Geology

1. A geologist is examining a rock outcrop and observes distinct layers (strata). In the
bottom-most layer, they find fossils of trilobites, an extinct marine arthropod. In the
layer directly above it, they find fossils of early amphibians. According to the
Principle of Superposition and the fossil record, what can be reasonably concluded
about the relative ages of these layers and the environment they represent?
a) The amphibian layer is older, and the environment was consistently terrestrial
throughout the period of deposition.
b) The trilobite layer is older, and the environment transitioned from a terrestrial
habitat to a marine habitat over time.
c) The trilobite layer is older, and the presence of these specific fossils suggests the
environment was marine before the emergence of land-dwelling amphibians.
d) Both layers are the same age, indicating a catastrophic event that mixed marine
and terrestrial organisms together.
2. The theory of plate tectonics provides a unifying explanation for many geological
phenomena. When an oceanic plate collides with a continental plate, the denser
oceanic plate is forced to sink beneath the lighter continental plate. This process,
known as subduction, is directly responsible for the formation of which two major
geological features?
a) A mid-ocean ridge and a rift valley, where new crust is being formed.
b) A deep ocean trench offshore and a chain of volcanic mountains on the
continental edge.
c) A transform fault boundary causing frequent, shallow earthquakes.
d) A shield volcano and extensive lava plains in the middle of the continent.
3. Metamorphic rocks are formed when pre-existing rocks (igneous, sedimentary, or
other metamorphic rocks) are subjected to intense heat and pressure deep within the
Earth's crust, without melting. This process alters the rock's texture, mineralogy,
and chemical composition. Which of the following is the best example of this
transformation?
a) Magma cooling slowly underground to form granite, a coarse-grained igneous
rock.
b) Sand particles being compacted and cemented together over millions of years to
form sandstone, a sedimentary rock.
c) Limestone, a sedimentary rock composed of calcite, being recrystallized by heat
and pressure into marble, a non-foliated metamorphic rock.
d) Lava erupting from a volcano and cooling rapidly on the surface to form
obsidian, a volcanic glass.
4. Geologists use radioactive isotopes with known half-lives to determine the absolute
age of rocks and fossils in a process called radiometric dating. A scientist finds a
sample of igneous rock containing a radioactive isotope with a half-life of 100
million years. The analysis shows that the sample contains 25% of the original
parent isotope and 75% of the stable daughter isotope. What is the calculated age of
this rock?
a) 50 million years, because one-quarter of the half-life has passed.
b) 100 million years, because one half-life has passed.
c) 200 million years, because two half-lives have passed (100% → 50% → 25%).
 d) 300 million years, because three half-lives have passed (100% → 50% → 25%
→ 12.5%).
5. The rock cycle describes the continuous process by which rocks are created,
changed from one form to another, destroyed, and then formed again. Which of the
following pathways is a plausible sequence within the rock cycle?
a) An igneous rock melts to form magma, which then undergoes weathering and
erosion to become a sedimentary rock.
b) A sedimentary rock is subjected to intense heat and pressure to become a
metamorphic rock, which then weathers and erodes to form sediment.
c) A metamorphic rock is compacted and cemented to become a sedimentary rock,
which then melts to form a new metamorphic rock.
d) Sediment is exposed to heat and pressure to form an igneous rock, which then
melts to form a metamorphic rock.
6. Earthquakes primarily occur along faults, which are fractures in the Earth's crust.
The energy released during an earthquake travels in the form of seismic waves. The
point within the Earth where the earthquake rupture starts is called the hypocenter,
and the point directly above it on the surface is called the:
a) Epicenter, which is where the most intense shaking is usually felt.
b) Subduction zone, which is where tectonic plates are destroyed.
c) Hotspot, which is an area of volcanic activity far from plate boundaries.
d) Mantle, which is the layer of the Earth beneath the crust.
7. The three main types of rocks are igneous, sedimentary, and metamorphic. Which
of the following statements correctly distinguishes igneous rocks from the other two
types?
a) Igneous rocks are formed from the compaction and cementation of organic and
inorganic particles.
b) Igneous rocks are formed from the alteration of existing rocks by heat and
pressure.
c) Igneous rocks are formed from the cooling and solidification of molten rock
(magma or lava).
d) Igneous rocks are the only type that can contain fossils of ancient organisms.
