terms of voltage VL > VC

From the phasor diagram above
V 2 = VR2 + (VL - VC )2
VR = IR, VC = IXC, VL = IXL
V 2 = (IR)2 +(IXL - IXC)2
Dividing through by I2
𝑉2
= R2 + (XL - XC)2
𝐼2
𝑉 2
= √𝑅2 + (𝑋𝐿 − 𝑋𝑐 )
𝐼

𝑉
But =Z
𝐼

2
Therefore Z = √𝑅2 + (𝑋𝐿 − 𝑋𝑐 )

The phase angle is given by

𝑉𝐿 −𝑉𝑐 𝑋𝐿 −𝑋𝑐
tan φ = or tan φ =
𝑉𝑅 𝑅

Power Factor

The power factor P is defined as the fraction of the input power dissipated as heat. Power
dissipated = VRI = I2R. power supplied = VI = I2Z

𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑝𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝐼𝑉𝑅 𝐼2 𝑅

Hence f = = = 𝐼2 𝑍
𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑠𝑢𝑝𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑒𝑑 𝐼𝑉

𝑉𝑅 𝑅
f= = 𝑍 = cosφ
𝑉

Therefore power factor = cosφ

15
 RESONANCE in R-L-C series circuits

2
The impedance Z of a R-L-C series circuit is given by Z = √𝑅2 + (𝑋𝐿 − 𝑋𝑐 ) . This
impedance is a function of the frequency f of the applied alternating voltage as XL and Xc depend
on f.
XL = 2πfL implies XL α f 1 1
Xc = 2πfC implies Xc α 𝑓
XL Xc

Graph of XL against f f Graph of Xc against f f

R R is independent of f Z

f f

XL

R
The combination of the three graphs and the
Xc variation of Z with f is as shown beside
fo

Resonance occurs when the impedance in the circuit becomes a minimum and as a result the
current in the line becomes a maximum. As in mechanical resonance, the phase difference
becomes zero. Impedance Z = R. XL - XC = 0

Hence, XL = XC
1
This implies that 2π𝑓0 L = 2𝜋𝑓 𝐶
0

1
Resonance frequency f0 = 2𝜋√𝐿𝐶

Applied pd V = VR

Resonance current I = V/R

Phase difference φ = 00, power dissipated = IV

16
Example

1. A series circuit consisting of a 100Ω non-inductive resistor, a coil of 0.1H and negligible
resistance, and a 20μF capacitor is connected across a 110V, 60Hz power source. Find
the
i. Current
ii. Power loss
iii. Phase angle between the current and the source voltage
iv. Voltmeter reading across the three elements.

Solution

i. XL = 2πfL = 2π x 60 x 0.1 = 37.7Ω

1 1
XC = 2πfC = 2𝜋 𝑥 60𝑥 20 𝑥 10−6 = 132.7Ω
2
Z = √𝑅2 + (𝑋𝐿 − 𝑋𝐶 )

Z = √(100) 2 + (37.7 − 132.7) 2 = 138Ω

𝑉 110
I = 𝑍 = 138 = 0.8A
ii. All the power is lost in the resistor
P = I2R = 0.82 x 100 = 64W
𝑋𝐿 −𝑋𝐶 37.7−132.7
iii. tanφ = = = -0.95
𝑅 100
φ = tan-1(-0.95) = -43.50
the voltage lags the current by 43.50
iv. VR = IR = 0.8 x 100 = 80V
VC = IXC = 0.8 x 132.7 = 106V
VL = IXL = 0.8 x 37.7 = 30V
2. A coil of inductance 180mH, an 80μF capacitor and a 50Ω resistor are connected in
series. Find the frequency at which the circuit will resonate. An 110V ac line is connected
across the combination. What current is drawn from the line, the power dissipated in the
circuit and the pd across either the coil or the capacitor at resonance.

