1)Stone Age

Age of Earth ; 4.59 Billions years

Quaternary stage: Pleistocene (Stone/Paleolithic Age) --> Holocene

Pre-Historic India : no written records available but plenty archaeological remains found to reconstruct history
—> stone tools, pottery, artifacts & metal implements

Stone Age —> Old : Paleolithic ; Middle : Mesolithic ; New : Neolithic

Metal Age

Dating Methods for Pre-Hist Ind :

(1) Radio-Carbon Dating : loss of C in Org

(2) Dendro-Chronology : counting num of tree rings in wood

Pleistocene
Most recen: 2.6 m-8k BC ago-->current Holocene

Man appeared in middle Pleistocene ( when true ox/elephant/horse originated)

Human history stydy by nature of stone tool used

First Homo genus: Homo habilis (2.8 million years ago) --> Homo Ergaster --> Homo Erectus

first species to use stone tools.

Sites Located near water sources, lived in rock shelter & caves

Paleolithic Age: Hunters & Gatherers (26 M to 9000 BCE)

First : Bori (MH) artifacts --> 1.4 million years old

2nd Glaciation : 2.5 lakhs year old

Narmada Human (Homo Erectus) : 2-2.5 lakhs years ago

Lithic technology evolution --> Similar to Africa

Stone tools: Crude Chipping, chopped pebble

Found throughout country except Alluvial plain of Indus/Ganga/Brahmaputra

food only through Hunting & Gathering --> No agriculture/House/Animal rearing

Bori (MH) 1.4 million BCE

Attirmpakkam (TN) 3.5 Lakhs BCE

Narmada Human 2-2.5 Lakhs BCE

Akash Srivastava (AIR 459), [Link]

 Chotanagpur Plateau 1,00,000 BCE

Kurnool, Andhra 20k-10k BCE

Belan Valley, Mirzapur, UP Goats, Sheeps, cattles were reared

Palaeo Era Lower old St age Middle OSA Upper OSA

Time 5L-1L BCE 1L-40K BCE 40K-10K BCE

Age 2nd Himalayan Glaciation 3rd Him. Glaciation End of Ice Age

climate Cold and Humid Less Humid Less Humid and Warm

Char tool Hand-axes & Cleaver, Flakes, Blades(rect) points, Flakes & Blades(triang),
choppers borers, scraps) burins, scrappers

(big tools)

Sites Soan/Sohan Soan, Andhra, Karnataka,

Valley(Indus), Kashmir, Maharashtra,
Belan
Chotanagpur, Belan,
Thar Desert (Didwana,
South of Tungbhadra Bhimbetka, Bihar-JH,
RJ)
Gujarati Dunes
Narmada (Almost
Belan val
similar to Lower age)
Bhimbetka

Narmada val (1L BCE)

Above Division is not uniform.

Most of duration: Ice Age ( mainly in higher altitudes)

Tropical region-->Free from ice-->High rainfall

with time, climate become less humid

Mesolithic Age - Hunters & Herders (9000-5000 BCE)

Intermediate stage -->Warm & Dry (Holocene)

Hunting, Fishing, food gathering (paleo.) -->domestication (later)

Microliths were char tools -->small & sharp stone artifacts

microliths facilitated killing of animals and paintings

Rajasthan, southern UP, Central & Eastern India, Krishna Valley

Bagor (RJ), Adamgarh (MP) -->Earliest Animal Domestication Evidence

Akash Srivastava (AIR 459), [Link]

 major achievement-->domesticated animals started in later-->dogs, horse & cattle

Salt Lake, Sambhar, RJ -->cultivation of Plants (7-6K BCE)

Prehistoric Art:
People of Paleo. & Meso. practiced paintings

Bhimbetka (M.P) - Vindhyan Range - more than 500 painted rock shelter

Age extends from Paleo. to Meso. age (mainly) --> Some are very recent (centuries back)

Birds, Animals & Human beings are painted

Birds/animals appeared in painting were being hunted

Perching birds (lives on grains) absent in earlier paint.

In Belan Valley & Middle Narmada Valley --> all 3 phases of Paleo. followed by Meso. & Neo are found.

Neolithic Age : Food Producers (5000 to 1000 BCE)

Mehrgarh (Baluchistan) --> 7000 BCE

Sites in North India --> Vindhyan Scrap --> 5000 BCE

South India --> 2500-1000 BCE

Tools: polished stones--> sharp stone axes --> found in Hilly tracts

Chief Charact features of Neolithic :

Akash Srivastava (AIR 459), [Link]

1. Agriculture Practice started (esp NWFP)

Produce Ragi & Horsegram (Kulathi)

surplus-->emergence of village

Mehragrh--> little advanced--> produce wheat, cotton and lived in mud-brick houses

2. Domestication of animals

3. Polishing Stone tools

4. Pottery Manufac

5. Use of fire: on large scale

6. Wheels : were invented

This led to emergence of Village comm based on sedentary life

They lived in circular/rectangular houses made up of reed/mud

owned property in common

They neede pots--> for store, cooking, eating etc

Black burnished ware, grey ware & mat impressed ware

3 important areas: N-W, N-E & South

Akash Srivastava (AIR 459), [Link]

 North-West North-East South

tools: rectangular axes with curved Polished stones axes with axes with oval sides and pointed butt
cutting edges rectangular butt & shoulder ed
hoes

Neolithic Sites in Kashmir

Kashmiri Neolithic culture differed by dwelling pits, ceramics & variety of bone & stone tools

Used polished stone & tools made up of Bones ( only other place is Chirand where bone was used)

knwon for megalithic burials where a person was buried with some of his belongings

Burzahom --> "place of birch" --> Near Srinagar

2700 BCE

Hunting & fishing economy (not agri)

people live in lake side pits

Knew Agriculture

coarse grey pottery

domestic dogs buried with their masters in grave (unique)

Gufkral --> "Cave of potter" --> Near Srinagar

Practices both Agriculture & Domestication of Animals (Unlike Burzahom)

Akash Srivastava (AIR 459), [Link]

Chirand ( Saran, Bihar) --> 2000 BCE

Bones tools --> antelopes (horns of deer)

on bank of Ganga, Near Patna

Area of 1000 mm+ rainfall

possible due to open land near 4 rivers confluence (Ganga-Ghaghara-Son-Gandak)

Marks the paucity of stone tools

South India (2500 -1000 BCE)

South of Godavari river

settles on tops of Granite hills/plateaus near river banks

Fire baked earthen figurines implies cattle herding

possessed cattle, sheep & goats

Rubbing stone querns implies agriculture

KRTK: Maski, Brahmagiri, Hallur, Kodekal, Sanganakallu, Narsipur, Piklihal & Takkalakota

Piklihal: cattle herder, sheep, goats

seasonal camps --> use dung

both, ash mounds & habitation sites are found

Akash Srivastava (AIR 459), [Link]
 TN: Paiyampalli

Andhra: Utnur

North East India

In hills of Assam, Garo hills of Meghalaya,

Vindhyas scraps of Mirzapur, Allahabad --> rice cultivation in 6000 BCE

Chalcolithic Age :

from 1800 BC onwards

All over country ( including plains)

Copper was first metal to be used

West Indian sites; contemporary to IVC --> Fortified

Akash Srivastava (AIR 459), [Link]
 East/South Indian sites: Later to IVC and independent

No proper cities -->mainly rural

S-E RJ, West MH, West MP (Semi Arid - Black Soil) & South and East India(red soil)

S-E Rajsthan: Ahar ( aka Tambavati) & Gilund (Banas Valley)

West MP : Malwa Ware pottery, & Kayath

West MH: Daimabad (Largest, Godavari bank), Jorwe, Inamgaon (Jorwe Culture)

Black & Red ware Pottery from MH-MP-RJ

Animal Rearing--> for slaughtering - do not use milk/dairy

Fishing in East India (Fish-Rice)

Kept cows, sheep, goats, pigs, buffalos, deer, camel etc but NOT Horse

Agriculture:

N-W India: Wheat & Bajra, South & Eats India : Rice (similar to Jhum Cult)

other crops; Lentils (masur), black & green gram, grass pea.

Deccan: Cotton, silk (know clothing) Ragi, Bajra etc.

Houses: Mud bricks ( not burnt bricks)

Social Inequality

Burying: In MH--> dead are buried in urns under floor of house in N-S direc.

In south, E-W direc.

Worship: Teracotta figure of women, mother goddess, Bull

Pre-Harappans

Ganeshwar : RJ--> Khetri mines --> Supply copper to Harrapans

Cu Age sites near IVC --> Kayatha (MP), Ganeshwar (RJ) etc

Akash Srivastava (AIR 459), [Link]

 sites like Kalibangan (RJ), Banawali (HR), Koj Diji (Sindh) earlier Cu based--> later bronze based (IVC)

Malwa, MH, East and South India uncontacted with IVC

OCP (Ochre Coloured Pottery); Red slipped ware in black painting --> found extensively in UP Doab

South Indian sites smoothly converted from Neo. to Chalco. (aka Neolithic-Chalcolithic)

Not know to write/nor live in cities/ nor know about Bronze

New Tech of smelting & crafting Metal ores imp deve in Human Civili ; some micro-lithic tools contd to be
essential items

People began to travel long distance to obtain metal ores —> led to network of Chalcolithic cultures in India

Chalcolithic Age followed by Iron Age : referred to in the Vedas

Akash Srivastava (AIR 459), [Link]

Akash Srivastava (AIR 459), [Link]
2)Harappan Culture ( 2550 - 1900 BC )

Harappan Culture = Bronze Age civilisation + Urban Culture

Discovered in 1921 --> Triangular in shape

Largest civil. in 3rd millenium BCE (13 Lakhs Km²)

Central Zone : Sindh & Punjab in Indus Valley

Extent:

All 4 states of Pakistan

J&K, Punjab, Haryana, UP, RJ, GJ, MH (7, #not in MP)

Possibly in Afghan

Mehrgarh (Baloch.): Neolithic-->Early agri (7 mill. BCE)-->Mature Harappan Site

1500+ Sites--> most from late Harappan--> Post-Urban

N : Manda (Chenab R.) near S: Daimabad (MH), Pravara R. (Tr. of W: Sutkagan Dor , Makran Coast of E: Alamgirpur (Yamuna R.) Meerut
Jammu (PirPanjal/ Shiwaliks) Goadavari) Baluchistan

Stages of Evolution of IVC :

Pre-Harappan : Nomadic people began to lead settled Agri Life ; located in [Link] ; @ Mehrgarh

Early-Harappan : People lived in large villages in Plains ; gradual growth of Towns; Transition from Rural to Urban; @ Amri & Kot Diji

Mature Harappan :

Great Cities emerged ; elaborate Town planning & urban features

Most Imp. 6 cities

1.
Harappa ([Link]) --> former course of Ravi river

2.
Mohenjodaro (Sindh & is largest) —> at 483 km linked by Indus to Harappa

3.
Chanhu-daro (Sindh)--. 130 Km south of Mohenjodaro

4.
Lothal (Bhogava/Sabarmati, Bay of Cambay, GJ)

5.
Kalibangan (RJ)

6.

Akash Srivastava (AIR 459), [Link]

 Banawali (HR)

Coastal cities--> Sutkagon dor(Near Gwader) & Surkotada (Kutch) --> Have citadel

Late Harappan :

Decline of Indus Culture started ; @ Lothal ;

Lothal : emporium of trade b/w Harappan & India + Mesopotamia

Rangpur & Rojdi (Kathiawar, GJ)

Sites which saw all three phases

Bhagwanpura (HR)-->Ghaggar-Hakra Channel

Rakhigarhi (HR)--> Ghaggar-Hakra (largest IVC site in India)

Dholavira (GJ):

Fortification , only city divided into 3 parts (rest only 2)

hadrainwater harvesting sys (parched land)

Akash Srivastava (AIR 459), [Link]

 Locatedon Khadir Island (Kuchh)

—> Salient Features of Harappan Culture :

Town Planning :

Distinguished sys of Town Planning on lines of Grid Sys : street & lanes cutting at _|_ thus dividing city into several Rect blocks (In every city)

Citadel built on high podium of Mud bricks ; below Citadel in each city lay Lower Town of Brick houses inhab. by common people

Granaries and common bath

Large scale use of Burnt bricks (B:L[Link]) in all constructions + absence of Stone buildings

Courtyard and bathroom in every small or big houses in every city

Underground Drainage sys connecting all houses to Street Drains

Some drains covered by stone slab / bricks + MAN-HOLES

Great Most Imp

Bath place of
Mohenjodaro

tank situated
in citadel
mound

39 * 23 * 8 ft
; served as
Ritual
Bathing site

Flight of
steps at
either end
lead to
surface +
side rooms
for changing
clothes +
floor of Baths
made of
Burnt Bricks

water drawn
from large
well in
adjacent
room &
outlet at one
corner led to
drain

Granary Largest
building in
Mohenjodaro

located in
citadel

Single &
Large--
>measuring
150 * 50 ft

small holes
on side
walls--> for
gaseous
exchange (to
stop
fermentation)

Akash Srivastava (AIR 459), [Link]

 Harappan located in
Granary citadel

6 small
granary, total
area = to that
of
Mohenjodaro

South of
Granary-->
working brick
platforms &
floors --> for
grain
threshing

Wheat &
Barley found
at crevices

Barracks for
workers

Kalibangan :
Granary
brick
platforms

Economic Life :
Agriculture :

Wheat & Barley : main crops

beside sesamum (ितल ), mustard, Rai, peas & cotton

Rice at Lothal

IVC: first to produce cotton in world-> Greek called them "Sindon"-->Sindh

Akash Srivastava (AIR 459), [Link]

 trefoil pattern shawl -->wool --> knitting was known

Taxes paid in grains --> stored in granaries

Indus region not so fertile today but was fertile & vegetated in ancient times —> was due to annual inundation of Indus

Flood were annual-->wall around cities

No canal irrigation in IVC-->but furrows in Kalibangan

Gabarbands/Nalas to store water in Dam in Baloch.

