MODULE 1 WHAT IS ETHICS? the others.

We are cautious of the responsibility that we

have for our actions.
Ethics or moral philosophy can be provisionally described
as the empirical study of moral decisions. It is a discipline Ethicists put less emphasis on studying philosophic
concerned with what is morally good and evil, right and principles and, instead, emphasize the importance of
wrong. The word often refers to any scheme or philosophy establishing good habits of character – needs of doing the
of universal ideals or beliefs. right thing in the right place and time in the right way.

Greek word “ethos” which may mean tradition, habit, The virtues of intelligence, bravery, patience, and justice
character, or attitude. This is not only about the nature of guide ethical decision-making as they provide the basis for
specific courses of action, but it is also about the goodness rational decisions when faced with an ethical dilemma. We
of people and what it means to lead a decent life. ought to be ethical, as it determines who we are both
personally and as a society.
ethics is a systematic analysis of the nature of human
actions. It is concerned about the correctness and wrongness Importance of Ethics
of the act. An act is deemed to be right or wrong, based on
the intent, circumstances, or character of the act itself.  through ethics people can determine the
difference between right from wrong, good and
As a philosophy, is a very important discipline because it bad;
involves critical thinking, as it explores and describes  people can eliminate actions that do not conform
fundamental beliefs, standards, ideals, and traditions. This is to what is right;
thus a higher level of human discipline. As a branch of  people will be very careful to the actions and
philosophy, ethics is divided into normative and meta- decisions to make;
ethics.  people will not be disturbed of the internal and
external factors of not doing the right thing;
Normative Ethics - concerns human behavior in general, is  establish good habits of characters of a person;
to address our questions about the essence of human  come up to rational decisions in facing an ethical
behavior. examine whether or not a particular act should or dilemma;
should not be carried out. seeks to examine how human  it makes a person responsible in the family, school
beings respond to a moral question. This also aims to clarify and society;
and prescribe common expectations on what human beings  a person becomes sensitive to the needs of others
should do to interact with others in society and in a more than himself or herself;
meaningful way.  reminds a person to fully need conscience in
2 Fields of Normative Ethics decision making and a person can acknowledge the
 Moral Philosophy - deals with moral ideas such as actions made.
what human beings "must do or how human beings 1.2 THE DIFFERENCES OF MORAL AND NON-
should be." This also deals with our moral MORAL STANDARDS AND CHARACTERISTICS OF
obligation, the meaning of the act, or the purpose of MORAL STANDARDS
the act. (MORAL IDEAS, MORAL
OBLIGATION, MORAL QUESTIONS) Moral standards
 Applied Ethics / practical ethics - applied ethics
is a philosophy that discusses strong and basic - refer to the guidelines we have on the types of acts
moral issues linked to abortion. (STRONG AND that we find to be morally permissible and morally
BASIC unacceptable
 MORAL ISSUES) - primarily deals with issues that can either
potentially threaten or greatly benefit human beings
Meta-ethics - a discipline that relies on meaning. It is a - promote the common good, that is, the welfare and
science that is seeking to address non-moral questions about well-being of human beings, animals, and the
morality. Those refer to questions about the nature of moral environment.
statements, the purpose and significance of moral facts, and - blending of norms and values. (norms+values =
concerns about the interpretation and justification of moral moral standards.)
statements. - (GUIDELINES, MORALLY PERMISSIBLE
MORALLY UNACCEPTABLE, POTENTIALLY
Ethics is a set of rules that allows us to say right from THREATEN/HARMFUL, GREATLY
wrong, good from the bad. Ethics can provide true, specific BENEFIT/HELFUL TO HUMAN BEINGS,
guidance to our lives. Ethical principles such as fairness, PROMOTE COMMON GOOD)
trustworthiness, responsibility help direct us to cope more
effectively with ethical dilemmas by removing actions that Norms as standards are basic guidelines regarding human
do not adhere to our sense of right and wrong–our own acts. Values, though, are universal convictions as to what is
moral interests–without compromising others. acceptable, desirable, and beneficial or not.

Ethics is all about decisions. We are continually faced with Characteristics of morals standards
issues that affect the quality of our lives. We are certain that
the choices we make have consequences for ourselves and - Moral standards entail serious harm or benefit.