Solution
1 1
f0 = 2𝜋√𝐿𝐶 = = 41.9Hz
2𝜋√0.180 𝑥 80 𝑥 10−6

Reactance of coil XL = 2πfL = 2π x 41.9 x 0.180 = 47.4Ω

1
Reactance of capacitor XC = 2𝜋 𝑥 41.9 𝑥 80 𝑥 10−6 = 47.4Ω

At resonance,
𝑉 110
Z = R. line current I = 𝑅 = = 2.20A
50

17
Power dissipated Pd = VI = 110 x 2.20 = 242W OR Pd = I2R = 2.202 x 50 = 242W

Potential difference pd across the coil = IXL = 2.20 x 47.4 = 104V = pd across the
capacitor

EXERCISE
1. In an ac series circuit, the inductive reactance is 20Ω, the capacitive reactance is 60Ω,
the resistance is 30 Ω, and the effective current is 2A. Find the
i. Impedance of this circuit Ans. 50Ω
ii. Power factor Ans. 0.6
iii. Power dissipated in the resistance Ans. 120W
iv. Maximum voltage across the inductive reactance Ans. 56.6V
2. Calculate the reactance of a 1μF capacitor at a frequency of 60Hz. Ans 2650Ω
3. What is the self-inductance of a coil whose reactance is 1Ω at 60Hz Ans. 2.65mH
4. An ac circuit with R = 2Ω, L = 0.30mH and variable capacitance is connected to an
antenna to receive radio signals at the resonance frequency. If you want to listen to
music broadcasted at 96.1MHz, what value of C should be used? 9.1x10-15F
5. A tone control circuit consists of a 100Ω resistor in series with a capacitor. If the
maximum impedance must not exceed 200Ω, what must be the maximum capacitance
to be connected in series with the resistor if the circuit frequency is 50Hz.
Ans. 18.4 x 10-6F
6. A series circuit consisting of a resistance and a coil has a pd of
V = 240sin(100πt + π/4) connected across it. The current flowing through it is found
to be I = 2.4 sin (100πt) Calculate for this circuit
i. The phase difference for this circuit and frequency of the alternating current.
ii. Total impedance
iii. Draw the vector or phasor diagram for the circuit and hence evaluate the
resistance in the line, the reactance of the coil and its self inductance
Ans. π/4 rad or 450 50Hz, 100 Ω, 70.7Ω, 70.7Ω, 225mH
7. Calculate the resonant frequency of a circuit with negligible resistance containing an
inductance of 40mH and a capacitance of 600pF. Ans. 32.5kHz
8. A transmitter operates at 1 MHz. The oscillating circuit has a capacitance of 200 pF.
What is the inductance and the capacitive reactance of the resonant circuit.
Ans. 130μH, 800Ω
9. The impedance of a series R-C-L circuit is 8Ω when f0 = 60 Hz at resonant frequency
and 10 Ω at 80Hz. Calculate the values of L and C. Ans. 0.027H, 2.6 x 10-4F

18
TRANSFORMERS

An alternating current or voltage could be stepped up to a larger voltage or stepped down to a

smaller voltage by a device called a Transformer. The transformer is an electrical device that
makes use of electromagnetic induction to transfer alternating current from one circuit to
another. It consists of a soft iron core with two coils wound on it. The first coil is the primary
coil and the second is the secondary coil. The primary coil is connected to the source of emf. The
flux produced by the primary coil is proportional to the number of turns N p and the current Ip.
Likewise the induced emf in the secondary coil is also proportional to the number of turns N s and
the current Is.