No hoe/plough found--> possibly wooden tools used

Just like Nile created Egypt & supported people —> Indus created Sindh & fed its people

Domestication of Animals

Animals like oxen, buffalo, sheep, goat & pigs were domesticated

Humped bulls were popular, knew about Rhino, elephants & Tigers,

Cat, Dog were pet

Camel & Ass (burden carrying)

In Gujarat, Elephants were domesticated

remains of Horse bones @ Surkotada (160 km NE of Bhuj, GJ)

Industry & Crafts :

Artisans --> bronze-smiths, goldsmiths, brick-makers (masons), stone cutters, weavers, boat builders & terracotta manufac

Bronze & Copper outstanding vessels eg of Harappan Metal Craft

Gold & Silver ornaments ornaments found ; Pottery remains plain ; beads manufac from semi-precious stones

Use of Potter's wheel

Rise of Towns in Indus Zone —> based on agro surplus , making of bronze tools + widespread trade & commerce

Harappan —> First Urbanization in India

Copper from Khetri/Baloch, Tin/Gold/Silver from Afghan, Precious stones from South India

Trade : Harappans were mainly traders

Internal Trade extensive with other parts of India ; Foreign Trade with Afghan, Mesopotamia (Iraq), Sumer (S-Iran), DIlmun (Bahrain, Qatar), Makan
(Oman), Magan (Makran Coast)

Imports = Metal (copper, tin-->from Afghan) + Semi-precious stones

Exports = Agro-products + Finished products ( cotton goods, pottery, beads, terracotta figures & ivory products )

Trade links = barter type b/w Indus & Sumerian(S Iraq & Kuwait) people by Boat + Bullock-cart

Baot making was known-->Lothal

Harappans carried long distance trade in Lapis-lazuli (precious stone)

Mesopotamian Civil:

refer trade with Meluha ( i.e. IVC)

Harappans seals are found there

Akash Srivastava (AIR 459), [Link]

 Two intermediate trading stations: Dilmun (Bahrain) & Makan

Political Ogranization

Cultural Homogeneity implies possibly a central authority

May be ruled by Merchants class

No weapons found

No religious structure/temples except Great Bath

Fire cult at Lothal

Social Life :

Social Differentiation indicated by diff residential structures (Citadel = Ruling class ; Middle settlement = Bureaucrats + merchants ; lowest tower = common
people)

Household articles made of pottery, stone shells ivory found in Mohenjodaro

Children’s toys included clay-carts + marbles balls dice

Fishing - regular occupation ; Hunting & Bull fighting were other pastimes

Weapons of War : axes spearheads daggers bows arrows made of Copper & bronze

Weights and Measures:

Weighing mostly in multiples of 16 (16, 64, 160 etc)--> Till last century ( 16 annas--> 1 rupee)

Bronze sticks inscribed with measures marks

Arts :

Harappan sculpture : high degree of workmanship - figures of men, women, animals & birds made of Terracotta Figurines & on Seals

Highest no is of women terracotta

Terracota Figurines : figurines made of fire-baked earthen clay

Seals & images manufac with great skill but terracotta represents unsophisticated artistic works —> illustrates contrast b/w 2 sets of classes that used them

No massive work of stone art like Mesopot./Egypt

One Steatite(Mg rock) statue: wears ornamented robe, head are are kept tidy by woven fillet

2 Stone statues from Harappa : rep back view of man + dancer

Pottery of Harappan another specimen of fine arts : pots & jars painted with various designs & colors

Pictorial motifs of geometrical patterns

Harappan Pottery: painted, use of Potter's wheel

Seals have mostly animals sculptures (Unicorn, Pashupati)

No spoked wheel ( Early Vedic people used)

Akash Srivastava (AIR 459), [Link]

Dancing from Mohenjodaro
girl made of bronze (naked except
necklace)

relaxed posture

bangles in full left hand

Bearded Mohenjodaro
Priest steatite

man wearing trefoil pattern shawl

which suggest wool was known
(apart from cotton)

Unicorn From Mohenjodaro

Seal Mythical animal-resemblance
with rhino

steatite

Akash Srivastava (AIR 459), [Link]

Bull Seal found at Harappa

Steatite

[Link]

Script :

Harappans invented art of writing like ancient Mesopotamia

Yet to be fully deciphered ; b/w 400 & 600 signs : 40/60 are basic rest variants

Script is not alphabetical but mainly pictographic--> represents some sounds, idea or object

Script mostly written from right to left ; In few long seals : Boustrophedon method ( writing in ‘meandering’ way L —> R then R—> L )

Mystery of Harappan script still exists : may be Dravidian / Brahmi

Religion :

Mother Goddess Harappans looked upon earth as fertility goddess

Chief Female Deity : Mother Goddess —> Rep in terracotta figurines -->
Plant grown from embryo

From Mohenjo Daro

made from clay (terracotta)

Akash Srivastava (AIR 459), [Link]

 Pasupati Seal Chief Male diety : Pasupati Mahadev (proto-Siva)

Represented in seals as sitting in yogic posture with 3 faces & 2 horns

made up of steatite

surrounded by 4 animals : elephant tiger rhino! (bc NW India mein

Rhino) BUFFALO !! each facing diff direction ;

2 antelope appear on his feet

Phallus worship began during Harappa (Female Sex organs)--> stone structures are found

Tree & Animal :

They worshiped Gods in form of trees, animals & human beings but gods were not placed in temples (unlike Egypt & Mesopotamia)

Indus people worshiped trees i.e. Pipal (Till now)

Sacred Animals : Unicorn(( Identified as Rhino), Humped Bull

Amulets are found -->Believed in ghosts & evil forces & used amulets as protection against them

Burial Methods :

Complete burial & Post-cremation burial popular @ Mohenjodaro

Burial pits lined with burnt bricks indicating use of coffin @ Lothal ; also found pot burials with pair of skeletons

Double burials @ Dholavira (two human together)

Comparison of Harappa with Mesopotamia :

Harappa indicative of well-planned growth (Rect houses + brick lined bathrooms + stairways ); Mesopotamia show haphazard growth ; no such town planning
evident in cities of [Link]

No other culture had such excellent Drainage System or such skill in use of burnt bricks

Harappans prod own char Pottery & Seals & Script which resembled neither Egyptian / Mesopotamian

No other culture zone in 3rd & 2nd millenia BC as widespread as Harappan

Akash Srivastava (AIR 459), [Link]

Decline of Harappan Culture :

Pop: 60 lakhs displaced-->No unanimous view ; Various theories :

Natural calamitiies: recurring floods, inundation, drying rivers, no rainfall, decreasing fertility of soil due to exploitation, Earthquake

Crafts & commerce collapsed due to sudden end of long-distance land & sea-trade with Mesopotamia

Invasion of Aryans: final blow

believed by many historians

Reference: war b/w locals & Aryans at place Haryuipa-->mentioned in Rigveda

Aryans had superior weapons as well as swift horses which might have enabled them to become masters of this region

Post Urban Cultures : primarily Chalcolithic viz used tools of stone & copper ; not metal objects

Late Harappa: mostly rural--> Jammu, Punjab, HR, West UP

Akash Srivastava (AIR 459), [Link]

3)Aryan || Vedic Phase (1500-1000 BC )

==>> Aryan Culture ( 1500 BC ):

Aryan Culture set out by Vedic, Iranian & Greek literary texts : (1) Rig Veda_1500 BC (2) Avesta: 1400 BC (3)
Homer’s Illiad & Odyssey_900 BC

Genetic Marker : M-17 found in C. Asian & Delhi people —> Indo-Aryans migrated from [Link]

Iraq: First Indo-European Lang inscription-->2200 BC,

Anatolia, Turkey: Hittite inscription (, 1700 BC)

initially Indo-Euro lang were written in Mithani, Kittite & Kasaite inscription

Aryans:

several tribe but distinguished by common lang (linguistic group)

Lived in Steppes ( Southern Russia to Central Asia)

nomadic & pastoralists (Agri was secondary)

Male dominated society

First appeared in 1500 BC in India

Akash Srivastava (AIR 459), [Link]

 they brought Sanskrit to India

initially knowledge of Sanskrit was in Shruti tradition (oral)

Rigveda: initially oral (Shruti)

600BC-->Sanskrit written in Brahmi Script

1. Horse & Cow + Iron Age:

Regarded as indispensable trait of Aryan Culture

Tiger & Rhino known to Harappan but unknown in Rig Veda as not found in cold non-tropical conditions of
[Link]

Cattle-->greatest wealth-->mentioned 176 times in RV by several names:

Gavisthi: Search for cow (or War),

Gavyu, Gosa, Goapjanya: cow

Aghanya: which means not be killed, it refereed to cattle (only economic value, not sacred value @ that
time)

Goghana: means eating beef-->meal which was served to guest (respect for guest)

Earliest domesticated horse found at considerable distance (6000 BC, Black Sea & [Link] region ) from
Indian Sub-continent (2000 BC Eurasia )

In India. earliest horses remains are found in Swat Valley (Pak).

2. War Chariot : Indo-Europeans widely used horse-drawn chariots

3. better arms of bronze (little eviden) & possibly Cu from Khetri

4. Spoked Wheels

5. Pit Dwelling : lived in semi-subterranean houses in additions to surface ones ; Burial seems to have developed
in imitation of pit-dwelling

6. Birch : use of birch-wood = Aryan Features ; used to construct structures tog with pine & cedar ; subterranian
dwellings covered with birch

7. Cremation : dev as Aryan trait but not feature of mature Harappan

8. Fire Cult: special trait of both Indo-Aryans & Indo-Iranians ; Fire worship imp in Veda & Avesta

9. Animal Sacrifice : imp Aryan ritual + universal practice among pastoral tribal —> didn’t raise cattle for dairy ;
early pastoral were great meat eaters
Akash Srivastava (AIR 459), [Link]
10. Horse Sacrifice

11. Cult of Soma: it is debated ; may be ‘ephedra’ plant

12. Svastika: symbol conceived as mark of Aryanism

13. Language & Inscriptional Evidence: Indo-European languages divided into E (proto-Indo-Iranian) & W
branches

==>> Age of Rig Veda :(1500-1000 BC)

We know abt Aryans in India from Rig Veda : earliest text of Indo-European languages ; written in Sanskrit ,
also includes many Munda & Dravidian

Rig Veda: Collection of prayers offered to Agni, Indra etc.

Consists of ten Mandals (Books)

Book II-VII are oldest

Book # I & #X are latest (comparatively)

Many thing common with Avesta (oldest Persian book)

Indian river mention in Avesta-->Iranian Hinterland in Rigveda

Sindhu : most described river & river par Excellence (most Impt)

Sarswati (aka Naditarana) : best & most Sacred river--> Possibly it was Ghaggar-Hakra -->But acc. to RIg Veda
description; Avestan river Harakhwati or Helmund river in Afghan

Vitasta: Jhelum

Askini: Chenab

Parushani: Ravi

Vipasha: Beas

Shutudri: Satluj

Aryans Settled in land of seven rivers ( Sapt-Sindhu) --> See geographical extension

Akash Srivastava (AIR 459), [Link]

Indo-Iranians moved towards India from 2 areas of [Link] :

Whole [Link] : Andronovo Culture —> manifests all imp parts of Aryan life —> t.f. regarded as proto-
Indo-Iranian

South [Link] : Bactria-Margiana-Archaelogical Complex ( BMAC )

Indo Aryans succeeded everywhere cos they had chariots drawn by horses & intro them for 1st time in
[Link] & India

Indra (Purandara in Rig Veda)-->breaker of fort--> helps Aryans in defeating enemy (Mythological)

Aryan Soldiers equipeed with coats of mail --> Varman ( metal chain coat)

Akash Srivastava (AIR 459), [Link]

Aryans were soft towards Dasas (early Aryans)-->better treatment-->generally offered high officers

but strongly hostile towards Dasyus (non-Aryans locals)--> Dasyuhatya (Slaughter of Dasyus) is mentioned in
Rig Veda

Indo-Aryans engaged in 2 types of conflicts : (1) with Pre-Aryans (2) with themselves : intra-tribal conflicts
rocked Aryan communities

Aryans divided into 5 tribes (Panchjanas)--> Bharata & Tristu were ruling clans --> supported by Priest
Vishwamitra (initially) & Vasishtha (later)

Bharata:

most impt & powerful tribe

Bharata ruler Sudasa with help of Vishwamitra captured 3-4 terri in NW India

Vishwamitra replaced with Vasishtha Rishi (most knowledgeable person)

Later, Vishwamitra help 10 kings in war with Bharata

Battle of ten Kings:

fought on river Parushni (Ravi)

Bharatas vs 10 tribes (5 Aryans + 5 locals)

Decisive victory of Bharatas

Most imp defeated tribe was of Purus

Later Purus +Bharatas = Kuru Clan in upper Gangetic Basin

Akash Srivastava (AIR 459), [Link]

 Bharatvarsha : country named after Aryan ruling tribe Bharata

Rig Vedic people had superior knowledge of Agro ; ploughshare mentioned in R.V-->to produce fodder

R.V. people were predominantly pastoral ; most wars fought over cows (most imp form of wealth) ; land not
well-estd type of property yet

Gifts made to Priest--> cows and women slaves not land

No taxation: Bali system

Artisans; chariot maker (high place in society), carpenter, weaver, leather woker, potters

Ayas--> refer to copper or Bronze-->metal working was known

Mainly use land routes--> Samudra mentioned in RV

Not lived in cities--> lived in fortified mud settlements

Bhagwanpura, HR ( 1600-1000 BC)-->Painted grey Ware & 13 roomed mud house

Adm machinery of Aryans in R.V. period = Tribal Chiefdom

Tribal Chiefdom = Rajan didn't exercise unlimited power ; had to reckon with tribal org (Samiti)

King was hereditary & in some places elected

most impt work: king fought wars & was protector of his tribe & cattle

Rajan supported by several assemblies:

Tribal & kin-based assemblies s.a. Sabha, Samiti, Vidatha, Gana : exercised deliberative, military &
religious funcs

Two most imp were

Sabha : most impt-->exclusive

less political in char + had elders & nobles

women were also part

Samiti : dealt with Administration, Policy decisions & pol business

less exclusive-->inc Common People incl women

Vidatha: functions not cleared

women were part

Akash Srivastava (AIR 459), [Link]

 possibly religious

( totally OPPOSITE from GRAM SABHA of today )

Purohita-->priest, assist king

2 most imp Priest--> Vasishtha (conservative) & Vishwamitra (liberal)

Vishvamitra composed “ Gayatri Mantra" (to widen Aryan world)—> eventually made monopoly of 3
higher varnas

Titles of officials didnt indicate territorial adm

Term ‘jana = tribe’ occurs at 275 places in Rig Veda but term ‘janapada = territory’ not said even once

Women

Patriarchal society (male head)-->but not extreme

women were given resp position in society

allowed to attend sabha, samiti & Vidatha

allowed to attend all religious rituals & functions

can choose there partner under Gandharva Vivah (love marriage)

Niyog Vivah was also prevalent (re-marriage of widow)

no instances of sati & child-marriage-->marriage only after attaining puberty

women were allowed to acquire all kind of education

Polyandry allowed

Women poets : Apala, Visvaswara, Ghosa, Lopamundra

Factor contri most to social divisions —> conquest of indi-inhabitants by Indo-Aryans

Indo-Aryan lang speakers were fair & indigeneous inhabitants dark in complexion (Varna)—> colour proved
earliest identifier for social order