 - Moral standards are not determined by authority -
figures.
- Moral standards should be adopted over other
values, including self-interest. Lesson 2: Moral Dilemma
- Moral standards are focused on objective
considerations. Moral Dilemma - a situation in which a decision- maker
- Moral standards are perceived to be universal. must give preference to one moral principle over another.
- Moral standards are correlated with different feelings and Dilemmas occur when, confronted with a challenging
vocabulary. situation
Non-moral standards, on the contrary, apply to laws which The above definitions characterized moral dilemma or
are not related to social or legal considerations. Perhaps ethical dilemma as:
these criteria are not inherently related to morality or, by
their very definition, lack of ethical sense. Examples of non- - Making an option to one moral value over the
moral standards are the following: etiquette, statutes, code of other;
professional ethics, etc. - A situation where moral values are equally
significant;
(APPLY TO LAWS, UNRELATED to MORAL AND - A scenario where a person has a strong moral
ETHICAL CONSIDERATIONS, LACK OF ETHICAL reason in action, but not equally strong moral
SENSE, ETIQUETTES STATUTES CODE OF reason in acting in another way;
PROFESSIONAL ETHICS) - A state where a person should morally do one, two,
or more and have difficulty in deciding any of
Etiquette is a decorum, propriety means reverence for the
those conflicting choices.
formal criteria governing conduct in a civilized society.
Etiquette refers conventional ways and uses the rules of THREE LEVELS OF MORAL DILEMMAS
etiquette. Decorum implies modesty and a sense of what is
becoming or is fitting for a person of good breeding: 1. ORGANIZATIONAL ETHICAL OR MORAL
DILEMMA - an organizational ethical dilemma
A statute is a written law passed by a legislative body refers to a situation that causes an organization to
respond negatively or positively to an ethical issue
Legality and morality are distinct, but often people are
that affects staff, shareholders, and society, as well
confused about these terms. We believe that what is moral is
as corporate ethics and customers. It includes also
also legal and that what is immoral is not good. Not all that
the leaders' ethical actions in preserving financial
is lawful is moral.
reporting integrity.
The Professional Code of Ethics, consequently, is a set of 2. INDIVIDUAL MORAL DILEMMA - pertains to a
guidelines intended to help practitioners differentiate situation where individuals confront with a number
between right and wrong to guide their decision-making. of factors such as peer pressure, personal financial
Such rules, also referred to as the Code of Ethics, define the position, an economic and social status which may
purpose and ideals of the organization, how staff within the influence all individual ethical standards.
organization are to handle the issues, and the expectations to 3. STRUCTURAL MORAL DILEMMA - The
which workers are bound. structural moral dilemma is that selecting a proper
system of responsibilities and relationships, which
1.3 HOW MORAL STANDARDS ARE FORMED is a continuing universal challenge.
Morals are shaped by the beliefs of an individual. Values are MODULE 3 FREEDOM AS FOUNDATION FOR
the basis of the capacity of an individual to distinguish MORAL ACTS
between right and wrong. Morals build on this to form
concrete, context- driven rules that regulate the actions of an KANT’S PHILOSOPHY ON FREEDOM AND
individual. They are formed from the experience of a MORALITY, THE PRINCIPLES OF JUSTICE AND
person's life and are subject to opinion. FAIRNESS

factors on how moral standards are influenced: Freedom is the right to control one's actions based on
reason, not desire. – Kant
- the moral values or principles that we conform
with, in our rearing; Autonomy - derives from the Greek term, which translates
- the character and manners that imbibed with us by into self-legislator. The principle, is to live by the laws that
means of birthright; you enforce on yourself. Therefore, from Kant's point of
- the religious values that our forefathers taught us; view, libertarian freedom is not absolute, but in fact, it is the
- the values we learned from school; subjugation of oneself to one's wish.
- the moral conduct, ways and habits of those people
freedom (independence from being limited by the option of
around us;
another) to the degree that it can coexist with the freedom
- the direct and implied cultural norms;
of each other following universal law".
- our life experiences;
- our critical thinking in these experiences.