That is IpNp = IsNs

𝐼𝑝 𝐼𝑝
Therefore = voltage
𝐼𝑠 𝐼𝑠

The magnitude of the induced voltage or emf depends on the ac. supply voltage applied to the
primary and the relative number of turns in the windings. It follows that
𝑎𝑐 𝑠𝑢𝑝𝑝𝑙𝑦 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑝𝑟𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑟𝑦 𝑐𝑜𝑖𝑙 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑛𝑠 𝑖𝑛 𝑝𝑟𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑟𝑦 𝑤𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑐𝑜𝑖𝑙
=
𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑒𝑑 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑟𝑦 𝑐𝑜𝑖𝑙 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑛𝑠 𝑖𝑛 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑟𝑦

𝑉𝑝 𝑁𝑝 𝐸 𝑁𝑝
= or 𝐸𝑝 = ………..1
𝑉𝑠 𝑁𝑠 𝑠 𝑁𝑠

If there are no energy losses in a transformer, then it is said to be 100% efficient. This means that
power input equals power output. ie Pi = P0

Where Pi = VpIp and P0 = VsIs

Ip = current through the primary coil

Vp = primary voltage or input

Is = current through the secondary coil

Vs = secondary voltage or output.

For a transformer to be 100% efficient

VpIp = VsIs

This implies that

𝑉𝑝 𝐼𝑠
= ………………….2
𝑉𝑠 𝐼𝑝

Combining equation 1 and 2

𝐸𝑝 𝑉𝑝 𝑁𝑝 𝐼𝑠
= = = ……………..3
𝐸𝑠 𝑉𝑠 𝑁𝑠 𝐼𝑝

19
All the symbols have their usual meanings.
𝒑𝒐𝒘𝒆𝒓 𝒐𝒖𝒕𝒑𝒖𝒕 (𝑰𝒔 𝑽𝒔 )
Note: Efficiency = x 100%
𝒑𝒐𝒘𝒆𝒓 𝒊𝒏𝒑𝒖𝒕 (𝑰𝒑𝑽𝒑)

From the ratios above, it is possible to produce a higher voltage from a lower one and vice versa.
This is known as transformation. If the output voltage (Es) is greater than the input voltage (Ep),
then the transformer is referred to as a stepped up transformer. On the other hand if the input
voltage is greater than the output voltage, then, the transformer is called a stepped down
transformer. We can therefore conclude that there are basically two types of transformers stepped
up and stepped down transformers.

Stepped up transformer is the one in which the number of turns in the secondary coil is greater
than that in the primary coil. That is Ns > Np, where Ns and Np refers to the number of turns in the
secondary and primary coils respectively. Stepped up transformer increases ac voltage, that is
output voltage or secondary voltage Vs is greater than input voltage or primary voltage (Vs > Vp)

Schematically represented as

20
Stepped down transformer on the other hand is the one in which the number of turns in the
primary coils is greater than that in the secondary coils. Vs is thus smaller than the primary
voltage Vp. ie Vs > Vp.

Example

1. A transformer has 200 turns in the primary and 100 turns in the secondary. An ac of 12V
is applied to the primary. What is the voltage and current induced in the secondary coils?
Take current in primary to be 2A.
Solution
Vp = 12V, Np = 200 turns, Ns = 100 turns, Vs = ? Ip = 2A, Is = ?
𝑉𝑝 𝑁𝑝
=
𝑉𝑠 𝑁𝑠

𝑁𝑠 100 𝑥 12
Vs = x 𝑉𝑝 = = 6V
𝑁𝑝 200

𝑉𝑝 𝐼𝑠
=
𝑉𝑠 𝐼𝑝

𝑉𝑝 12 𝑥 2
𝐼𝑠 = x 𝐼𝑝 = = 4A
𝑉𝑠 6

21
Ways by Which Energy is Lost in a Transformer

1. Copper losses; the resistance in the wire forming the coils may cause heating thereby
reducing electrical energy in the performance of the transformer.
Correction: use thick wires or copper with low resistance
2. Eddy current: the induced current in the coil which causes heating
Correction: minimized by laminating the core in thin strips
3. Hysteresis: the reversal of the magnetic field in the core causes heating
Correction: minimize by using core made of soft magnetic material
4. Flux leakage: if the transformer is poorly designed, then there is no complete flux
linking between the primary and secondary windings.
Correction: this can be corrected by efficient design to ensure that there is a linkage
between the primary and secondary windings and also transformers are oil-cooled to
avoid overheating due to this energy losses.