Rig Veda mentions Arya varna & Dasa varna

Dasas / Dasyus conq by Aryans were treated as slaves & shudras

Akash Srivastava (AIR 459), [Link]
 Tribal chiefs & Priests acquired larger share of booty & naturally became wealthy at cost of their kinsmen
—> creating social ineq in tribes

Gradually Tribal society divided into 3 occupational grps : Warriors + Priests + Common people (same as
Iran)

4th div viz Shudra appeared towards end of Rig Vedic period (10th mandalas)

Unequal distri of spoils of war created social ineq —> aided rise of princes at cost of common tribal people

However as eco was mainly pastoral & not food-prod , scope for collecting regular tributes from poeple very
ltd

Tribal elements in society were stronger & social div based on collections of taxes / accu of land did not
exist

Thus, society was still Tribal & egalitarian

Rig Vedic Gods :

Every people discover their religion in their surroundings

Aryans found natural phenomena diff to explain —> personified these natural forces & looked at them as
living beings & attributed human / animal attributes

Indra (Purandra):

most impt vedic god

aka Purandra: breaker of forts

was god of rain

most aggressive & rowdy god

Agni:

2nd most impt

god of cosmic order & fire

also intermediary god

Akash Srivastava (AIR 459), [Link]

Varun: god of water

Marut: god of wind & storm

Savitri: gayatri mantra dedicated to gayatri

other female goddess: Usha, Aditi, & ILA

purpose of worhsip-->for material rewards-->wasn't for any spiritual upliftment

Vedic people freq pray for Praja (children), Pashu (cattle) & horses

People wished for Suvirah (brave son)

Mode of worship: by offering sacrifices, fruits & vegetables, & by performing Yagna

Worships (prayers & sacrifice) wasn't accompanied by rituals and formula ( est in Yajurveda)

Magical power of word was not considered imp as in later Vedic times

Akash Srivastava (AIR 459), [Link]

4)Later Vedic
==>> Later Vedic Phase ( 1000 - 500 BC ) :

Divide into 3 parts: Aryavarta (northern part), Madhyadesh & Purvakhand (Khand-desh)

Dense forests like Champaranya, Aranya & Saranya in Eastern part->mentioned in vedas

Samhitas : collections of Vedic hyms / mantras

4 Vedas :

Rigveda Oldest Vedic text on whose basis early Vedic age described (only vedic text, rest
from later vedic)

Samaveda modified collections of prayers of Rig Veda for recitation purpose

Yajurveda contains hyms & rituals to accompany recitation

Atharvaveda contains charms & spells to ward off evils & diseases —> beliefs & practices of non-
Aryans

Vedic Samhitas followed by composition of series of texts : Brahmanas ( have ritualistic formulae & explain
social/religious meaning of rituals )

Painted Grey Ware (PGW) : sites inhabited by people using earthern bowls & dishes made of painted grey
pottery

Bharatas + Purus = Kurus (settled in Delhi / Kurukshetra)

History of Kuru tribe imp for battle of Bharatas = theme of Mahabharata

War b/w Kauravas & Pandavas (both of Kuru ) wiped out entire Kuru clan

Kurus + Panchals , settled in Hastinapur, Meerut

Excavations do not reflect description of Hastinapur in Mahabharata as it compiled in 4th AD (~ 1000 years
later) when material life greatly adv

Nagara is used in later vedic-->but Hastinapur & Kaushambi were primitive towns (proto-urban)

Features:

Iron: used on large scale to cut forests

Iron, like horse, underwent long gestation period , took many years to learn art of separating iron ores from
minerals

1000 BC: Iron appears in Dharawad (KT)

Akash Srivastava (AIR 459), [Link]

 800 BC onwards : Cleared the dense Gangetic Basin open for agro using iron axes

Shyama/Krishna Ayas : copper or Bronze

Land: become main wealth

Agriculture: chief means of livelihood-->only subsistence-->not sufficient for sale/tax-->no urban dev

Pastoral & semi-nomadic living earlier—> Agro became primary source of livelihood —> life became settled
& sedentary

wooden ploughshare

rice (Vrihi) & wheat chief crops (earlier Barley and wheat), also pulse

Peasants living in Plains prod enough to maintain themselves + spare marginal part of their produce for
support of chiefs, princes & priests

Kings

Role of king become impt

he was expected to acquire more & more land

Kings didnt hesitate to do manual labour ; eventually ploughing assigned to lower & prohibited for upper
varnas

he was offered Bali (voluntary) & Bhaga (1/6th-1/8th of produce-->compulsory)

Social Changes:
Later Vedic Phase reg great advance in material life of people :

Equipped with diverse Arts & Crafts, Vedic people now settled permanently in upper Gangetic plains

In later times, Rig Vedic tribal assemblies lost imp & royal power increase at their cost

Vidatha compl dissap (rise of Brahmins)

Sabha & Samiti char changed-->dom by cheifs, nobles & Brahmins-->women no longer permiited

Formation of larger kingdoms incr power of chief / king ; Tribal authority tended to become territorial

name of territory on largest tribe comm of area-->Panchal tribe, Kuru etc

Earlier, election for king —> best in physical & attributes was elected, then Ruler perpetuated right to receive
presents & enjoy privileges by making it hereditary

rise of brahmanas--> affect political decisions & new complex rituals for supremacy of king

King’s influence, power on people strengthened by Rituals :

Rajasuya Yagna onfer supreme power on him-->dakshina of cattle & other wealths to priests--> 17
days

Akash Srivastava (AIR 459), [Link]

Ashvamedha Yagna uncond control over area on which royal horse ran uninterrupted--> 3 days

Vajapeya Yagna Royal chariot race (aka Drink of strength; Soma)-->21-30 days-->people were
invited for celeb

Sangrihitri :officer who collect taxes & tributes (become common this time)

Aryanization promoted social differentiation —> It was Vedic Aryans who intro Varna System

Brahmana; were one of 16 classes of priests-->emerged most impt

Rise of Brahmanas :

Growing cult of sacrifices added enormously to power of Brahmanas

(1) Conducted Rituals & Sacrifices for clients

(2) Officiated at festivals assoc with agro operations

(3) Prayed for success in war & in return king pledged not to harm them

Vaishyas: only tribute payers in later Vedic times

Brahmanas & Kshatriyas living on tributes collected from Vaishyas

Process of subjugating mass of tribesmen to pos of tribute payers long & protracted

Rituals prescribed for making refractory elements submissive to prince & kinsmen

All 3 varnas shared common feature : Upanayana ( sacred thread )

Women: cond worsened

not allowed to participate in sabha/samiti

not allowed to participate in religious rituals

deprived of upanayana & recitation of Gayatri Mantra

but allowed to gain education--> mentioned in Gargi-Yajnyavalkya Conversation.

Akash Srivastava (AIR 459), [Link]

 No concrete evidence of Child-marriage

Marriage: new kindmarriage traditions appeared

Anuloma Vivah: higher caste male to lower caste female (though not encouraged but allowed) (Asura)

Pratiloma Vivah: Lower caste male to higher caste female (not allowed)

Daiva Vivah: girl marriage to Priest with gifts

Bramha Vivah: same caste by consent of parents (arranged)

Gandharva Vivah: love-maariage( encouraged for same caste)

Asura Viavah: Anuloma Viavah

Rakshasha Vivah: girl was captured

Pisach Vivah: girl was intoxicated (drunk) & married to someone

Gotra:

lit means: place where cattle of clan were kept

lineage from common ancestor

Brahmana advised for exogamy (not to marry in same gotra)

Shudra:

mentioned in 10th mandala of Rigveda (Pursha Sukti)

it mentioned to divide society in 4 varnas on basis of job/work

Shudra--> orginated from feet, Brahmans: mouth, Kshatriya: Arms & Vaishyas: thigh

they were also deprived of (1) Thread ceremony (2) Recitation of Gayatri Mantra

—> T.f. : Imposition of disabilities on Shudras & Women started towards end of Vedic period

Akash Srivastava (AIR 459), [Link]

Arts & Crafts :

Vedic people familiar with Copper from outset

Copper 1st metal to be used by them ; copper mines of Khetri in Rajasthan

Copper objects found in PGW sites : principally used for War & Hunting + ornaments

Weaving confined to women but practised on large scale ; leather work, carpentry, pottery made great
progress

mud-brick houses or wattle-and-daub hoses erected on wooden poles

Later Vedic 4 types of Pottery :

(1) Black & Red Earthern ware: by locals Bihar & Eastern UP (also Cu implements)

(2) Black-slipped Ware

(3) PGW : Most distinctive Pottery of period —> consisted of bowls & dishes, used for rituals / eating
probably by emerging upper orders

found in W-UP, HR-PN, RJ (Matsya, Madra)

Glass hoards & bangles in PGW layers also found

Sites; Atranjikhera (Eta), Hastinapur, Noh (HR)

(4) Ochre or Red Ware: Most popular, by locals of Western UP (also Cu implements)

On whole, Vedic texts & excavations indicate cultivation of specialised crafts

Akash Srivastava (AIR 459), [Link]

Nishkas(Rig Vedic), Satmana gold Coins krishnala (silver coins Later Vedi) used in transaction : world’s oldest
coins being stolen in Dhoom-2

Akash Srivastava (AIR 459), [Link]

Akash Srivastava (AIR 459), [Link]
Shrenis / guilds / shanas : when Baniyas Traders org themselves into Trade union

Ganasanghas : Republics, not monarchies of Mahajanpad

Upanishads : constitute essence of Hindu Philosophy

Towards end of Vedic period strong reaction arose against priestly domination, cults & rituals

Progressive section-->they propagated ascetic values: aim of life should be spiritual gain, not material gain

focus on Knowledge of self acquired + Relation of atma with Brahma properly understood —> Brahma (&
soul) emerged as supreme id

they used to live in isolated & hermit kind of habitaion

through mediation, theyacquired spiritual powers-->become popular in society

their thougths were compiled in Upanishads

Buddha-->first person to talk about soul

are #100+ Philosophical texts criticized rituals & stressed on right Belief & Knowledge

Teachings promoted stability & integration

Akash Srivastava (AIR 459), [Link]

 Emphasis on changelessness, indestructibility & immortality of soul served cause of stability —> necessary
to sustain rising State power of kshatriya

Brahamins started upnishads thoughts & ascetic ways-->give ashrama system:

Ashramas (4 stages of life)--> only 3 mentioned by later-Vedic texts :

Brahmachari : student

Grihastha : house-holder (main)

Vanaprastha : hermit

Sannyasi : ascetic (was not est fully in later vedic)

Aranyakas : “forest books” : rhymes rituals mysticism sacrifice

Worship:

2 outstanding Rig Vedic Gods —> Indra & Agni lost imp to Prajapati (the creator)

Rudra--> god of animal (minor gods fo vedic period became impt)

Vishnu: preserver & Protector of people

Pushan: god of [Link] god of shudras

aim of worship: Salvation & purity of souls

sign of idoltry (murti-pooja) appeared

Sacrifices became far more imp —> assumed public & domestic char-->large scale cattle destr

Goghana: guest (one who fed on cattle)-->beef eating

Formulae & sacrifices were invented, adopted & elaborated by priests (Brahmanas) : claimed monopoly of
priestly knowledge & expertise

Akash Srivastava (AIR 459), [Link]

5)Jainism & Buddhism ( 500 BC )
Numerous religious sects arose in 5-6 BC = 62 of them

Both Mahavir & Buddha belonged to Kshatriya clan & disputed authority of Brahmanas

Real cause of rise of new religions —> spread of new agro economy in NE India
rise of new Agro economy bcoz of :

rainfall 100 cm+ in eastern UP & Bihar

moist, fertile and soft soil

mass use of iron axes to cut thick forests

iron-plough

Why gradually killing of cattle stopped ?

Agro eco based on iron ploughshare reqd use of bullocks & could not flourish w/o Animal Husbandry

However Vedic practices of killing cattle indiscriminately in sacrifices hampered —> cattle wealth dec

Non-Vedic tribal people living also killed cattle for food

If new Agrarian Eco had to be stabilised —> killing to be halted

Why did Jainism & Buddhism become popular ?

1.
J&B attach no imp to existing varna sys —> Vaishyas (Num. 3) sought religion that would improve their pos

2.
J&B preached non-violence —> put end to war b/w kingdoms —> good for trade & commerce

3.
Dharmasutra (brahmanical law-books) decried lending (& living on) money on interest —> t.f. Vaishyas
lending money for T&C held in low esteem

4.
J&B propounded simple, puritan, ascetic living :

Old fashioned people reacted strongly against growing “Pvt property culture” : new forms of property
(coins, dwellings, clothes) created social ineq —> caused misery & suffering to ordinary people

Common people yearned to return to primitive, ascetic lifestyle dispensing of new forms of property

e.g. With Industrial age, many people yearned return to pre-machine age lifestyle ; similarly (ancient
time, pre-iron age)
Akash Srivastava (AIR 459), [Link]
==>> JAINISM :
Tirthankars = Religious teachers of Jainism [ 23 + Vardhaman Mahavir ( 30 —> 12 years wandering —> 42,
attained omniscience—> preached for 30 ) ]

most tirt were born in middle ganag basin & attained nirvana in Bihar

RIshabdeva: 1st, born in Ayodhya

Parshvanath; 23rd--> born in Varanasi--.>gave up royal life, become ascetic-->live 200y b4 Mahavir

Vardhaman Mahavir:

born in 540 BC in Kundagram near Vaishali

father: Sidhharth-->head of powerful Kshatriya clan Jnatrika

Mother: Trishala-->sister of Licchhavi chief Chetaka-->whose daughter married to Bimbisara

he left home at 30-->@42 attained Kaivalya(Juan)

bcoz of this conquest (over misery & Happiness)-->came to known as mahavir (great Hero) or Jina--> &
followers: Jainas

wandered for 30 y-->Koshala,Magadha, Mithila, Champa etc

died in 468BC @ Pavapuri (Rajgir)

Doctrines of Jainism :Believe in soul (as Jiva/Jina)

Do not (1) Violence (2) Lie (3) Steal (4) accumulate wealth (5) Observe continence (brahmacharya)

Jainism attached utmost imp to ahimsa / non-injury to living beings

Recog existence of Gods but kept lower than Mahavir

Did not condemn Varna sys like Buddhism did !!!