Freedom is not the only reason for the ideals that - Justice involves external acts through which an
underlies the state. individual may directly or indirectly influence
others.
- Justice does not affect the desires, wishes, or needs
Theory and Practice, Kant makes equality the first of three of others.
concepts - Justice is concerned primarily with the nature of
interpersonal relationships and not with their
- the freedom of a human being as a member of a substance.
state, - Being just and fair is not about having influence
- dignity of each person as a subject, with other people particularly to those in the
- freedom of any member of the commonwealth as a higher-ups or those who are considered influential.
resident. If this is the situation then justice and fairness are
in trouble.
KANT’S PHILOSOPHY ON MORALITY
- An interpersonal relationship is more valuable than
1. GOOD WILL AND DUTY content.
- Kant started his ethical philosophy by arguing that
TAXATION IN THE PHILIPPINES THE RULES
the only virtue that can be uncontroversially good
EMBODIED UNDER THE LAW
is good will.
- Good will is unique as it is always good and retains - Under the 1987 Philippine Constitution mentioned
its moral values even though it fails to achieve its above, “the rules of taxation shall be uniform and
moral intentions. equal.”
- good will is a wider conception than the will of - On the other hand, equity is the principle that taxes
obligation. should be equal and should be based on the
- Kant believes that only actions committed willingness of different individuals to pay, which is
concerning obligation have moral meaning. generally related to their income as stated in the
2. PERFECT AND IMPERFECT DUTIES [Link] dictionary.
- Having applied the categorical imperative, duties
emerge because failure to perform them will either MODULE 4 WHAT IS CULTURE? HOW DOES IT
result in a contradiction of conception or a DEFINE OUR MORAL BEHAVIOR?
contradiction of will. Culture is at the root of human alienation from the
- The perfect duty is always true. Imperfect duty environment. It's not just a compilation of artifacts or
requires flexibility. reflection of people's preferences and appreciation of
- Beneficence is an imperfect duty because we are beauty. He added that culture is derived from the Latin
not obligated to be absolutely helpful at all times, word, “cultus”, which means giving respect to the
but should choose the times and places in which we sacredness of all. (kohak, 1984)
are.
3. CATEGORICAL IMPERATIVE A concept that refers to a broad and diverse collection of
- Categorical imperative command unconditionally. often intangible areas of social life. culture consists of
Irrespective of our wishes or desires, a categorical ideals, beliefs, language systems, communication, and
imperative binds us as everyone has a behaviors that people have in common and that can be used
responsibility not to lie, regarless of conditions and to describe them as a group. Culture also encompasses
even though it is in our interest to do so. material objects which are special to that community or
4. UNIVERSALIZABILITY society. Culture is distinct from the social structure and
- For Kant, an act is only permissible if one can have economic aspects of society, but it is related to them both by
the principle that allows an action to be the educating and updating them on an ongoing basis. (Cole,
universal law by which everybody acts. 2019)
- Kant argued that morality was the objective law of
reason: just as objective physical laws involved From the definitions above of culture, several characteristics
physical action. were drawn:
5. HUMANITY AS AN END IN ITSELF
1. Culture is an analects of items with cultural or historical
- “Act in such a way that you treat humanity,
interest.
whether in your own person or in the person of
2. Culture is a remark of peoples’ choices and admiration of
another, always at the same time as an end and
beauty.
never simply as a means.”(Immanuel Kant)
3. Culture is in harmony with the environment and an
- They must also be viewed as ends themselves,
individual has a role to play on it.
demanding equal regard for their own logical
4. Culture is wider in scope as it includes beliefs, ideals,
motives.
communication, language systems,
KANT’S PHILOSOPHY ON JUSTICE AND FAIRNESS behaviors, and commonality of people within a group.
5. Culture embraces material objects that are significant to a
particular group or society.
6. Culture is related to the social structure and economic would apply to every culture and it varies
aspects of society. depending on the culture of the society.
7. Culture is a combination of the skills, talents, capacities,
disadadvantages of cultural relativism
and artifices brought about by a
group of people to look at, relay messages, and respond to - There will be actions taken that would be defined
the realities of social life. by some as “violent,” “unsafe,” or “wrong.”