Power Distribution
Power distribution is simplified as indicated below:
Power station → step up transformer → high tension cables → step down transformers
→ consumer
Power from the main source is stepped up by a transformer to a very high voltage from
23,000V to between, 66,000V – 400,000V for high tension transmission over long
distances. After transmission they are stepped-down again to a value safer for
distribution. In towns they are stepped down to about 11,000V and later sent to
substations where they are further stepped down to 240V. The industries receive voltages
of about 415V
Note:
1. Step up transformers increases the votage and reduces currents. This prevents loss of
power in the lines
2. The step up transformer reduces voltage and increases current since low voltages a
required at the point of consumption

Uses of Transformers

1. Transformers are used in telephones and many more electrical devices (television
sets, electric bells, radio sets. etc).
2. They are used at the laboratories to detain 12 V supply on benches
3. Transformers are extensively used in power stations to step up voltages and step
down voltages.

22
EXERCISES
1. a) Explain the construction and action of a transformer which will operate from a
240V ac supply to give an output of 8 V for ringing a door bell.
b) If the primary coil has 4000 turns, about how many turns will there be in the
secondary?
2. A step-up transformer is designed to operate from a 20 V supply and deliver energy at
250V. If the transformer is 90% efficient, determine the current in its primary
winding when the output terminals are connected to a 250V 100W lamp. Ans. 5.56A

3. If a transformer is used to light a lamp rated at 60W, 220V from a 4400V ac supply,
calculate the
i. Ratio of the number of turns of the primary coil to the secondary coil in the
transformer.
ii. Current taken from the main circuit if the efficiency of the transformer is 95%
Ans. 20:1 14.4 x 10-3A

4. The 200 turn primary coil of a transformer is connected to a 120V line. How many
turns must the secondary coil of the transformer have if it is to provide 240V?
(assume 100% efficiency) Ans. 400 turns

5. Use the information below to answer the questions that follow

Two coils of wire are wound around the same permeable core. Coil I has 200 turns and
coil II has 3000 turns. Coil I is supplied with 30.0 A of alternating current at 90.0V

i. What does the diagram above represent?

ii. What potential difference is induced in coil II? Ans. 1350 V
iii. What is the power developed in coil I? Ans. 2.70 x 103W

23
6. A 100% efficient transformer has 40 turns of wire in the primary coil and 80 turns in
the secondary coil. If 20 W of power is supplied to the primary coil, the power
developed in the secondary coil will be? Ans. 20 W

7. The transformer on a power pole steps down the voltage from 10,800 V to 120 V. If
the secondary coil contains 360 turns, how many turns are on the primary coil?
Ans. 32,400 turns

8. The diagram below shows a step-up transformer having a primary coil with two
windings and a secondary coil with four windings.

When a potential difference of 12 V is applied to the primary coil, what is the current
in an 8Ω resistor connected to the secondary coil as shown? Ans. 3.0 A

9. The voltages from an alternator is 500V and it is fed into a step up transformer. This
turns to be fed into overhead cables with voltage 20,000V
i. Calculate the required turn ratio. Ans. 40:1
ii. Calculate the number of turns of the secondary coil, if the primary coil has 25
turns. Ans. 25 turns
iii. If the power of the generator is 100kW, calculate the current fed into the
cables. Ans. 5A

10. A transformer has a primary coil of 500 turns and a secondary coil of 25 turns.
i. What sort of transformer is it?
ii. Calculate the turn ratio. Ans. 1:20
iii. If the primary coil is connected to the 240V mains, find the voltage in the
secondary coil. Ans. 12V
iv. Calculate the efficiency of the transformer if the primary current is 0.6A and
the secondary current is 8A. Ans. 67%
11. If the efficiency of the transformer is 80 % and the current in the secondary is 10 A,
calculate the current in the 240 V supply Ans. 1.25 A
12. A transformer has 300 turns of wire in the primary coil and 30 turns in the secondary
coil. If the input voltage is 100V, find the output voltage. Ans 10V
13. A transformer 5500 turns in its primary is used between a 240V ac supply and a 120V
kettle. Calculate the number of turns in the secondary coil. Ans. 2750 turns.