Theory of Karma : Person born in upper / lower Varna as consequence of sins committed / virtues acqd
in previous birth

recogn existence of god-->but placed them lower than Jina (who have attained Juan/Kaivalya--> Mahavira)

Jainism aims at attainment of freedom from worldly bonds :

No ritual necessary for liberation but th. Tritatna in Jainism Right : (1) Knowledge (2) Faith (3) Action

Akash Srivastava (AIR 459), [Link]

 Jainism split into 2 sects : (1) Shvetambaras = donned white garments (2) Digambaras = remain naked

Contributions of Jainism :

Jainism made 1st serious attempt to mitigate evils of Varna order & ritualistic Vedic religion

Discarded Sanskrit ( lang patronized by Brahmanas ) & adopted Prakrit ( lang of common people ) to
preach their doctrines

Jainism religious lit written in Ardhamagadhi ; Texts compiled at Valabhi, Guj

Adoption of Prakrit helped growth of lang & lit ; many regional lang deve out of Prakrit = Shauraseni
(Marathi)

Composed earliest imp works in Apabhramsha + epics, Puranas, novels & drama

Contri to growth of Kannada, in which they wrote extensively

Orig Jains were not image worshippers, later began to worship Mahavir

Beautiful & massive image stone sculptures for this purpose esp in Karnataka

Jain Council

1st Jain Council : 200 BC :Pataliputra

2nd Jain Council : 400 AD : Vallabhi : Final Compliation of Jain Lit = 12 Angas completed

As Jainism did not clearly differentiate itself from Brahmanical religion , it failed to attract the masses

==>> BUDDHISM :
Buddha, contemporary of Mahavir 29 —> 35, attained enlightenment under Pipal tree

Undertook long journeys & carried message far ; walk 20/30 km/day —> wandering, preaching, meditating for
40 yrs, resting only during rainy season

Doctrines of Buddhism :

Buddha was practical reformer + took note of realities ;

Didnt get into fruitless controversies of meta-physical stuff like god, soul, karma but concerned himself to
practical problems faced by people

Said world was full of sorrows || Suffering due to DESIRES

Akash Srivastava (AIR 459), [Link]

 If desires conquered —> nirvana attained —> man free from cycle of Birth & Death

Buddha reco 8-fold path for elimination of human misery :

RIght (1) View (2) Thought (3) Speech (4) Action (5) Livelihood (6) Effort (7) Mindfullness (8)
Concentration (VTSALEMC)

Person sh avoid mechanisations of Priests + 8 fold path

Person sh avoid excess of both luxury, austerity & prescribed Middle path

Also laid down Code of Conduct for followers - Violence, Steal, Intoxicants, Lie, Sexual mis-conduct

Features of Buddhism :

Buddhism DID NOT recog existence of God & Soul : Early Buddhism had no claptrap of phi discussions —
> appealed to common people

BUDDHA NEITHER ACCEPTS OR REJECTS GOD

Buddhism also believed in KARMA but only in this life ,

Won support of lower orders cos attacked Varna sys

Liberal & Demo in comp to Brahmanical —> all people accepted

Appealed to non-Vedic people as they were looked down upon by orthodox Brahmanas

Monks had to take vow of (1) Continence (2) Poverty (3) Faith

3 Principal elements in Buddhism : (1) Buddha (2) Dhamma (3) Sangha

4 Noble Truths of Buddhism : World is full of sorrow , cos of desires, so we must conquer desires, Middle
Path

Due to Ashoka, Buddhism spread to C & [Link], Sri Lanka, Myanmar, Tibet —> made it into World
Religion

Although Buddhism disappeared from land of birth, but continues to hold ground in S, SE & [Link]

Akash Srivastava (AIR 459), [Link]

 Buddha personality & method of spreading helped :

Sought to fight evil by goodness & hatred by love ; Refused to be provoked by slander & abuse

Maintained his poise & calm under difficult circumstances ; Tackled his opponents with wit & presence
of mind e.g. I donot accept this gift

Causes of decline of Buddhism :

Every religion is inspired by spirit of reform but eventually it succumbs to rituals & ceremonies it orig
denounces

Buddhism became victim to evils of Brahminism against viz initially fought

To meet Buddhist challenge, Brahmanas reformed their religion —> (1) Stressed need to preserve cattle
wealth (2) Assured women & shudras of entry to heaven

Buddhism changed for worse :

Gradually Buddhist monks cut off from mainstream of people’s lives

Monks gave up Pali & took up Sanskrit, lang of intellectuals

Started idol worship on large scale || Received numerous offerings & grants from devotees —>
Enormous wealth of monasteries

Buddhist monasteries came to be dominated by ease-loving people & became centres of corrupt
practices

Several instances of persecution occur in 6-7 BC by Pashyamitra Shunga, Huna king Mihirakula (shaivite),

Shaivite Shashanka of Gauda (Bengal) cut the Bodhi tree @ Bodh Gaya

Monastery riches attracted Turkish invaders’s greed

Significance & Influence of Buddhism :

Buddhists showed keen awareness of problems faced by people

Iron ploughshare-based Agro + Trade +punch marked coins enabled traders & nobles to accumulate
wealth —> created sharp S-E inequalities

Buddhism t.f. advised people not to accumulate wealth ; acc to B, poverty breeds hatred, cruelty &
violence

Akash Srivastava (AIR 459), [Link]

 Code of conduct for monks ~ revolt against money, pvt prop & luxurious living

Buddhism sought to (1) Mitigate evils due to new Material Life in 5 BC (2) Consolidate changes in S-E life
of people

Debtors & slaves could not be part —> helped Moneylenders & Slave-owners

Buddhist Monks resembled Brahmans in ways :

Did not participate directly in prod & lived off alms / gifts by society

Emphasized virtues of carrying out family obligations

protecting private property

respecting Political authorities

Both Supported social order based on class ( Buddhism: class based on action & Brahmanism: based
on birth)

Way of escape from worldly to Nirvana only to Monks ; no escape for followers —> come to terms with
existing situation

Buddhism made imp impact on society by keeping doors open to Women & Shudras

Women who enterered Sangh were later allowed to become teachers of Dhamma eg Mahapajapati
Gottami

With emphasis on non-violence & animal life sanctity —> boosted cattle wealth of country

Brahmanical insistence on sacredness of Cow & non-violence apparently derived from Buddhist
teaching

Suttanipata (earliest Buddhist text)--> cattle are: annada, vannada sukhada (provider of food, beauty
& happiness)

Buddhism created new awareness in field of intellect & culture

taught people not to take things for granted but to argue & judge on merits —> rationalism replacing
superstition

Buddhist enriched Pali Lit and into 3 categ :

Akash Srivastava (AIR 459), [Link]

 (1) Budhha teaching (2) Rules to be observed by Sangh (3) philosophy of Dhamma

Buddhists created new lang Hybrid Sanskrit by blending Pali & Sanskrit

Buddhist Monasteries deve as great centres of learning ; Universities = Nalanda & Vikramshila, Bihar &
Vallabhi, Guj

Buddhism left mark on Ancient India Art :

1st human statue worshipped was of Buddha

Panels protraying various events in Buddha’s life : (1) Bodh-Gaya, Bihar (2) Sanchi & Bharhut, MP

For monks residence, rooms hewn out of rocks —> thus began Cave Architecture in (1) Barabar hills, Gaya
(2) Nasik, Maharashtra

Buddhist Art flourished in Krishna Delta in S & Mathura in N

Buddhist Councils :

1st Buddhist Council Ajatashatru Maintain purity of teaching of Buddha

Rajgir 400 BC (Magadha) Finalise & Preserve Sutta & Vinay Pittaka

Abhidhamma also included

2nd Buddhist Council Kalasoka fighting among Sangh about Vinay Pitaka 10

Akash Srivastava (AIR 459), [Link]

Vaishali 380 BC (Shishunaga) points

Diff sects emerged in Buddhism for 1st time

3rd Ashoka Abhidhamma Pitaka estd , hence entire Triptiaka

estd
Pataliputra 250 BC (Maurya)

4th Kanishka Split into Mahayana Hinayana

Kashmir 72 AD (Kushan) Asvaghosh

Buddhism propogated by Buddha & Ashoka : Hinayana

Compilation of Buddhist Texts in Pali known as Triptikas :

Sutta Pitaka : Sayings/ Teachings of Buddha

Vinay Pitakas : guidelines for Sangh /monks : Rules for Bhukkis & Bhukkinis

Abhidhamma Pitaka : Philosophical extension of Sangh

Boddhisatvas :

Hinanyana : previous lives of Buddha

Mahayana : (1) Everyone to try to get enlightenment to help others (2) Mythical people who were objects
of devotion

Boddhisatva central to Mahayana NOT hinanyana asindiv who is on his way to enlightenment , but
delays his own salvation to help others achieve it too.

Akash Srivastava (AIR 459), [Link]

Hinayana = Theravada Buddhism ; Orthodox , followed in SE Asia : Thaliand Myanmar, Vietnam

Mahayana = Boddhisatva, followed in N Asia : China Korea Japan Mongolia

Vajrayana = Newest Buddhism , in TIbet, follows Tantricism, Rituals for enlightenment

Akash Srivastava (AIR 459), [Link]

 Iron Pillar Inscriptions :

Rummindei Pillar Ashoka visits Lumbini in Nepal (Buddha’s birthplace)

Satvahana King : Gautamiputra Satakarni

Nasik & Nanaghad Inscription Saka king Rudra-daman -1

Junagarh Rock Inscription

Mehrauli Pillar CG-1 ki military

Allahabad Pillar Knowledge about SamudraGupta’s military prowess +

his entire life
(Prayag Prashasti)

CG-2
Delhi Iron Pillar

Akash Srivastava (AIR 459), [Link]

 Bhitari Skandgupta : Huns ka attack

Banskhera Inscription Harshavardhana

Aihole Inscription How Pulakeshin 2 won against Harshvardhana

Kudavolai System of Cholas

Uttiramerur inscription

Allahabad Pillar :

Junagarh Rock Inscription : first ever inscription in chaste Sanskrit, Kanishka

Edicts of Ashoka first deciphered by James Princep

Buddhist monuments (stupas, Sarnath) surveyed by Alexander Cunnignham & wrote “Bhilsa Topes” curating
history of Buddhism

Akash Srivastava (AIR 459), [Link]

Diamond Triangle : Vajrayana Buddhism Heritage Network in Orissa : Ratnagiri, Udaygiri, Lalitgiri

Akash Srivastava (AIR 459), [Link]

Mahayana Buddhism led to numerous ‘avadanas' : life history & teachings of same ; e.g of books : Mahavastu
& Divyavadana

Akash Srivastava (AIR 459), [Link]

6)Iranian & Greek || St struct / Varna sys during Buddha
==>> St struct / Varna sys during Buddha :

NBPW : Northern Black Polished Ware in 5 BC : very glossy shinging pottery type ; made of fine material &
served as tableware for rich

NBPW phase marked beginning of 2nd urbanization in India ; Harappan towns disappeared in 1900 BC, for
1500 years no towns were estd

Mention history of Coins in India :

Vedic times : Barter + Mutual gift sys + sometimes cattle served purpose of currency

Coins made of metal 1st appeared in Buddha : largely silver + few copper ; were Punch-marked with hills,
trees, bulls, fish elephant

Maurya times : cast coins & die-struck coins of diff metals used

Earliest hoards of coins found in [Link] & Magadha + some in Taxila

Pali text indicates plentiful use of money & coins

New Startings in India :

For 1st time, adv food-prod eco spread over mid-gangetic alluvial soils led to beginning of Urban economy
in area

Eco provided Subsistence to Farmers + Non-farmers

Made collection of Taxes & maintenance of armies possible on long term basis

Created conditions in viz large territorial states cd be formed & sustained

By 300 BC, we notice full feldged Urbanization led to great inc in Population

After end of Harappan Culture, writing began few centuries before Ashoka

Writing led to compilation not only of laws & rituals + facilated bookeeping —> essential to trade, tax-
collection & maintenance of large army

Akash Srivastava (AIR 459), [Link]

We cannot think of Crafts, Commerce, Urbanisation in Mid-gangetic basin w/o strong Rural Base

Non-agriculturists living in towns had to be fed by Agriculturists living in villages

Pali text speak of 3 types of villages :

Typical village inhab by various castes & communities

Suburban villages ie craft villages

Border villages : sit at outside limits of countryside which merged with surrounding forests

Large scale paddy transplantation began in age of Buddha —> method revolutionalized rice prod

Tribal assemblies virtually disintegrated in post-vedic times —> Tribes disintegrated into Varnas & lost their id

Republican Expt : Many-Men rule Vs One-Man rule

Repub sys of Govt existed Indus Basin / foothills of Himalayas ; In Republics real power lay in hands of
Tribal Oligarchies

Monarchy : King sole recipient of Rev from peasant ; Republic : claim advanced by every Tribal Oligarch
(Raja) + own storehouse & adm

Monarchy : maintained regular standing army, no arms allowed inside ; Republic : Each Raja free to
maintain his own little army under own senapati fuelling competition

Brahmanas exercised great influence in Monarchy + Had no place in early republics

How Kingship of St orig ?