8. The Hawaiian Islands are a chain of volcanic islands located in the middle of the
Pacific Plate, far from any plate boundary. The formation of these islands is best
explained by the presence of a stationary "hotspot" in the mantle. How does this
mechanism work?
a) The Pacific Plate is stationary, and a series of hotspots erupts along a line to form
the island chain.
b) Two tectonic plates are diverging, allowing magma to rise and form the islands.
c) The Pacific Plate is moving over a fixed hotspot, which periodically punches
through the crust to create a new volcanic island, forming a chain over time.
d) A subduction zone near the islands is melting crust and creating the volcanoes.
9. Sedimentary rocks often contain fossils, which are the preserved remains or traces
of ancient life. Why are fossils exceptionally rare in igneous and high-grade
metamorphic rocks?
a) These rocks are formed in deep-sea environments where very few organisms live.
b) The processes of weathering and erosion that form these rocks destroy any
organic remains.
c) The intense heat and pressure involved in the formation of igneous and
 metamorphic rocks would destroy any organic material or fossil structures.
d) Organisms have only existed during the time sedimentary rocks were being
formed.
10. The diagram below shows a cross-section of rock layers with a fault and an igneous
intrusion. According to the Principles of Cross-Cutting Relationships and
Superposition, what is the correct sequence of events from oldest to youngest?
(Imagine a diagram with horizontal sedimentary layers A, B, C, D from bottom to
top. A fault (F) cuts through A, B, and C. An igneous intrusion (I) cuts through A,
B, C, and the fault F. Layer D is on top and is not cut by either F or I).
a) Intrusion (I) → Fault (F) → Deposition of layers A, B, C, D.
b) Deposition of layers A, B, C → Fault (F) → Intrusion (I) → Deposition of layer
D.
c) Deposition of layers A, B, C, D → Fault (F) → Intrusion (I).
d) Fault (F) → Deposition of layers A, B, C → Intrusion (I) → Deposition of layer
D.
11. Weathering is the process that breaks down rocks at the Earth's surface. A classic
example of chemical weathering is the reaction of slightly acidic rainwater
(carbonic acid) with limestone (calcium carbonate). This process dissolves the rock
and is primarily responsible for the formation of:
a) Granite domes and exfoliated rock sheets.
b) V-shaped river valleys and canyons.
c) Sand dunes and loess deposits.
d) Caves, caverns, and sinkholes in limestone regions (karst topography).
12. The Mohs scale of hardness is used by geologists to identify minerals. The scale
ranks minerals from 1 (softest) to 10 (hardest) based on their ability to scratch one
another. If a mineral can be scratched by a diamond (hardness 10) but not by quartz
(hardness 7), and it can scratch quartz, what can be concluded about its hardness?
a) Its hardness is exactly 8.5.
b) Its hardness is less than 7.
c) Its hardness is greater than 7 but less than or equal to 10.
d) Its hardness is exactly 10.
13. The three main types of plate boundaries are convergent, divergent, and transform.
The Mid-Atlantic Ridge is a classic example of a divergent boundary. What is the
primary geological process occurring at this location?
a) Two plates are sliding past each other, causing large earthquakes.
b) Two plates are colliding, with one sinking beneath the other to form a trench.
c) Two plates are moving apart, allowing magma from the mantle to rise and create
new oceanic crust.
d) A continental plate is breaking apart to form a new ocean basin.
14. The geological principle of uniformitarianism, famously championed by James
Hutton and Charles Lyell, is best summarized by the phrase:
a) "The present is the key to the past."
b) "Catastrophic events are the primary shapers of Earth's surface."
c) "All rock layers were originally deposited horizontally."
d) "The Earth is approximately 6,000 years old."
15. Fossils that are widespread geographically and are restricted to a short period of
geological time are known as index fossils. Why are these fossils particularly useful
for geologists?
 a) They provide detailed information about the diet and behavior of ancient
organisms.
b) They are used to determine the absolute age of rocks through radiometric dating.
c) They allow for the correlation and relative dating of rock layers from different
locations.
d) They are always the largest and most well-preserved fossils in a rock layer.