24
MAGNETISM

INTRODUCTION
People have been aware of magnets and magnetism for thousands of years. The earliest records
dated back to ancient times, particularly in the region of Asia minor called Magnesia, which is
now part of Western Turkey, stimulated the interest during ancient times. When humans first
discovered magnetic rocks, they likely found that certain parts of these rocks attracted bits of
iron or other magnetic rocks more strongly than other parts. These areas are called the poles of a
magnet. A magnetic pole is the part of a magnet that exerts the strongest force on other magnets
or magnetic materials, such as iron. The respective ends of the magnet, where iron filings are
attracted most, are called the North and South poles.

In the thirteenth century the properties of magnets were studied by Peter Peregrinus. He showed
that ‘like poles repel and unlike poles attract’. His work was forgotten, however, and his results
were rediscovered in the sixteenth century by Dr. Gilbert, who is famous for his researches in
magnetism and electrostatics.

Lodestone or magnetite is a form of iron ore (Iron Oxide, Fe2O4) which has the property of
always pointing the same way when freely suspended. Objects made of these iron ores are
known as magnets. Substances that can be attracted by magnets include iron, steel, nickel, cobalt
and other magnetic alloys such as alnico. These substances are described as Ferromagnetic.
Substances such as wood, glass, brass and copper are not attracted by magnets and therefore
referred to as non-magnetic substances.

Magnetic Fields

The region around a magnet, where a magnetic force is experienced, is called a magnetic field.
The lines showing magnetic field are called magnetic field lines, magnetic lines of force or
magnetic flux. The magnetic flux represents the direction and strength of the field at any point.
The closer the lines, the stronger the field. The appearance of a magnetic field is quickly
obtained by iron filings, and accurately plotted with a small compass. The direction of a
magnetic field is taken as the direction which a north pole would move if placed in the field. The
diagrams below show a few typical fields.

The field round a bar-magnet is non-uniform, that is, its strength and direction vary from place to
place. The following are the properties of a magnetic
field;

i. It is a vector field and

therefore has a direction as well as magnitude.
ii. The field is non conservative (work done in a
closed loop within the field is not zero)
iii. The field is not radial (the field lines closes on
themselves or are circular).
25
iv. Charges moving in the field experiences force
v. The strength of a magnetic field is inversely proportional to the square of the separation
from the source of the magnetic field (magnetic fields obey the inverse square law).

Note. The strength of the flux is defined in terms of the density; that is, the field is stronger
where the lines are closer.

26
Magnetic flux density B is defined as the number of flux lines passing a unit area.

A neutral point is an area in a magnetic field where the resultant magnetic flux density is zero.
This is marked x in the diagrams

Properties of Magnetic Poles

Magnetic poles have the following properties

i. Like poles repel

ii. Unlike poles attract.

These two properties constitute the first law of magnetism. This law is also used in the
identification of poles. A magnet with known poles is suspended at its centre. One end of the test
substance is brought near to the N-pole of the magnet. If repulsion occurs then that end of the
test substance is also a N-pole. If however attraction occurs then that end may either be S-pole or
27
the test substance is not magnetized. This is because attraction does not only occur between
unlike poles but can also occur between a magnet and a neutral substance like iron. To confirm
polarity in case attraction occurs, the other end of the test substance is brought near to the N-pole
of the suspended magnet. If repulsion occurs, then, that end is N-pole and the earliest end is S-
pole. If attraction still occurs, then the test substance is magnetically neutral.

The sure way to test the polarity of an unknown magnet is repulsion since attraction also occurs
to magnetic substances.

Properties of Magnetic Lines of Force.

The direction taken by a free N-pole at a point gives the direction of the field at the point. The
magnetic lines of force have the following properties:

1. They begin from the north-pole and ends on the south-pole of equal strength.
2. They are in the state of tension which causes them to shorten.
3. They repel each other sideways or they do not cross each other.