8. Culture is the attributes and observation of a particular - It is based on a concept that people are perfect.
group of people which includes - It creates a personal bias.
language, religion, social behavior, etiquette, fashion, music, - It eliminates the idea that reform or change can be a
and arts. good thing.

THE INFLUENCES OF CULTURE IN MORAL

DEVELOPMENT Leano & Gubia-on (2018), Module 6 : UNIVERSAL VALUES
1. Culture is always social and communal by which The word "value" means something that a person or a group
the relationship of the people towards one another believes has a value that merits being sought, promoted, or
and their experience as people are the culture’s privileged. This can be a thing (money, food, art), a state of
meadow. mind (peace, protection, certainty), or a behavior that results
2. The culture defines the normative principles and from those things or states of mind (protecting innocent
behaviors of society. people, telling the truth, being creative).
3. A culture, as best exemplified in the experience of
Universal values
the people, develops restrictions and sets
boundaries and limitations as they live and relate - HAS VALUE
with one another. - HAVE REASON TO BELIEVE IT HAS VALUE
4. As culture helps in generating the character and - CONNECTED WITH MORALITY OR ETHICS
identity of its people, it also includes their moral - HAVE REASON TO BELIEVE IT HAS VALUE
character. - NEED TO BE SOCIALLY EXPRESSED
5. The culture identifies the authorities or the (S. H. Schwartz, ) Below are each of the value types, with
governing individuals or groups. the specific related values alongside:
CHARACTERISTICS OF FILIPINO CULTURE 1. Power: authority; leadership; dominance, social
1. The Filipino people are very resilient. power, wealth
2. Filipinos take pride in their families. 2. Achievement: success; capability; ambition;
3. Filipinos are very religious. influence; intelligence; self-respet.
4. Filipinos are very respectful. 3. Hedonism: pleasure; enjoying life
5. Filipinos help one another. 4. Stimulation: daring activities; varied life; exciting
6. Filipinos values traditions and culture. life
7. Filipinos have the longest Christmas celebration. 5. Self-direction: creativity; freedom; independence;
8. Filipinos love art and architecture. curiosity; choosing your own goals
9. The Filipinos are hospitable people. 6. Universalism: broadmindedness; wisdom; social
justice; equality; a world at peace; a world of
WEKNESSES OF FILIPINO CHARACTER
beauty; unity with nature; protecting the
1. Extreme Personalism environment; inner harmony
2. Extreme Family Centeredness 7. Benevolence: helpfulness; honesty; forgiveness;
3. Lack of Discipline loyalty; responsibility; friendship
4. Passivity and Lack of Initiative 8. Tradition: accepting one's portion in life; humility;
5. Colonial Mentality devoutness; respect for tradition; moderation
6. Kanya-kanya Syndrome 9. Conformity: self-discipline; obedience
7. Lack of Self Analysis and Reflection 10. Security: cleanliness; family security; national
security; stability of social order; reciprocation of
MODULE 5 CULTURAL RELATIVISM
favours; health; sense of belonging
Cultural Relativism
BASIC UNIVERSAL HUMAN VALUES
- In cultural relativism, no one can judge a society by
1. Happiness – it refers to good fortune; pleasure;
their standards in the principle of right or wrong,
contentment; joy.
eccentric or natural.
2. Peace – is a freedom from disturbance; tranquility.
- People must understand other societies’ cultures.
It is a state or period in which there is no war or a
- In cultural relativism, the aim is to strengthen our
war has ended.
knowledge and interpretation of the practices and
3. Freedom – is the state of being free or at liberty,
cultural traditions that are not part of our culture
freedom from control, interference, obligation,
and that not uncommon to other cultures.
restriction, hampering conditions,
- Cultural relativism is a moral theory that claims the
4. Safety - is the state of being safe;
idea of no objective universal moral rules that
 5. Intelligence – is a capacity for learning, reasoning, Filipino Traits
understanding, and similar forms of mental
hospitality or keeping the strangers feel warm and welcome.
activity;
Filipinos are known by other nations through this trait
6. Respect - os a formal expression or gesture of
because they really make an effort to welcome their guests.
greeting, esteem, or friendship: deference to a right,
It is not only applied to foreigners but it also applied to
privilege, privileged position, or someone or
everybody.
something considered to have certain rights or
privileges; proper acceptance or courtesy; close family ties. As much as possible, they want to live in a
7. Equality – is the state or quality of being equal; house together with their grandparents, parents, children and
correspondence in quantity, degree, value, rank, or grandchildren. Father is the head and the provider of the
ability: promoting equality of opportunity in the family. All of his salary will be given to his wife to budget
workplace. all the expenses and needs of the family.