Digha Nikaya, Buddhist text in Pali : in earliest stage human beings lived happily

Gradually began to own Pvt Property + set up houses with wives —> led to quarrels over Property &
Women

To put end to quarrels, elected chief who would law & order & protect people

In return for protection people promised to give chief part of paddy

Origin of Indian legal & Judicial system :

Formerly people governed by law viz did not recog any class distinction

Akash Srivastava (AIR 459), [Link]

Dharmasutras had set out duties of each of 4 varnas —> Civil & Criminal law based on Varna division

Higher Varna —> purer , higher level of moral conduct expected of Upper Varna by Civil & Criminal Law

Crimes committed against Brahmans : severly punished ; against Shudra : lightly treated

Akash Srivastava (AIR 459), [Link]

7)Maurya || [Link] || Satavahanas

==>> MAURYANS :
NBPW : Northern Black Polished Ware in 5 BC : very glossy shining pottery type ; made of fine material &
served as tableware for rich

NBPW phase marked beginning of 2nd urbanization in India ; Harappan towns disappeared in 1900 BC, for
1500 years no towns were estd

Maurya Dynasty = Chandragupta Maurya + Kautilya —> overthrew Nandas + liberated NW from Seleucus,
Greek ruler

Indika (Megasthenes , greek ambassador) + Arthashastra (Kautilya)

—> Mauryas had well-org sys of Adm + sound Financial system :

City adm by 6 committees * 5 members : Committees for sanitation, care of foreigners, reg of birth & death,
weight & measures regulation

Akash Srivastava (AIR 459), [Link]

 Acc to Kautilya, [Link] maintained 24 depts of St —> controlled S-E activites

Most striking feature of Chandragupta’s adm = maintenance of Huge Army

St controlled almost all eco activities : monopoly in mining, sale of liquor, manufac of arms —> vast
resources to royal exchequer

Virgin land opened to cultivation —> handsome income from revenue by newly settled peasants —> Taxes
varied 1/4-1/6 of produce

Tolls levied on commodities brought to town for sale

Chandragupta —> Bindusara ( imp for continuing links with Greek princes ) —> Ashoka ( 273 BC - greatest of
Maurya rulers )

Ashokan history reconstructed on basis of 39 Inscriptions ( dhammalipi ) : Major, Minor, Separate Rock Edicts +
Major, Minor Pillar Edicts

Inscription located on ancient highways : ( Prakrit lang, Brahmi script ) ; NW = ( Aramaic lang, Kharoshthi
script ) ; Afghanistan = ( Aramaic , Greek)

First king to speak directly to people th his inscriptions , carried royal orders

Ashoka = “piyadassa” : lover of people ; Devanampiyya : “lover of Gods"

ChandraGupta : Jainism ; Bindusara : Ajvika Sect ; Ashoka : Buddhism (naturally since Mahavir was
30 yrs elder to Buddha)

Mudrarakshasa : (writ in Sanskrit, play / Drama by Vishakhadatta during Gupta Period, describing SEP +
how Chanakya won agaist Chandragupta’s enemies

Arthshastra : discovered by RS Shastri in 1904 : Governance (King council minister) + Law (Civil & Criminal)
+ Foreign Affairs (Diplomacy & War)

Megasthenes : Mauryan Adm + Social Life

Other Sources of Mauryas : Puranas, Jatakas , Ceylon ki chronicle Dipavamsa Mahavamsa

Rock Edicts : by James Princep , Language = Pali / Prakrit ; Script = Kharoshthi (Pak) & Brahmi (India)

7th Rock Edict : How Ashoka tried to propagate Dhamma WITHIN territory

13th Rock Edict : Kalinga pe jeet

Cholas, Pandyas, Keralaputras OUTSIDE Ashoka empire , but Kashmir , Nepal, & NW India included

Last Mauryan King : Brihatratha

Ashoka embraced Budhism under ChhotiBua UpaGupta

Dharmamahamatras : for spread of Dhamma

Amatya : Civil Servants

Samharta : IRS Rev Collection

Akash Srivastava (AIR 459), [Link]

 Rajuka : Collector , District Adm

Gopa : Panchayat , village administration, Grameen

Adyaksha : Officers

Bindusara (Amitragatha : "slayer of enemies" ) patronised Ajvika sect

Ashoka gave rock cut caves to Ajivika Sect : Lomus Rishi , Barabar Hills polished like mirror from inside

Ājīvika school is known for its Niyati ("Fate") doctrine of absolute determinism, the premise that there is
no free will, that everything that has happened, is happening and will happen is entirely preordained and
a function of cosmic principles.Ājīvikas considered the karma doctrine as a fallacy.

Ajivika metaphysics included a theory of atoms similar to the Vaisheshika school, where everything was
composed of atoms, qualities emerged from aggregates of atoms, but the aggregation and nature of
these atoms was predetermined by cosmic forces.

Ājīvikas were atheists and rejected the authority of the Vedas, but they believed that in every living
being is an āatman – a central premise of Hinduism and Jainism

Ashoka first to “think in Stone” : Mauryans intro masonry on wide scale : kyuki stone pillar kaise banega
warna + Polishing taken from Iranian

Ashoka : CENSUS taking existed during Ashoka

Ashoka fought 1 major war with Kalinga —> deeply moved by massacre —> abandoned policy of Physcial
occupation for Cultural conquest

Ideology of Buddhism guided Ashoka’s St policy at home & abroad :

Ashoka now appealed ideologically to Tribal people & frontier kingdoms

Officials instructed to propagate among all sections “Obey king as father & repose confidence in him” ;
Tribals asked to follow dhamma

No longer treated foreign areas for military conquest ; Took steps for welfare of men & animals in foreign
lands

Sent ambassadors of peace to Greek kingdoms in [Link] & Greece

Wrong to think Kanlinga War caused Ashoka to become extreme pacifist :

Didnt pursue policy of peace for sake of peace, but adopted practical policy of consolidating his empire

Retained Kalinga after war + Threatened adversity for Tribals if dhamma not followed

Class of officers (Rajukas) appointed to reward / punish people when necessary —> Ashoka’s policy of
consolidating his empire successful

Akash Srivastava (AIR 459), [Link]

 Ashoka held 3rd Buddhist council & missionaries sent to [Link], Sri Lanka, Myanmar to convert people
there

Paternal Kingship : asked officials to tell subjects : king looked upon them as children

Forbade killing certain birds & animals, prohibited slaughter of animals in royal kitchen ; banned social
funcs of excess revelry

Ashoka’s dharma was not narrow dharma & cannot be regarded as sectarian faith

Ashoka’s teachings intended to maintain existing Social Order & Righteousness (dharma) on basis of
tolerance :

Show compassion towards relatives, animals

Strengthen insti of family & existing social classes —> live & let live

Ashoka’s place in History :

Ashoka brought about Pol unification of country —> bound further by 1 dharma, 1 lang, 1 script (Brahmi)
alth. respecting other non-Indian script

Followed tolerant religious policy : not forcing Buddhist faith on his subjects + also gifts to non-buddhist
sects

Ashoka fired with zeal for missionary activity

Ashoka imp in history for policy of peace, non-aggression & cultural conquest

Had no model in early history for such a policy

Asked his successors, Magadhan princes to adopt policy of peace sorely needed after period of
aggressive wars lasting for 2 centuries

Art & Culture :

Mauryans intro masonry on wide scale : kyuki stone pillar kaise banega warna

High tech skill achieved by Mauryan artisans in polishing Stone pillars (viz as shining as NBPW)

Whole process ( transporting huge stone blocks from quarries + polish & embellish them when erected )
suggests great feat of engg

Akash Srivastava (AIR 459), [Link]

 Each pillar made of single piece of buff-coloured sandstone ; only their capitals ( sculptures in form of lions
/ bulls ) are joined to pillars on top

Erection of polished pillars shows : (1) spread of tech knowledge of polishing th. out India (2) transport had
spread far & wide

Mauryan artisans also started practice of hewing out caves from rocks for monks to live in eg Barabar &
Nagarjuna caves, Gaya

In central phase of NBPW ( 300 BC ) Central Gangetic plains became centre of Terracotta art

gen rep animals ( elephant) & women (mother goddesses)

modelled by hand

eg Stone statue of Yakshini in form of beatiful woman found in Didarganj noted for Maurya polish

Causes of fall of Maurya Empire :

Brahmanical Rxn :

Inspite of tolerant policy, Ashoka issued his edicts in Prakrit, not in Sanskrit

Anti-sacrifice attitude of Buddhism adopted by Ashoka adversely affected income of Brahmans

He issued same civil & criminal law for all varnas ( against Dharmashastra)

Financial crisis :

due to (1) Enormous expndt on army + (2) payment to Bureaucracy

Despite range of taxes imposed on people + large donations to Buddhist monks which left royal
treasury empty

Oppressive rule in provinces imp cause of break-up of empire

complaints against misrule of wicked bureaucrats —> Ashoka intro rotation of officers

New knowledge in outlying areas :

Once knowledge of Material adv elements of culture spread to [Link] as result of expansion of
Magadhan empire lost spcl adv

On basis of material culture, new kingdoms could be founded & deve

Akash Srivastava (AIR 459), [Link]

 Neglect of NW frontier :

Necessary due to movt of tribes in [Link] in 3 BC : Scythians

Shih Huang Ti constructed Great Wall of China 220 BC to shield empire against Scythians

When Scythians made push towards India, they forced Parthians, Shakas, Greeks to move towards
sub-conti

==>> [Link] Contact & Impact :

After Mauryas, in North : Native rulers s.a. Shungas, Kanvas, Satavahanas || NW = By ruling dynasties from
[Link]

1st to invade India : Greeks (failed to estd unified rule in India) : Indo-Greeks ( Milinda asked q & converted to
Buddhism by Nagasena : Milinda Panho )

Indo-Greek rule imp cos of large num of coins issued ; 1st to issue gold coins

Greek rule intro Hellenistic Art ( best eg : Gandhara Art ) in NW by contact of Greek + non-Greek
conquered people

[Link] empires to rule NW India after Greeks —> Sakas (Scythians) —> Parthians (Pahlavas) —> Kushans
(Yuecchis/Tocharians) —> Sassanians

Shakas destroyed Greek power in both Bactria & India ;

Benefited from sea-born trade in Guj & issued numerous silver coins

Most famous Shaka ruler Rudraman 1 : undertook repairs to improve Sudrashana lake in Kathiawar viz
used for irrigation + issued 1st long inscription in chaste Sanskrit, earlier all in Prakrit

Kushans : Most famour ruler Kanishka

Started an era in AD 78 = Shaka era & is used by GOI

Kanishka extended whole hearted patronage to Buddhism : held Buddhist council in Kashmir, where
doctrines of Mahayana Buddhism finalised

Kushan coins & inscriptions found : Toprak-Kala in Khorezm, S of Aral sea of Oxus = huge Kushan palance
unearthed

Sassanians :

Akash Srivastava (AIR 459), [Link]

 called region Hindu, not in religion sense but due to Indus people

term Hindustan used for India in Mughal / modern times first used in 3 AD

Sakas / Kushans added new ingredients to / immensely enriched Indian Culture :

Settled in India for good & id themselves with its culture

As they didnt have own script, written lang & culture —> adopted these from India + became integral part of
Indian society

They intro better cavalry & use of riding horse on large scale

popularised use of reins & saddles as they were excellent horsemen

also intro turban, tunic, trousers, & heavy long coat + caps helmets boots

Kushans controlled Silk route ( China —> [Link] & Afghan —> Iran —> [Link] ) : source of income

[Link] conquerors imposed rule on numerous petty native princes —> deve of Feudatory org

They became completely Indianized & this was largest assimilation into Indian society post-Mauryan times

Mahayana Buddhism :

Monks & nuns received cash donations from Traders & Artisans, accepted gold & silver, took to non-veg
food & wore elaborate robes —> Laxity in discipline of day2day austere life of monks & nuns

Hinayana / Lesser Vehicle : Puritan Buddhism —> worshipped certain things assoc with Buddha

Mahayana / Greater Vehicle : replaced with Image worship

Gandhara & Mathura school of Art :

Foreign prince became enthu patrons of Indian A&C, displayed zeal of new converts

Kushan empire brought tog masons & artisans trained in diff schools / countries

—> Gave rise to diff schools of Art = [Link], Gandhara, & Mathura

Indian craftsmen came in contact with [Link], Greeks, Romans esp in NW frontier

—> gave rise to new form of art viz images (& hair) of Buddha made in Graeco-Roman style

Gandhara Art : Blue-Grey Mica / Grey Sandstone Greek & Indian sculptors worked tog to create new form
of art on NW frontier of India

Akash Srivastava (AIR 459), [Link]

 ( Realistic manner with detailed lines + Image worship of Buddha in Mahayana Buddhism )

Influence of Gandhara Art spread to Mathura (indigenous art centre)

(1) Prod btful images Buddha (2) Headless erect statue of Kanishka (3) stone images of Mahavir

Its pre-Gupta sculpture & inscriptions ignore Krishna (his birthplace)

Akash Srivastava (AIR 459), [Link]

 flourished in early centuries of Christian era, made prods of red sandstone even found outside,

Currently Mathura museum possesses largest collection of pieces of Kushan sculpture in India

In AP, Nagarjunakoda & Amravati became great centres of Buddhist art

Earliest panels dealing with Buddhism found at Bodh-Gaya, Sanchi, & Bharhut (2 BC)

Gandhara = Patronised by Kanishka, Kushans, Yogi posture, Meditative State ; Hellenistic Graeko Roman,
Realistic manner with detailed lines ???!!
Akash Srivastava (AIR 459), [Link]
Mathura = FLESHY (muscular) + padmasan posture, Tight Dress + Halo & Clothes have design & drapery
(unlike Sarnath ! ) + Smiling

Amravati : Narrative art , patronised by Satvahanas

Mathura VS Sarnath :

Akash Srivastava (AIR 459), [Link]

Akash Srivastava (AIR 459), [Link]
 Lang, Lit & Learning :

Rulers officially recog 3 scripts (Greek, Kharoshthi, & Brahmi scripts) & 4 langs (Greek, Prakrit, Sanskrit-
influenced Prakrit, pure Sanskrit )

Kushan coins & inscriptions suggest coexisting of diff scripts & langs

Although Mauryans & Satvahanas patronized Prakrit , [Link] princes patronised Sanskrit lit —>
inscriptions began in chaste Sanskrit

Ashvaghosha wrote : (1) Buddhcharitra (Buddha biography) (2) Saundarananda : fine eg of Sanskrit kavya

Indian theatre owed & entrered under Greek influence

Bharata’s Natyasastra : imp work on rhetoric & dramaturgy ; marked entry of full-fledged theatre in India

Best eg of secular lit : Kamasutra of Vatsyayana

Indian astronomy & astrology benefitted from contact with Greeks ; many greek terms of movt of planets
appear in Sanskrit texts eg horoscope

Charakasamhita : medicine, botany, chemistry by Charaka & Sushruta—> contains names of numerous
plants & herbs from which drugs prepared

==>> SATAVAHANAS :

After Mauryas, in Deccan : Native rulers = Satavahanas ( = Andhra Pradesh, Deccan ) —> Ikshvakus

Although Satvahanas were Patrilineal, however they carried their mother’s names

Architecture of Satavahanas :

Akash Srivastava (AIR 459), [Link]

Many chaityas (sacred shrines) & monasteries cut out of solid rock in NW Deccan / Maharashtra with skill &
patience

2 most common religious constructions :

Buddhist temple (chaitya) : large hall with num of columns ; e.g : Karle, [Link], impressive
specimen of massive rock architecture

Monastery (vihara) : excavated near chaityas for residence of monks during rainy season e.g. at Nasik
, carry inscriptions of Nahapana, Gautamiputra

Rock-cut architecture found in Krishna-Godaveri region, famous for indep Buddhist structures in form of
stupas

Most famous Buddhist structures :

Amaravati : stupa large round structure erected over some relic of Buddha ; sculptures depict various
scenes from Buddha’s life

Nagarjunakonda :

prospered most under Ikshvakus

possesses both Buddhist monuments & earliest Brahmanical brick temples

Nagarjunakoda richest area in structures : tog with stupas & mahachaityas

Prakrit text Gathasattasai / Gathasaptasati : attributed to Satvahana king Hala

Akash Srivastava (AIR 459), [Link]

8)South India || Gupta || Harshavardhana
Provinces —— districts —— villages

Gupta : Bhukti , Vishya , Gopu

Rashtrakutas : Rashtrapati, Bhogapati, Vishyapati

Cholas : Mandalam , Nadu , Ur

Delhi Sultanate : Iqtas Shiqs Paraganas Village = Muqtis Shiqaddar Amil Muqaddam/Chaudhari (Village
accountant : patwari)