Theory of Magnetism

Every molecule of a magnetic substance is itself a permanent magnet having two poles. When a
magnet is broken into half, the two portions both have two poles, i.e. unlike poles have appeared
on opposite sides of the break. No matter how many times a magnet is subdivided each piece is
found to possess two poles. This process can be continued repeatedly by dividing a magnet in
two and obtaining smaller magnets. The smallest magnet is one molecule and the original
magnet must have been made up of a very large number of tiny molecular magnets.

The Domain Theory

When magnetic materials are unmagnetized, the molecular magnets are mixed up to point in
random directions, and they cancel each other. When the material is magnetized, the molecular
magnets are all turned to point the same way and reinforce each other. Magnetizing a piece of
iron thus consists of turning its molecules more in line, while demagnetizing it consists of mixing
up the molecules again.

Domains are group of molecules within the magnet, each of which acts like a tiny magnet. When
the domains are disturbed, through heating or rough handling, the various molecules move in a
random direction causing it to lose the resultant magnetism formed in the ordered arrangement.
Disordered domains can be reorganized to produce the magnetic effect by mechanical and
electrical methods.

28
METHODS OF MAGNETISING AND DEMANETISING SUBSTANCES

A magnetic substance is one which is capable of being magnetized. A magnetic material is made
up of a minute magnet called dipoles. In its unmagnetized state, these dipoles are disorganized
and the substance exhibits no net magnetism as there are free poles. In the magnetized state, the
dipoles are aligned so that there are free south pole and a free north pole. Therefore, magnetizing
a material consists of aligning the dipoles. When all the dipoles are aligned properly, the material
is said to be magnetically saturated. The three basic methods of magnetizing a magnetic material
are;

1. Stroking method
2. Induction method
3. Electrical method

Stroking Method

The test substance to be magnetized is placed with its axis in the north-south direction. In the
single touch method, the surface of the test substance is stroked (starting from one end to the
other) along its length several times with one pole of a strong magnet (if a north pole is used for
example). On touching the end of the test
substance, the pole used is raised high above the
substance and moved along an arc as shown
below. The end of the test substance where
stroking ends acquires a pole opposite to the pole
used (a south-pole from the example chosen). In
order to obtain stronger magnet,

Double touch or divided touch method.

In this method the magnetic material is stroked from the centre outward repeatedly with the
unlike poles of two permanent magnets simultaneously. Its polarity is the same as that of the
single touch

S N

29
Consequent Poles

If a steel bar is magnetized by divided touch using two North poles, we obtain a South pole at
both ends of the bar as a double North pole in the
centre. In this condition the bar is said to possess
consequent poles.

By Induction

When a permanent magnet is brought close or touch a magnetic material, It induces magnetism
in the bar. Hence the bar tends to behave as a magnet due to the influence of the permanent
magnet.

Induced Magnetism is the process of magnetizing an object made of magnetic material simply
by bringing a magnet near.

Electrical method

The most ideal method of magnetizing a magnetic material is to insert it into a solenoid (a coil of
wire with many turns) through which a steady direct
current flows. The solenoid with the magnetic
material inside is made to face North-South direction
and connected to direct current supply. Current is
passed through the solenoid momentarily and the bar
removed. If the bar is made of iron, the magnetism
lasts as long as the current flows. If the bar is made
of steel, the magnetism is retained. The polarity of
the magnetized specimen depends on the direction of
the current. If the current at one end flows in the clockwise direction on looking into the
solenoid, the pole at that end is a south pole. If the current is anticlockwise, the pole at that end is
a north pole.