8. Justice – is the quality of being just; righteousness,
Respect for the elders is also observed to the Filipinos. They
equitableness, or moral rightness: to uphold the
obey elderly and consider their suggestions in major life
justice of a cause.
decisions like choosing a course in college, marriage, burial,
9. Nature – is the material world, especially as
changed of residents and others. Saying po and opo as well
surrounding humankind and existing independently
as mano po are taught to children as sign of respect to
of human activities.
elders.
10. Health – is the general condition of the body or
mind with reference to soundness and vigor: good MODULE 8 HOW IS MORAL CHARACTER
health; poor health. soundness of body or mind; DEVELOPED?
freedom from disease
Moral character refers to the existence or lack of virtues
THE HUMAN DIGNITY such as integrity, courage, fortitude, honesty, and loyalty. To
say that a certain person has a good moral character means
Dignity is the state or quality of being worthy of honor or
that he/she is a good person and a good citizen with a sound
respect. "A man of dignity and unbending principle" is an
moral compass. --- be conceptualized as an individual’s
example. It refers to bearing, conduct, or speech indicative
disposition to think, feel, and behave in an ethical versus
of self-respect or appreciation of the formality or gravity of
unethical manner, or as the subset of individual differences
an occasion or situation. It is the importance and value that a
relevant to morality
person has, that makes other people respect them or makes
them respect themselves. Moral Character and Virtues
MODULE 7 THE FILIPINO WAY Etymologically, the term “character” comes from the ancient
Greek term charaktêr, which initially referred to the mark
Filipino Values - Values are those aspects in life that
impressed upon a coin. The term charaktêr later came to
include customs, traditions, etc., which the people regard as
refer more generally to any distinctive feature by which one
necessary and important in their dealings with one another
thing is distinguished from others.
(Agoncillo
Virtue is a central concept in his Nicomachean Ethics
et al., 2010). One of the Filipino values is ‘pakikisama’ or
wherein there are two distinct of human excellences,
sense or togetherness. It refers to doing somebody a good
excellences, (1) excellences of thoughts and (2) excellences
deed, such as helping a relative or neighbor build a house
of character. virtue depends on “clear judgment, self-
without asking for compensation, or helping someone
control, symmetry of desire, and artistry of means”
looking for a job and so on
Moral Character as Dispositions
‘Utang na loob’ or dept or gratitude is very important to
Filipinos. It is recognizing and returning the favor to that Dispositions are particular kinds of properties or
person in the same measure who help them in times of need. characteristics that objects can possess. Moral character
Filipinos may have ‘utang na loob’ if other people help them traits are those dispositions of character for which it is
during sickness, medication, sending their children to appropriate to hold agents morally responsible. A trait for
school, finding a job, or they were saved in a life threatening which the agent is deserving of a positive reactive attitude,
situation. such as praise or gratitude, is a virtue, and a vice is a trait for
which the agent is deserving of a negative reactive attitude,
‘Hiya’ or ‘kahihiyan’ or sense of shame is another Filipino
such as resentment or blame.
values. ‘Hiya’ may be observed to Filipinos in accepting the
food that are offered to them. Even though they are hungry, The Circular Relation of Acts and Character
they will feel sense of shame accepting the food given to
 Repetition of Action and its Effect on the Person -
them or they will say that they are not yet hungry.
When an action is constantly repeated, over time it
Like ‘hiya,’ the Filipino value of ‘amor propio’ is derived can become a habit.
from the concept of ‘face.’ Although commonly translated  The Type of Action
as self-respect or self-esteem, ‘amor propio’ has been  Intention and Responsibility
characterized as the high degree of sensitivity that makes a
person intolerant to criticism and causes him to have an
easily wounded pride