Sangam Age (300BC - 300 AD)

Megalith Burials : People known due to funerary structs ; graves encirced by large pieces of stone & buried with
pottery & iron objects

—> had belief that dead would need these in next world

Tamizakham : Cultural & eco contacts b/w North & deep South

Dakshinapath : route to south valued by northeners cos south supplied gold, pearls & precious stones

States : Cholas (An. P), Pandyas (TN ), & Cheras (Kerala)

Sangam Lit : Lit compiled in Tamil academics in early centuries of Christian era ; divided into 2 groups

Narrative : Melkannakku , Eighteen Major Works

Didactic : Kilkanakku , Eighteen Minor Works

Tolkkapiyyam : deals with grammar & poetics

Tirukkural : Philosophy & wise maxims

Twin Tamil epics : Silappadikaram & Manimekalai

Corpus of Sangam Lit (300 BC to 300 AD)

Sangam Text were group of stories made by coming together of poets 3 times
Akash Srivastava (AIR 459), [Link]
 hence Sangam NOT religious text like Vedic Texts but collections of Poems NOT prose hence it is
SECULAR

But they do tell on SEP conditions of period

Tolkapiyyam : during 2nd Sangam, EARLIEST Tamil Literature, ia actually Tamil Alphabet / grammar + tells
SEP conditions too

Ettugai : Eight Analogies

Pattupattu : 10 Idylls

both above divided in to Aham (love) Puram (valour)

Pathine-kilkanakku DIDACTIC : 18 works on Ethics & Morals of Sangam ; most imp : Tirukural

2 Epics of Sangam :

Silappa : Elango Adinal

Manimekalai : Sittalai Sattanar

Ramayan in Tamil : Kamban

Art of writing doubtless known to Tamils before beginning of Christian era

Culturally Dravidian elements seem to have dominated in 1st phase , but during 2nd phase : Aryanization &
Brahmanisation

AD 300 : Pallavas , Kadambas, Chalukyas

Cholas : Early Chola

Shaivism & Vaishnavism both contd to fluorish

Caste system widely prevelant during Chola —> 2 major divisions of caste : Valangai & Idangai

Pos of women didnot improve —> Sati prevalent among Royalty

Devdasi system in temples emerged during this period

==>> Gupta Empire ( 320 AD - 600 AD ) :

Guptas rose on ruins of (foreign) Kushan empire

Chandragupta 1 (319- ) —> Samudragupta (335 - ) —> Chandragupta 2 (380 - 412)

Samudragupta (Napolean of India) : opposite of Ashoka —> delighted in violence & conquest

Court poet Harishena wrote glowing accounts of military conquests of Samudragupta : Prayag Prashasti :
one of most imp documents of Gupta empire as provides unique snapshot of Gupta era
Akash Srivastava (AIR 459), [Link]
 Places conquered by Samudragupta can be div into 5 :

Princes of Ganga-Yamuna doab

Rulers of [Link]

Forest kingdoms in Vindhya region

12 rulers of [Link] & [Link]

Shakas & Kushans

Chandragupta 2 adopted title of Vikramaditya (first used by Ujjain ruler in 58 BC as mark of victory over Shaka
Kshatrapas of [Link] )

his reign included Kalidasa , Amarasimha & visit by Fa-hsien (AD 399-414)

His successors had to face invasion by Hunas from [Link] + undermined by rise of feudatories who tended
to declare themselves indep

Gupta kings adopted pompous titles s.a. parameshvara, maharajadhiraja, paramabhattaraka

They gave magnificent gifts to Brahmanas + land grants —> they expressed their gratitude by comparing king
to diff gods

Gupta did not require as many officials as Mauryas as much of adm managed by feudatories & beneficiaries

Gupta st did not regulate eco activities on substantial scale

Caste proliferated into numerous sub-castes as result of 2 factors :

Large num of foreigners assimilated into Indian society —> each group considered a caste

Absorption of many tribal people into brahmanical society th process of land grants —> Chiefs given
respect but lower kinsmen given low caste

Gupta people acquired more & more land —> more polygamous & property-minded —> in patriarchal setup,
began to treat women as items of property s.t. women expected to follow men to other world —> 1st case of
Sati in Gupta period in 510 AD

Principal reason for subordination of women —> (1) complete dependance on men for their livelihood + (2) lack
of proprietary rights

Bhagvantism :

Worship of Vishnu = minor god of Vedic times + rep Sun + fertility cult

Akash Srivastava (AIR 459), [Link]

 Later merged with Narayana god ; Orig Narayana was non-vedic tribal god called bhagavata

Vishnu came to be id with legendary hero of Vishni tribe in [Link] = Krishna-Vasudeva

By 200 BC, 3 streams of gods & their worhsippers merged into —> Result : creation of Bhagavatism /
Vaishnavism

Bhagavantism marked by bhakti / ahimsa ; Bhakti = offer of loving devotion eg loyalty offered by tribe to
chief

Ahimsa / non-killing of animals suited agro society + keeping with old cult of life-giving fertility assoc with
Vishnu

Out of aversion to killing animals, some took to entirely veg diet

Bhagvantism overshadowed Mahayana Buddhism by Gupta times

preached doctrine of incarnation ; believed whenever social order faced crisis, Vishnu appeared in
human form to save it & salvage dharma

new religion suff liberal to attract foreigners ; appealed to artisans & merchants

By 600 AD Vishnu became member of trinity of gods along with Shiva & Brahma

ART :

Gupta period = “Golden period” —> not true in eco field ; however Guptas possessed large quantity of gold
& issued largest num of gold coins

Samudragupta rep on coins playing lute | Chandragupta maintaining in his court nine luminaries

Art largely inspired by religion ; Buddhism gave great impetus to art in Maurya & post times

—> creation of (1) Massive stone pillars (2) Hewing of beautiful caves (3) Raising of high stupas /
relic towers

During Gupta, bful images of Buddha fashioned at Sarnath & Mathura , but finest specimen = Ajanta
paintings

depict various event in life of Gautama Buddha & previous Buddhas whose birth stories related in
Jatakas

As Guptas supported Brahmanism, images of Vishnu, Shiva & other Hindu gods fashioned for 1st time
during this time

Architecture : Bhitargaon in Kanpur, Bhitari in Ghazipur & Deogarh in Jhansi

Akash Srivastava (AIR 459), [Link]

 Buddhist univ at Nalanda set up in 5C

Gupta period Literature :

Gupta period remarkable for prod of Secular Lit + ornate court poetry

Bhasa Dradira charu datta

Swapna Vasavdatta

Shudraka Mrichcha katika : the little clay cart play filled with humour

Love Story of Brahman Charudatta with courtesan

Kalidasa Abhijana Shakuntalam : Shakuntala courts Dushyant king of Hastinapur, he has

to go back, gives her a ring, which is eaten by fish

Malavika Agnimitra : PushyaMitra Sunga falls in love for royal household female
servant who later turns out to be royal lineage

Vikram Urvasi : Love Story of Puru king’s victory over angel Urvasi using Valour
:

Raghuvamsa

KumaraSambhav

Ritusamhara : Ritambhra

Meghduta : O cloud please carry my love message to my partner on the other

side of the mountain

Vishakadutta Mudrarakshas : Drama by Vishakhadatta during Gupta Period, describing SEP +

how Chanakya won agaist Chandragupta’s enemies

Devichandraguptam :

Amarasimha Amarakos : Budhist lexicon

Bharavi Kriti Sanon

Krit-arjuniya

: Arjun Vs Lord shiva : Bhavnai mein aake Arjun bhagwan se ladne aa gaya

Akash Srivastava (AIR 459), [Link]

Dandin Das-kumar-charitra (story of Ten princes) #DusBahaneKarkeLeGayeDil

Kavyadarsha

Vishnusharma Panchtantra

Mahabhashya : by Patanjali “great commentary” on Sanskrit grammar work of

Ashtdyaya by Panini

Puranas, Mahabharat, Ramayana all finished during Gupta Age

Aryabhatta (500 AD) Maths & Astronomy (solar , lunar eclipse, 1st to tell Earth is round)

It explains scientifically the occurrence of solar and lunar eclipses. Aryabhatta

was the first to declare that the earth was spherical inshape and that it rotates
on its own axis

Varamhira (600 AD) Paanch Sidhhantika : 5 principles of astronomy ;

Brihad Samhita & Brihad Jataka : on astrology / horoscope\\

Brahmagutpa Mathematecian viz intro Zero to number system & -ve numbers

Bhaskaracharya Siddhanta Shiromani

Mahaviracharya Ganit Sara Sangraha (Jain Maths)

Baudhayana SulvaSutra

Medicine Vagbhatta : asht-ang-samgrah : eight branches of Medicine

—> India prod 2 famous scholar of Ayurveda :

Akash Srivastava (AIR 459), [Link]

 Sushruta : Sushrutasamhita : Surgery describes method of operating
cataract, stone diseases & several other ailments + stress on diet &
cleanliness

Charaka : Kanishka period

Charakasamhita : encyclopedia of Indian medicine ; describes various

types of fever, leprosy, hysteria & TB

Contains large num of plants & herbs that cd be used as medicines

Subsequent Indian medicine deve on lines set out by Charaka

Madhav : Madhava Nanda Pathology

Adm Sandivigraha : foreign affairs

Kumaramatya Ayukta : for provincial adm officers, Provinces known as Bhukti,

Provinvcial Governors : Uparika (Princes)

Bhukti Provinces Vishyas : District

Village : ‘G’ Gopu, Gramika

Architecture Both Nagara & Dravidian style of Temple Arch , but no Gadhara influence

Monolithic pillar : bhittari Monolithic pillar : Skandgupta : how huns attacked

Iron : Delhi Iron Pillar of CG-2

Plays prod in India had 2 common features :

all comidies no tragedies

higher & lower classes speak diff lang : Sanskrit vs Prakrit ( Ashoka & Satavahanas used Prakrit )

Period shows inc in Religious prod : Ramayana & Mahabharat completed by 4C AD : replete with myths,
legends, & exaggerations

Ramayana : (1) idealizes insti of family (younger obey elder bro, wife faithful under all circum) (2)
Victory of righteousness over evil

Mahabharata : (1) Fratricidal war : Kingship know no kinship

Puranas : follow lines of epics, meant for education & edification of common people

Shakuntalam + Bhagavadgita —> earliest works to be translated into European langs

Akash Srivastava (AIR 459), [Link]

 Aryabhat + Varamhira : rendezvous in Gupta period

Romaka Siddhanta : book compiled in field of astronomy

Bronze images of Buddha prod on large scale cos smiths had adv metal knowledge eg Iron pillar at
Mehrauli (4C AD) : no rust

==>> Harshavardhana ( 606 AD ) :

Harsha : called last great Hindu emperor of India ; followed tolerant religious plicy

Made Kanauj his seat of power ; Pataliputra fell on bad days : it owed its power & imp to T&C & widespread
use of money

—> However once trade declined, money became scarce & officers & soldiers paid th land grants —>
Pataliputra lost imp

Harshacharita : by Banabhatta early history of Harsh’s reign

Harsha governed empire on same lines of Guptas but his adm become feudal & decentralised

Hsuan Tsang :

A/c of chinese pilgrim who visited India in 7C & stayed in country for 15 years

He informs us that Harsha’s revenues div into 4 parts (1) king’s expndt (2) scholars (3) officials & public
servants (4) religious purposes

Feudal practice of rewarding & paying officers with land grants seems to have begun under Harsha

—> explains why do not have many coins issued by him

He spent many years in Harsha’s court & travelled widely in India

Under his inflence

Harsha became great supporter of Mahayana Buddhism & made generous endowments to it

Xuan Zang :

Chinese Buddhist Pilgrim & Scholar stayed (15 yrs) in Vijaywada to study Abhidhammapitakas (last of 3
Pitakas) constituting the Pali canon, the scriptures of Theravada Buddhism

His travels = detailed accounts of life of people in 7 th century

Chinese govt using his work to estd relationship b/w India & China viz 1400 yrs old

Visited the viharas at Amravati & Nagarjunakoda

Akash Srivastava (AIR 459), [Link]

 Poorasaila (eastern hills) & Aparasaila (Western Hills) monastries mentioned by Xuan Zang are actually
Moghalrajpuram & Akkanna Madonna caves located in heart of Vijaywada

Harsha shifted capital from Thaneswar (in Haryana, N of Delhi) to Kanauj (in UP)

Harsha authored 3 plays : Priyadarshika, Ratnavali, Nagananda

Banabhatta : Harshacharita , Kadambari : India ka 1st novel

Harsha came under Hsuan Tsang & became follower of Mahayan Buddhism

At Kanauj council, where reps of all religion were present , Hsuan Tsang debated superioirty of Mahayan
Budhism & won —> this was followed by religious fighting

Nalanda univeristy of Mahayana Buddhism , viz founded by KumaraGupta, was patronised by Harsh

it accepted Intl student th Competitive entrance test + ALL religions apart from Mahayan Buddhism
also taught eg Therawada, Vajrayana Buddhism, Vedas, Hinayana Buddhism, Samkhya, Yog +
Residential prog

Nilpotu : Archive of Harsha period known by this & under control of special officers

Adm was run on similar lines as Gupta period, but there was sharp decline in Eco activity

Harsha lost to Chalukya Ruler Pulakesin-2 , as written in Aihole Inscription

—> Chalukyas, Pallavas , Pandyas ( 600 AD - 800 AD)

So from 300 BC to 300 AD we had Satvahanas in An.P & Cholas Pandya Chera in Sangam Age (viz declined
after Kalabharas invaded)

Satvahana succeeded by Vakataks in Maharashtra & Vidarbha & became channel for transmitting Brahminical
ideas & Social insti to South —> follwed by Chalukyas of Badami

[Link] came under Ikshvakus viz was replace by Pallavas

300 BC —> 600 AD

Chalukyas in Karnataka & Pallavas in [Link] & Pandyas in [Link]

Akash Srivastava (AIR 459), [Link]

 Chalukyas of Badami Vs Pallavas of Kancheepuram [Link] Vs Pandyas of Madurai [Link]

Pallavas : 600 AD-800 AD

Fighting b/w Chalukyas (Kannad) & Pallavas (Tamil) has continued since 600 AD

eg Pulakesin-2 of chalukyas coming and defeating Mahendraverman-1 of Pallavas , whose defeat is

avenged by his son NarsinghVerman-1

Mahendraverman : Vichitrachitra (curious minded), Chitrakarapuli (tiger among artists) , Chaityakari

(temple builder)

So Narsimverman-1 takes on title of Mammala “great warrior” & assumed title of Vatapikonda :
conquerer of Vatapi Chalukya