30
Demagnetization

The process by which a magnet loses its magnetic effect is known as demagnetization. To
demagnetize a magnet the molecules, have to be shaken out of their orderly arrangement. The
following are the best ways employed to demagnetize a magnet:

1. Heating: the magnetism in a magnet is destroyed by heating the magnet until it is red-hot
and then allowing it to cool while lying in the geographic east and west direction.
2. Causing physical shock or rough handling of magnets can cause it to lose its
magnetism as domains boundaries revert back to the random state in which they were
before they were aligned (magnetized). Dropping or hammering of the bar facing east-
west direction will cause weakening of the magnetism.
3. Electrical method; the best way of demagnetizing a magnet is to place it inside a
solenoid through which an alternating current (ac) is flowing. The solenoid is placed with
its axis pointing east-west direction. While the current is still flowing, the magnet is
withdrawn slowly to a distance of several metres from the solenoid in an east-west
directions.

Temporal and Permanent magnets.

Magnetic materials made of steel and some alloys of iron keep their magnetism for a long time
when magnetized. These substances also need a long time to magnetize. The magnet so produced
is called a permanent magnet. Permanent magnets retain their magnetic properties for a long
period even when placed under adverse conditions.

Substances like soft iron need a weak magnetic field and takes a short time to become
magnetized. Such magnets lose their magnetism quickly and easily when the field is removed.
They are called temporary magnets. They are used to make electromagnets.

Uses of Permanent Magnets

1. Freezers and refrigerator doors are fitted with a magnetic strip to keep the door closed.
2. Small magnets are used to hold notices to the metal boards
3. Magnets are used to reset the index in the maximum and minimum thermometer.
4. Magnetic compasses are used by sailors, pilots, and surveyors etc. to find directions
5. Magnetic ink is used on cheques so that machines in banks can read the cheques
numbers, the account numbers and the amount of money paid and automatically feed the
information into the bank’s computers.

Note. Magnetic saturation; a saturated magnet is one in which there is no further increase in
magnetization though the intensity of the magnetizing field increases.

31
Hysteresis loop

Hysteresis refers to the lagging of the magnetization of a ferromagnetic material like iron. In
other words when a ferromagnetic material is magnetized in one direction, it will not relax back
to zero, magnetization even when the imposing magnetizing field is removed, hence it has to be
driven back to zero, a field in the opposite direction needs to be applied.

If an alternating magnetic field is applied to the material, its magnetization will trace out a loop
called a hysteresis loop or B-H curve. The study is well supported by the WEISS Domain
Theory.

1. On application of a magnetic field on a ferromagnetic material, it shows a non-linear rise

or magnetization curve and reaches the saturation level, when all the magnetic domains
are aligned with the direction of a field; when afterwards driving magnetic field drops to
zero, the ferromagnetic material retains a considerable degree of magnetization or
“remember” the previous state of magnetization.
2. On removing the applied field, H = 0. A ferromagnet is not fully demagnetized and only
the partial domain reorientation happened. Some of the domains retain the alignment
resulting in residual magnetism. This loss of retracibility results to what is referred to as
hysteresis loop as shown in the diagram below.
3. Saturation level in the opposite direction of applied field
4. In order to demagnetize a ferromagnetic material needs a strong magnetic field of the
opposite direction (called coercive field Hc) has to be applied as indicated in the diagrams
below.

32
 2. Due to alignment of
3. When the applied field is zero. all domains along H
The ferromagnetic material retains
magnetization. As many domains
retain alignment in direction of H

4. H in reverse direction is required to

reduce to make flux density to be zero 1. Non-linear curve when
magnetized from zero

5. Due to alignment of
domains in the opposite
direction

The residual magnetic field is called as retentivity, which arises as many of the domains retain
their alignment along the direction of the external field that was applied. Its value is given as the
Y-intercept

This property of ferromagnetic materials is useful as a magnetic “memory”. Some compositions

of ferromagnetic materials will retain an imposed magnetization indefinitely and are useful as
permanent magnets. The magnetic memory aspects of iron and chromium oxides make them
useful in audio tape recording and for the magnetic storage of data on computer disks.

33
Retentivity is a material’s ability to retain a certain amount of residual magnetic field when the
magnetizing force is removed after achieving saturation.