16. The movement of weathered rock and mineral particles from one place to another
by agents such as water, wind, ice, or gravity is known as:
a) Weathering, which is the in-place breakdown of rock.
b) Erosion, which involves the transport of material.
c) Deposition, which is the settling of transported material.
d) Lithification, which is the process of turning sediment into rock.
17. The Himalayan mountain range was formed, and is still growing, due to the
ongoing collision of two tectonic plates. What specific type of convergent plate
boundary is this?
a) Oceanic-Oceanic convergence, forming a volcanic island arc.
b) Oceanic-Continental convergence, forming a coastal volcanic range.
c) Continental-Continental convergence, where crust is buckled and uplifted.
d) Divergent boundary, where the continent is splitting apart.
18. A river flows from a mountainous region out onto a flat plain. As the river's
velocity decreases dramatically upon reaching the plain, it loses energy and drops
much of its sediment load. This process of dropping sediment leads to the formation
of a fan-shaped deposit known as:
a) A delta, which forms where a river enters a standing body of water like a lake or
ocean.
b) An alluvial fan, which is a fan-shaped deposit of sediment formed at the base of a
mountain.
c) A moraine, which is a deposit of sediment left behind by a glacier.
d) A levee, which is a natural ridge formed along the banks of a river.
19. The composition of the Earth's core is inferred to be primarily an iron-nickel alloy.
This conclusion is not based on direct drilling samples but is strongly supported by
the study of seismic waves from earthquakes and:
a) the composition of volcanic rocks erupted at the surface.
b) the analysis of the Earth's magnetic field and the composition of metallic
meteorites.
c) the density of rocks found in the Earth's crust.
d) the temperature gradient measured in deep mines.
20. When examining an igneous rock, a geologist observes that it is composed of very
large, visible crystals (coarse-grained texture), such as in granite. What does this
texture indicate about the rock's cooling history?
a) It cooled very rapidly on the Earth's surface from a lava flow.
b) It cooled slowly deep within the Earth's crust, allowing ample time for large
crystals to grow.
c) It was formed from the explosive eruption of a volcano, mixing large and small
crystals.
d) It was originally a sedimentary rock that was metamorphosed, causing crystals to
grow.
21. The San Andreas Fault in California is a famous example of a transform plate
boundary. What is the characteristic motion and primary hazard associated with this
type of boundary?
a) Plates move apart, creating volcanoes and new crust.
b) Plates collide, forming mountains and volcanoes.
c) Plates slide horizontally past one another, causing frequent and powerful
earthquakes.
d) One plate is stationary while the other subducts, forming deep ocean trenches.
22. A geologist identifies a rock as gneiss, which is characterized by alternating light
and dark bands (foliation). This distinct banded texture is a clear indication that the
rock is:
a) A clastic sedimentary rock formed in a high-energy river.
b) An extrusive igneous rock that cooled in layers.
c) A high-grade metamorphic rock that experienced intense directional pressure.
d) A chemical sedimentary rock formed from the evaporation of water.
23. The Earth's atmosphere is believed to have originally lacked free oxygen. The
accumulation of oxygen that allowed for the evolution of aerobic life was primarily
a result of what biological process occurring over billions of years?
a) Volcanic outgassing releasing oxygen from the mantle.
b) Chemical reactions between water and iron-rich rocks.
c) Photosynthesis carried out by early organisms, particularly cyanobacteria.
d) The breakdown of carbon dioxide by ultraviolet radiation from the sun.
24. Glaciers are powerful agents of erosion and deposition. As a glacier moves, it
scours the landscape, and when it melts, it leaves behind a distinctive landform: a
U-shaped valley. This is in contrast to the V-shaped valleys typically carved by:
a) Wind erosion in desert environments.
b) Rivers and streams.
c) Wave action along a coastline.
d) Mass wasting events like landslides.
25. A student is correlating three rock outcrops from different locations (A, B, C).
Outcrop A has layers 1, 2, 3 from bottom to top. Outcrop B has layers 2, 3, 4.
Outcrop C has layers 3, 4, 5. Layer 3 in all outcrops contains the same unique index
fossil. Based on this correlation, which layer is the oldest and which is the youngest
in the entire sequence?
a) Oldest is layer 3, Youngest is layer 5.
b) Oldest is layer 1 (from outcrop A), Youngest is layer 5 (from outcrop C).
c) Oldest is layer 5 (from outcrop C), Youngest is layer 1 (from outcrop A).
d) It is impossible to determine the full sequence from this information.