Narsimverman-1 ke time hsuan Tsang aaya and stayed at Ghatika of Kanchi

VISHNU in [Link] & SHIVA in [Link]

Pallavas saw rise of Vaishnavism & Saivism + decline of Buddhism & Jaininsm

Vaishnavism promoted by Vaishnawa Alwars * & Saivasim by Saiva Nayanmars

This growth of Vaishnavism & Saivism = Bhakti Movt rising

Religious hym by Vaishnav Alwars : Nalayra-divya-prabandam

by Saiva Nayanmars : Devaram

Devdhana : Pallavas kings gave land-grants to Temples

Brahmadeya : Land grants to Brahmins

Land grants to above too is exempted from Tax

Pallavas intro Art of Rock-Cut Temples (Mahendraverman) —> transformed to Monolithic Raths
(Narsimverman-1) —> then to Dravida style of Temple Architecture

Pallavas : intro art of rock-cut Temples in India while Mauryans intro art of Rock-cut-Caves in India (for
Ajivika Sect)

Akash Srivastava (AIR 459), [Link]

NarsinghVerma-2 made Mammalapuram Temple or Mahabalipuram Temple (Shore Temple)

"Descent of Ganges" or Penance of Arjuna at Mahabalipuram: Fresco painting on stone , with lice
picking Monkey & ascetic cat

Akash Srivastava (AIR 459), [Link]

 Kailashnath Temple at Kanchi : best eg of Architecture of Pallavas

Chalukyas of Badami / Aihole + Rashtrakutas : 600 AD-800 AD

Aihole Inscription ~ Pulakesin-2 was ruler of Chalukyas who defeated Harshavardhan

Major diff b/w Chalukyas & rest of South Pallavas Adm : Chalukyas exercised great control over village adm
while rest allowed autonomy

They were brahminical Hindus ( Vaishnavism & Saivism) + Jainism was really flourishing under Chalukyas in
Karnataka

Chalukyan Style of Architecture = Vesara style (combo of Nagara & Dravid architecture) , reached zenith
under Rashtrakutas & Hoysala

Structural Temples at Aihole & Badami

Cave Temples at Ellora, Ajanta, Nasik

Rashtrakutas had kannada as their mother tongue ; their art & architecture at Ellora & Elephanta

Akash Srivastava (AIR 459), [Link]

 Best Eg Kailash Temple in Ellora : Mt Kailash abode of Shiva, carved out of single 200 ft long Rock

It is Hindu Cave in Ellora , viz has all 3 Religion caves : J B Hinduism

Trimurti at Elephanta : island off Bombay in shape of Elephant , named by Portuguese ; “Brahma
Vishnu Mahesh”

Pattadakal Temple : near Badami by Chalukya Rulers

Imperial Cholas : 800AD - 1200 AD : Bc poore [Link] pe rule kiya + Influence going to SE Asia

Akash Srivastava (AIR 459), [Link]

Built Brihadeswara Temple at Thanjavur : biggest of all Temple of India

How do we know about Cholas so much more than their predecessors ? They wrote lengthy insrciption abt
themselves on their temple walls

Extremely good Navy obvio

Had Colonial rule in SE Asia : contructed Angkor Vat in Cambodia (Hindu Temple, Largest Rellgious
Monument)

Kudavolai system : Cholas had very good Village Adm (PRI)

Village into 30 wards —> each member nominated to Village Council

names written on palm leaf, put in pot shuffled

Akash Srivastava (AIR 459), [Link]

 mathas = Ghatikas : education near temples

Mandalam = Provinces ; Nadu = Districts

Ur = Villages

Land Revenue collected, tax on ceromonies (marriages) forts ports, exempted in residential portion & temple

Hoysala : 1200-1300 AD

Karnataka rulers after Imperial Cholas & before Vijaynagar

5 Star Plan at Hoysala : Stellate Plans : Complex Temples with so many projecting angles unlike previous
square tempe that plan of Temple starts looking like a star

They too do Vesara : mix up styles of Nagara & Dravid like Chalukyas

Since they use relatively soft stone : their sculptures are carved very intricately : eg bottom features 100
elephants in processions & no two elephants are in same pose !

Akash Srivastava (AIR 459), [Link]

Vijayanagar Empire 1300-1700 AD —> Successors of Imperial Cholas & Hoysala

City of Intl Travellers : Ibn Batuta (during Tughlaz time): Moroccan traveller during Vijaynagar Empire
(Hampi) , Nicollo Di conti (Italian), Domingo Paes (Portug), Nuniz, Abdul Razzaq

Mixing of Dravida & Islamic style : naturally

Concept of SECULAR building, Lit

Kings tolerant of all religions, Muslims allowed in adm + build mosque freely

They had strong Navy, obviously : art of shipbuilding + contacts with

~ Architecture :

Most distinguishing critera : Raya Gopuram, Kalyanamandalam with carved pillars in temple premises

Horse was most common animal in pillars

Akash Srivastava (AIR 459), [Link]

 Lepakhi : Hanging Pillar + Monolith Nandi :

Virupaksha temple

King : absolute authority , highest court of appeal, hereditary succession, hereditary, full powers to local
authorities

LR = 1/6th of produce gifts to vassals, ports, professions all were taxed

Agriculture chief occupation

Gold coin of Vijayanagar : Varaha

harsh punishment , mutilation allowed

Allasani Pedanna (Telegu Lit) : in his Manucharitam : refers to existence of 4 castes,

Ashtadiggajam : Allasani Pedanna , Tenaliraman

slavery existed, cock fighting, gambling , silk & cotton clothes

Amaram : Top grade officers of army granted Land in leiu of services

Bahmani Kingdom : Muslim Sultanate in South + adopted Hindus in adm in large num

Akash Srivastava (AIR 459), [Link]

Akash Srivastava (AIR 459), [Link]
9)Philosophy || SnT || Feudalism

==>> Deve in Philosphy :

Ancient thinkers advocated person should strive for attainment for 4 goals :
1. Regulation of Social order / Dharma = Dharmashastra
2. Eco resources / arth = Arthashastra
3. Physical pleasures / kama = Kamasutra
4. Salvation / Moksha = deliverance from cycle of birth & death

Six Schools of Philosohpy :

1. Samkhya : Dwait-vaat —> soul & nature is diff

Presence of divine agency not essential to creation of world
World owes creation / evolution more to nature than to God : rational & scientific view
Nature & Spiritual element tog created world
At outset Samkhya phi : materialistic but later tended to become spiritualistic
Person can attain salvation th acquisition of real knowledge & misery can be ended forever
Knowledge can be acd th. perception, inference & hearing —> method char of scientific system of enquiry

2. Yoga :
Person can attain salvation th meditation & physical application ( asanas )
Practice of control over pleasure, senses & bodily organ central to this system —> mind gets diverted from
worldly matters & achieves conc
Knowledge of physiology & anatomy in ancient times + indicate tendency to run away from worldly
difficulties

3. Nyaya :
School of analysis —> deve as sys of logic + veracity of statement tested th inference, hearing, & analogy +
stress on use of logic
Salvation can be attained th. acquisition of knowledge

4. Vaisheshika :
Imp to discussion of material elements / dravya
Draw lines b/w particularities & their aggregate —> earth,water, fire, air, ether combined give rise to new
objects
Propounded atom theory believing all material obj made of atoms —> marked beginning of physics in
India
But sc view diluted by belief in God & spiritualism , this school put its faith in both heaven & salvation

5. Mimamsa : Scientific justification for Rituals from Brahmanas

Reasoning to provide justi for various Vedic rituals + attainment of salvation made dep on their performance
Acc to it : Vedas contain eternal truth
Principal aim : acquire heaven & salvation ; person will enjoy heaven a.l.a. accumulated virtue lasts ; when
virtue exhausts will return to earth but if acquires salvation, will be completely free from cycle fo birth & death
Th. it Brahmanas sought to maintain ritual authority & preserve social hierarchy based on Brahmanism

Akash Srivastava (AIR 459), [Link]

 6. Vedanta : Advait-vaat —> Brahma & Soul stick together
Brahmasutra : of Badarayana formed basic text, meaning “end of Veda"
Later 2 commentaries on it by :
Shankaracharya —> Brahma to be w/o attributes + Knowledge as chief means of salvation
Ramanuja —> Brahma had attributes + Devotion / loving faith as means to salvation

Vedanta Phi traced to earlier Upanishads

Acc to it : brahma is reality, everything else is unreal ; self / soul / atma coincides with brahma
if person acquires knowledge of self = acquires knowledge of brahma = attains salvation
brahma & atma = indestructible , both promote idea of stability / indestructibility

Theory of karma linked to Vedanta philosphy —> in present birth person bears consequences of actions in
previous birth
Belief in rebirth = people suffer not cos of worldly causes but cos of causes they neither know / nor control

7. Charvaka :
Main Materialistic philosophy (Samkhya & Vaisheshika) —> denies working of divine & supernatual, makes
man centre of all activities
a.k.a. Lokayata i.e. ideas derived from commo people —> underlined imp of intimate contact with world &
lack of belief in other world
Opposed to quest for spiritual salvation ; denied existence of any divine / supernatural agency
Accepted reality of only things experienced by human senses / organs —> implied clear lack of faith in
existence of Brahma & God
Acc to it, brahmanas manufac rituals in order to acquire gifts

By 500 AD Materialistic phi overshadowed by Idealistic phi ( attri worldly phenomenon to supernatural forces + rituals /
spiritualism as path to salvation)
View hindered progress of sc. enquiry & rational thinking ; even enlightened found diff to q priveleges of priests
/ warriors
Steeped in idealistic & salvation schools, people resigned themselves to inequities of varna-based social system
+ strong aithority of St

Samkhya Dualist Philosiphy i.e (1) Purusha = Consciousness (2) Prakriti = Matter
Jeev (living being) = Puru + Aakriti = Buddhi + ahankar
° Not believe in existence of god

Vedanta Philosophy of Upanishads i.e. ending part of Vedanta

Non-duality i.e. Brahma is the only one i.e Advait

Yoga Combining 2 things

Nyaya Technique of logical thinking i.e. knowledge that what is valid is the real knowledge
created by Buddha

Gives us principles of Reality which constitute the universe

Vaisheshika
Related to Nyaya
Atomic theory of Physics : PHIRBHI BELIEVES IN GOD, KARMA, REBIRTH
Realistic & objective Philosophy of World :
God as guiding principle : creation & destruction of universe

Akash Srivastava (AIR 459), [Link]

 Humans rewarded/punished on Karma : based on actions of merit/demerit
5 elements make up entire universe

Mimasa PRO-BRAHMINS : means “critical investigation” of Samhita & Brahmanas portion of Vedas
providing justification for Vedic rituals

Charvaka Charlie Sheen : Materialistic Philosophy

“There is no other world ; death is end of humans ; pleasure is ultimate aim in life”
—> aka Lokayata philosophy ie philosophy of the masses
Since God, soul & heaven cannot be percieved —> hence not recog by Charvaka
Recog only 4 elements and NOT ether

Nastik Philosophy : Rejected Vedas : J&B, Lokayata (Charvaka), Ajivika Sect

Martial Dances :

THANG TA Martial Dance from MANIPUR (Rang Ma Bamboo dance : Nagaland) while Thang Ka Painting : Sikkim

UNESCO Intangebile Heritage list :

Yoga (latest addition) ; Chhau dance (Bengal Martial) , Kalbelia (snake dance of Rajasthan) , Sankirtana (dance of
Manipur), Metal Punjabi
Ramlila, Buddhist Chanting, Vedic Chanting, NOT Ayurveda
South India : Koodiyettam (kootreya, Kerala), Mudiyetta
Nauroz : Persian New year, Ramman

UNESCO Tangible Cultural Heritage List : ASI : Ajanta Ellora Nalanda Sanchi

==>> Legacy in Sc. & Civilisation :

Religion & Varna System :

Bounty adv by nature + scarcity caused by it —> led them to think of religion & supernatural forces
In course of time, varnas / social classes made hereditary by law & religion —> to ensure Vaishyas prod & paid
taxes, Shudras served as labour for Brahmanas to act as priests & Khatriyas as rulers

Akash Srivastava (AIR 459), [Link]

 Div of labour + Specialisation of occu = certainly helped growth of society & economy intial stages
Gradually each caste pitted against each other —> oppressed could not combine & rise against privileged order
Need to carry out resp funcs so strongly ingrained in minds of various classes that wd not ordinarily think of
deviating from their dharma
Their belief lessened intensity & frequency of tensions & conflicts b/w those who actually prod & those who
lived off
—>> Necessity to coerce lower orders was not very strong in ancient india ; —>> Brahmanical indoctrination vs
Roman rulers' whips

Philosophical systems :
Indian thinkers viewed world as illusion & deliberated deeply on relation b/w Soul & God
Ancient India considered famous for contri to Philosophy & Spiritualism ; phi of no other country delved so
deeply in above problem
Nyaya sutra (4C AD) : mentions 4 proofs comprising perception, inference, comparison & testimony
With decline in Trade, handicrafts, & urbanism, Materialistic retreated & Idealist system of phi came forward
Idealist taught world is an illusion ; People asked by Upanishads to abandon world & strive for knowledge
W thinkers taken to Upanishads cos unable to solve problems created by modern tech

Crafts & Tech :

1st great contri made by Harappan culture : (1) area > Egypt / Mesopotamia (2) largest baked bricks num (3)
best town-planning
Indians attained proficiency in several fields of prod
Indian craftsmen : great expertise in dyeing / creating various colours ; e.g. Ajanta still intact
Indians deve great expertise in art of making steel (200 BC) ; Indian steel exported to many countries + no other
country could match steel swords

Polity :
Arthashastra : leaves no doubt Indians could run adm of large empire + tackle problems of complex society
Cue Ashoka = policy of peace / non-aggression + other kings too practices religious tolerance & respect
Besides Greece, India was only country to experiment with some form of democracy

Science & Maths :

In ancient times religion & science inextricably linked
Astronomy :
Made great strides cos Planets began to be regarded as Gods —> movts began to be closely observed
Study essential cos of connection to changes in seasons & weather conditions —> imp for agro activities

Sc of grammar & linguistics arose cos brahmanas stressed every Vedic prayer / mantra be recited with
meticulous precision
1st result of scientific outlook of Indian = deve of Sanskrit grammar ; Ashtadhyayi by Panini

In Maths, Ancient Indians made 3 distinct contri : (1) Notation system (2) Decimal system (3) Use of Zero
Indian Notational system adopted by Arabs who spread it in [Link]
Indian 1st to use Decimal system (500 AD) : Chinese learnt it from Buddhist missionaries + W world
borrowed it from Arabs
Zero discovered by Indians 200 BC : Indi maths consi it sep numeral & used in arithmetic sums ; Arabs learnt
from India & spread to Europe