Residual magnetism is the magnetic flux density that remains in a material when the magnetizing
force is zero. Note that residual magnetism and retentivity are the same when the material has
been magnetized to the saturation point. However, the level of residual magnetism may be lower
than the retentivity value when the magnetizing force did not match the saturation level.

Coercive force is the amount of reverse magnetic field which must be applied to a magnetic
material to make the magnetic flux return to zero.

Uses of Magnets

There are several uses of magnets beyond ones count. The following are some few uses of
magnets;

Electric motors and generators, transformers, speakers and microphones, television and computer
monitors, (credit, debit and ATM cards), magnet cans, compasses, chucks, magnetic recording
media etc.

Magnetic keepers

Magnets lose their magnetism when packed in a box with like poles facing the same direction
(self-demagnetization). The reason is that like poles repel. The continuous repulsion disorganizes
groups of molecules or domains in the magnet. To avoid this, magnets are stored in boxes in
pairs with unlike poles facing the same direction. Pieces of soft iron called keepers are placed
across the ends of the magnets.

The keeper is a soft iron piece kept pressed against the poles of a magnet. The keeper itself
becomes temporarily magnetized when in place and the dipoles of the horse shoe magnet are
properly aligned with the dipoles of the keeper forming closed chains, which are stable

34
Magnetic materials

A substance is said to be magnetic if it is attracted by a magnet. Any material which is capable of

being magnetized or being attract by a magnet is a magnetic material. The following are types of
magnetic materials;

Ferromagnetic material; these materials exhibits strong attraction to a magnet. Examples of

such materials are iron, steel, cobalt, nickel, and certain alloys. This type of material is used to
make very strong magnets. Ferromagnetic substances will align itself along the direction of the
magnetic field. That is to say that the axis through the poles are parallel to the magnetic field.
Ferromagnetic materials are affected by heat. The domain boundaries are destroyed when heated.

Paramagnetic materials

These are materials which shows weak attraction to magnets. When magnetized the axis through
the pole is parallel to the inducing field. They are also affected by temperature. Examples are
aluminium,, copper, gold etc

Diamagnetic materials

These materials show very weak attraction to magnets. It sets itself at right angles to the
magnetic field. They are independent of temperature. Eg. zinc, silver, bismuth, antimony, water,
NaCl, glass, and many more.

Note: copper and gold are both paramagnetic and diamagnetic materials.

Magnetic flux patterns in the Earth’s field

When a bar magnet is placed flat on a table, the field round the magnet is a combination of the
field of the magnet and the Earth’s horizontal field. The pattern depends on the direction in
which the magnet is lying

a. When the axis of the magnet is in the magnet meridian and its south role is pointing
north.

35
36
37
 CURRENT ELECTRICITY

Current is the net charge per second crossing a given section of a substance or the time rate at
𝜕𝑄
which charge is transported across a section of the wire. Mathematically the current I= or
𝜕𝑡
𝑄
I = 𝑡 . The unit of current is C/s or the ampere. Current is a scalar quantity. The instrument used
to measure current is called an ammeter.

Electric resistance
Whenever there is a potential difference there must also be an electric field. So when a potential
difference is established at the ends of a conductor, an electric field is established within the
conductor that forces electrons to move, i.e. creating an electric current. Now, when the same
potential difference is established at the ends of different conductors, the size of the current is
different in the different conductors. What determines how much current
will flow for a given potential difference is a property of the conductor
called its electric resistance.
The electric resistance R of a conductor is defined as the potential
difference V across its ends divided by the current I passing
through it:
R=
VI
The unit of electric resistance is the volt per ampere. This is
defined to be the ohm, symbol Ω.
The electric resistance of conducting wires is very small so it is a good
approximation to ignore this resistance. Conducting wires are represented
by thin line segments in diagrams. Conductors whose resistance cannot be
neglected are denoted by boxes; they are called resistors
In 1826, the German scientist Georg Ohm (1789–1854) discovered
that, when the temperature of most metallic conductors is kept constantan

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