Answer Key

1. c) The trilobite layer is older, and the presence of these specific fossils suggests
the environment was marine before the emergence of land-dwelling
amphibians. (Trilobites are marine; Superposition places this older layer first).
2. b) A deep ocean trench offshore and a chain of volcanic mountains on the
continental edge. (Classic features of an oceanic-continental convergent boundary,
like the Andes mountains).
3. c) Limestone, a sedimentary rock composed of calcite, being recrystallized by
heat and pressure into marble, a non-foliated metamorphic rock. (This
correctly describes the process of metamorphism acting on a parent rock).
4. c) 200 million years, because two half-lives have passed (100% → 50% →
25%). (After 1 half-life (100M years), 50% remains. After 2 half-lives (200M
years), 25% remains).
5. b) A sedimentary rock is subjected to intense heat and pressure to become a
metamorphic rock, which then weathers and erodes to form sediment. (This is
a valid pathway in the rock cycle).
6. a) Epicenter, which is where the most intense shaking is usually felt. (The
epicenter is the surface point directly above the subsurface hypocenter).
7. c) Igneous rocks are formed from the cooling and solidification of molten rock
(magma or lava). (This is the defining characteristic of igneous rocks).
8. c) The Pacific Plate is moving over a fixed hotspot, which periodically punches
through the crust to create a new volcanic island, forming a chain over time.
(This explains the age progression of the Hawaiian island chain).
9. c) The intense heat and pressure involved in the formation of igneous and
metamorphic rocks would destroy any organic material or fossil structures.
(Melting or recrystallization obliterates fossils).
10. b) Deposition of layers A, B, C → Fault (F) → Intrusion (I) → Deposition of
layer D. (Superposition for A,B,C. Cross-cutting for F, then I. Superposition for D
on top of everything else).
11. d) Caves, caverns, and sinkholes in limestone regions (karst topography). (This
is the result of chemical weathering of carbonate rocks).
12. c) Its hardness is greater than 7 but less than or equal to 10. (It can scratch
quartz (7), so it's harder than 7. It can be scratched by diamond (10), so it's softer
than or equal to 10).
13. c) Two plates are moving apart, allowing magma from the mantle to rise and
create new oceanic crust. (This is the definition of seafloor spreading at a
divergent boundary).
14. a) "The present is the key to the past." (The geological processes we observe
today are the same ones that shaped the Earth in the past).
15. c) They allow for the correlation and relative dating of rock layers from
different locations. (If two separate rock layers contain the same index fossil, they
are considered to be of the same age).
16. b) Erosion, which involves the transport of material. (Weathering is breakdown,
erosion is transport).
17. c) Continental-Continental convergence, where crust is buckled and uplifted.
(Neither plate can subduct easily, so the crust thickens and forms high mountains).
18. b) An alluvial fan, which is a fan-shaped deposit of sediment formed at the
base of a mountain. (A delta forms in standing water, not on a plain at the base of
a mountain).
19. b) the analysis of the Earth's magnetic field and the composition of metallic
meteorites. (The magnetic field requires a liquid, conducting core. Metallic
meteorites are thought to be representative of the core's composition).
20. b) It cooled slowly deep within the Earth's crust, allowing ample time for large
crystals to grow. (This describes the formation of intrusive/plutonic igneous
rocks).
21. c) Plates slide horizontally past one another, causing frequent and powerful
earthquakes. (This is the characteristic motion of a transform fault).
22. c) A high-grade metamorphic rock that experienced intense directional
pressure. (Foliation is the alignment of minerals under directional pressure, a key
feature of many metamorphic rocks).
23. c) Photosynthesis carried out by early organisms, particularly cyanobacteria.
(This biological process released oxygen as a waste product, gradually changing the
atmosphere).
24. b) Rivers and streams. (Rivers carve sharp V-shaped valleys, while glaciers scour
out broader U-shaped valleys).
25. b) Oldest is layer 1 (from outcrop A), Youngest is layer 5 (from outcrop C). (By
aligning the matching index fossil layer (3), you can construct the full sequence: 1
is at the very bottom, and 5 is at the very top).