Brick constructions of Harappa : show substantial knowledge of measurement & geometry

Apastamba prod practical geometry for contruction of altars (sacrifices) : describes acute, obtuse, _|_
Aryabhatta formulated method for calc area of /__\ : origin of trigonometry
Most renowned scholars of Astronomy :
Aryabhatta :
Calc position of planets in acc with Babylonian method + disc cause of solar / lunar eclipse + correctly
speculated circum of earth
Pointed out Sun is stationary & Earth rotates
Akash Srivastava (AIR 459), [Link]
 Suryasiddhanta : Astronomy by BrahmaGupta
Aryabhatia : landmark in deve of mathematical + astronomical knowledge + distinct contri to
Trigonometry
On its basis, shapes & sizes of Plots involved in gift making + property partition measured & rent / tax
assessed
Measurements needed for erection of temples + palaces + other engg work

Varahamihira :
Panchsiddhanta : Astronomy
Brihatsamhita : stated that moon rotates around earth & earth around sun
Utilised several greek works to explain movt of planets
His plant & animal classification enriched agro knowledge
emphasised calendar sh be constantly updated to keep pace with change in seasons : Varahamihira was
astronomer-cum-astrologer

Medicine :
Ancient Indian physicians studied Anatomy , devised methods to diagnose diseases & prescribed medicines for
cure

Geography :
Early times Indians obtained knowledge of navigation & constri to craft of shipbuilding
However as imp political power had seat of power far away from coasts + faced no threat from sea —> ancient
Indian princes paid no particular attention to navigation

1.1 MB

Nalanda :
earliest eg of residential-cum-teaching insti viz housed 100s of monks devoted to learning, phi, meditation

—> Feudalism :

Akash Srivastava (AIR 459), [Link]

Akash Srivastava (AIR 459), [Link]
10)Medieval India
600 AD : Islam founded in Mecca
1000 AD : The repeated invasion of India by Muslim rulers was started by Md Ghazni 1000 AD : 17 raids overall, came
and raided plundered Indian Temples, shattered the defence of Rajput kingdoms in West (who were busy fighting
among themselves & didnot put up unified defence) , this paved way for invasions by Turks & Afghans
Al-Barauni wrote Kitab-i-Hind : account of India, stayed in Ghazni court : noted 4 categories in Social Structure
was not unique to India , but disliked notion of pollution in lower strata
Minhaj-us-Siraj : Tabaqat-i-Nasari : gen history of Muslim Dynasties in India till 1260

1192 / 1200 AD : Md Ghori fought 2nd Battle of Tarain 1200 AD against confederacy of Rajput kings, Prithviraj
Chauhan —> and won ;
Estd of Turkish Rule in India had started , he left Qutub-ud-in Aibak to consolidate empire

Why did the Hindu Kingdoms fail ?

Lack of unity among NW Rajput+ exhausting each other in fractricidal war, still using elephants while they used
cavalry, Turkish army more modern & capable + Religious Zeal & desire greater + Rajputs were always on
defensive : weak position + in Hindu Society (only Kshatriyas fought, while in Muslim anybody cd fight)

—> Delhi Sultanate : 1200 AD - 1500 AD ~ 5 Dynasties : Slave , Khalji, Tughlaq, Sayyid, Lodhi

Slave Dynasty : Mamluk / Ilbark Dynasty

Qutub-ud-din Aibak : Lakh Baksh (giver of lakhs, liberal donor) was slave of Md Ghori , founder of Slave & Delhi
Sultanate, took on title of “Sutlan"
Iltutmish : intro silver tanka, Arabic coinage in India, predecessor of modern 1 Rupee coin today
created “The Forty” : 40 Military Leaders : new class of ruling elite
also refused shelter to person running from Genghis Khan, leader of Mongols , largest contiguous empire
ever who had reached upto Beas
completed Qutub-Minar, with projected balconies
daughter Raziya as successor, started hereditary succession in Delhi Sultanate

Raziya : only female ruler of Delhi Sultnate;

Balban : det to break power of the Forty = Turkish Nobles in court + Strenghtened Monarcy over Turkish Nobles
Nauroz : Persian festival to impress 40 Nobles & people with his power
Theory of Kingship
Diwan-i-ariz : separate Military Dept
Roads became safe for travel

Khalji Dynasty : Seljuk Dynasty : the Reforms guy

Stop rebellion of The 40 : confiscated their lands + stopped sale of liquor, partying, intermarriage b/w nobles,
efficient spy-system
Army reforms : started paying army in cash
for max efficiency of Army : Army review time to time + started Dagh : Branding of horses & Huliya :
descriptive list of soldiers

Mkt Reforms : Diwan-i-Riyasat : Mkt dept officer Naib-i-Riyasat

Price regulation = prices fixed even during famine, every merchant registered under Mkt dept
Munhiyas & slaves(spies to check prices in Mkts)

Mkt divided in 4 separate mkts : grains , cloths & non-grain food, horses & cattle , misc

Akash Srivastava (AIR 459), [Link]

 supply of grain ensured by holding stocks in Govt store-houses

Land Reforms : Land was measured for 1st time & big land owners had to pay land taxes + paid army in cash
3 categories of Land
Iqta Land : Land given to Officials as payments instead of salaries
Khalisa Land : Land directly under Sultan & NOT Village councils ; revenues collected used to decorate royal
household
Inam Land : Land given to religious leaders

Visti : “bonded labour”

Khalji defeated Mongol ruler : Abdullah ! Bakchod ! forced to raise large army cos of it : stabilised Delhi Sultanate
empire
Rani Padmini : jauhar #SanjayLeelaBhansali
Amir Khusrao : Sabaq-i-Hind : new style of Persian Poetry ; Qawwali , invention of sitar ; new ragas like ghora &
sanam , musical instruments : sarangi rabab

Alai Darwaza as gate in Qutub minar

Tughlaq Dynasty : the Expt guy

Made Devgiri his 2nd Capital to better control South : but 1500 km ki journey mein kaafi royal household ki
maut ho gayi hai
Token Currency : Copper coins to replace Silver Coins : due to shortage of Silver th. out world he gave copper
same value as Silver, par people started forging copper coins themselves, leading to inflation
Taxation in Doab area b/w Yamuna & Ganga
Md Tughlaq 1st person to focus on Agro : Agro Reforms in Doab : gave takkavi loans to farmers for IRRIGATION
,cultivation, since he realised promotion of Agro is soln to poverty ; cultivate wheat > barley + horticulture too !
sep dept of Agro : Diwan-i-Kohi

Diwan-i-Khairat : care house for orphans & widows by Feroze Tughlaq

Feroz Shah Kotla : By Feroze Shah Tughlaq

Feroze Shah Tughlaq (precursor to Aurangzeb-baji : listened to Ulemas, jiziya) : 1st Sultan to apply Irrigation Tax
+ Iqtas made hereditary during his reign
Barani : on Tughlaq ; Tarikh-i-Firoze Shahi
Also done dev. in irrigation
Ragdarpan translated to Persian during Firoze Tughlaq system
Man Katuhal : Raja Man Singh of Gwalior
“Battar" style of construction intro : “sloping walls” to increase strength

Sayyids :
Lodi : were Afghans while rest were Turks
“Double Dome"
Daulat Khan Lodi was frust with arrogant Ibraham Lodi ,so invited Babur to invade India, killed Ibrahim Lodi in
1st Battle of Panipat 1526

Adm :
Naib : Cabinet Sec : exercised all powers of Sultan & general control over all depts
Wazir : Head of Finance Dept : Diwan-i-Wizarat
Military Dept : Diwan-i-Ariz
Religious Dept : Diwan-i-Rasalat headed by Qazi
Communication/Correspondence Dept : Diwan-i-Insha
Agro Dept : Diwan-i-Kohi
Mkt dept officer Naib-i-Riyasat : Diwan-i-Riyasat :
care house for orphans & widows by Feroze Tughlaq : Diwan-i-Khairat :
Province District Village : Iqtas Shiqs Paraganas Village = Muqtis (L&O), Shiqaddar, Amil, Muqaddam/Chaudhari
(Village accountant : patwari)

Akash Srivastava (AIR 459), [Link]

 Sarai : ringed cities / rest houses on highways for travellers
Sericulture , Paper industry started during Delhi Sultanate

—> Bhakti Movt 1000 AD -1500 AD

Bhakti Movt of [Link] : Vaishnavites & Shaivites spread Bhakti Movt in South , from where it spread to [Link]
Cause for rise of bhakti : Monopolistic control of Brahmins , highly complicated & costly Rituals (people were unable to
access Religion) , they used Sanskrit while people cd understand only local languages
Features : Single Minded Devotion & Love to God : only way to achieve salvation , Rituals bhaad me jaye, Monotheism ,
oneness of all religions

Result of Bhakti :
Development of local languages like Marathi Gujrati Bengali, since Bhakti saints preached in local langs NOT
Sanskrit
Raised Lower classes eg Shudra & Women to higher level since Bhakti cd be practiced by anyone
Gave people are more Simple & universally Accessible Religion viz did not discriminate

2 Saints of Advaita Philosophy : Brahma (God) & Soul are one, not diff
Sankaracharya : Nirguna-brahma : God is w/o attributes
Ramanuja : VAISHNAVITE, NAVGRANTHs to the world , Vishisht-advaita (Qualified Oneness ! ): Sagun-brahma :
God is with attributes ie God soul matter all is real & not illusionary
Basavan Comt : contemporary of Ramanuja : Shaivate-Bhakti Movt, Good Governance, Social refomer
founder of Lingayat Sect (VeerShaivism) ; estd "Kalyan Raj” = Welfare State

Bhakti Movt in Kannada : Madhav ( Dvaita Philosphy )

Bhakti Movt in Telangana Region : Nimbark & Vallabhacharya
Bhakti Movt in Bengal : Chaitanya
Bhakti Movt in Maharashtra : Gnanadeva, Namdeva, Ekanth , Tukaram
Gnanadev founder of Bhakti Movt in Mahar + Commentary on Bhagwad Gita : Gnaneswari
Tukaram was contemporary of Shivaji, & laid foundation of Marathi Nationalism

Ramanuja —> Ramananda —> kabir —> Guru Nanak

Kabir : stressed on oneness of H&M
Guru Nanak : founded Sikhism in 1500 AD :

—> Sufism : Liberal Reform Movt w/i Islam ; founded by Khwaya Md Chisti

Love & Devotion as means to God + service to people + self-discipline : pre-req to perceiving God around u + u need
guidance of Guru for spiritual
Orthodox Muslim stressed Outer Conduct & Blind observance of Rituals (eg Purdah) while Sufism stressed inner Purity &
Love& Devotion
Ziyarat : pilgrimage site
Malfuzat, Tazkirs, Maktubat : literary texts of Sufi

Imperial Cholas : 800 - 1200 AD

Hoysala : 1200 -1300 AD
Vijayanagar Empire 1300 AD Ibn Batuta : Rihla ; Moroccan traveller during Vijaynagar Empire (Hampi) + when Md
Tughlaq was Sultan Delhi

Akash Srivastava (AIR 459), [Link]

—> Mughals (1500-1800)

1st Battle of Panipat 1526 : Ibrahim Lodi vs Babur

Babur — >Humayun —> || Sun interrungum (Sher Shah Suri) || —> Humayun —> Jahangir —> Shah Jahan —>
Aurangzeb

Sher Shah Suri : LR , Land Survey done very nicely (good middle bad) , 1/3 revenue
Silver coins : Dams
built new city near yamuna bank near delhi
Jayasi wrote Padmavati during Sher Shah’s reign

2nd Battle of Panipat 1556 : Akbar vs Hemu (hindu) ; Akbar lucky cos arrow pierced Hemu’s eye although he was
winning battle

Akbar, moved by Jodha , abolished Jiziya : special Tax made to pay by Hindus
Din-i-Ilahi : new religion founded by Akbar : one god, took good points of all religion, basis was rational, no dogma,
tried to bridge gap b/w H&M
Ibadat Khana : House of Worship at Fatehpur Sikri : invited scholars from all religions
Disliked Ulemas (muslim religious leaders) , issued infallibility decree , asserting his religious powers
Akbar intro Mansabdari system : ranking system for soldiers to officials
Zat : personal status ki ranking
Sawar : indicated num of cavalryman person reqd to maintain

LR system of Akbar : Zabti / Bandobast system , further improved by Raja Todar Mal known as Dahsala system
Revenue fixed on basis Avg yield of land of past 10 yrs
Land div into 4 categ : Polaj Parauti Chachar banjar : cultivated once in 1 2 3 5 yrs

Akbar’s Relgious Policy : Religious tolerance & matrix-monial alliance building with Rajputs, Sikhs, Marathas + gave them
high posts in court & army : eg Raja Man Sigh, Raja Todar Mal —> Akbar enjoyed Service of best warriors in country +
Rajputs enjoyed peace among themselves + occupied top positions in the Mughal Adm
Mughal power declines cos of Aurangzeb’ Religious Policy (reversed Akbar’s Policy of + vastness of empire became
unweilding + neglected naval development vis-a-vis British + repeated incursion by Ahmad Shah Abdali & NAdir Shah

Food in Mughal : Rice Millets Pulses was staple food, ghee oil was cheap, Milk was plenty cos all had cattle
But Sugar & Salt was costly

Agro in Mughal : we grew wheat rice gram pulses + Commercial crops : cotton indigo sugarcane oilseed
Crops we got in 17th & 18th century : Tobacco, Maize (sutta / bhutta) , Red Chilli , Potato
But no new Agro technique was intro during Mughals

We exported Rice & Sugar, Silk , Kashmiri Shawls, Gold & Silver ???
Imported : Copper Tin War horses, Luxury items like ivory

Pietra Dura : used in Taj Mahal : “semi precious stones”

Lapis Lazuli : Blue Stone
Hamznama : Jahangir ka 1200 painting ka collection

Akash Srivastava (AIR 459), [Link]

—> Marathas :

Kathi : Measuring rod for measuring land during Marathas

Land div into 3 : Paddy, Garden land, hills

Ashtapradhan : 8 Council of Ministers viz assisted Shivaji

Waqenawis : Intell, Amatya : a/c general , Sumanta : Master of Ceremonies , NOT religion , Sachiv ;
Correspondence (Sachivalaya Secretariat)

Chauth : Tax viz Marathas collected from side-by villages , viz were under Mughal rule & Marathas undertook resp to
protect Mughal rule from internal & External disturbances
So when Ahmad Shah Abdali invaded India : 3RD BATTLE OF PANIPAT 1761 : Abdali vs Marathas

Iltutmish & Jalaluddin Khalji stopped Mongol

Akash Srivastava (AIR 459), [Link]