SECOND YEAR B.ED.

PEDAGOGY OF ENGLISH II – PART 2

UNIT – 4
TEACHING PRONUNCIATION
Refer – Teaching of Phonetics by Dr. Balasubramanian

UNIT – 7
SKILL OF WRITING
Refer – Teaching of General English by Rajeshwari
 UNIT - 1
LESSON PLAN FORMAT – GRAMMAR
INTRODUCTION

Grammar is an essential component of language learning. To enable learners to use

a variety of language items accurately and appropriately in different contexts, it is
important to help them connect grammar items and structures with the communicative
functions they perform. In doing so, learners will gain a better understanding of how, why
and when to use particular language items and structures and develop an awareness of
how the items make meaning in the texts. To enhance the effectiveness of grammar
learning and teaching at the senior secondary level, teachers should consider learners’
previous knowledge in grammar and design meaningful tasks for the application of their
grammar knowledge in context. The following are some suggestions for planning grammar
learning and teaching at the senior secondary level.

WHAT IS GRAMMAR?

Grammar is the system of a language. People sometimes describe grammar as the "rules" of
a language; but in fact no language has rules*. If we use the word "rules", we suggest that
somebody created the rules first and then spoke the language, like a new game. But
languages did not start like that. Languages started by people making sounds which
evolved into words, phrases and sentences. No commonly-spoken language is fixed. All
languages change over time. What we call "grammar" is simply a reflection of a language at
a particular time.

Do we need to study grammar to learn a language? The short answer is "no". Very many
people in the world speak their own, native language without having studied its grammar.
Children start to speak before they even know the word "grammar". But if you are serious
about learning a foreign language, the long answer is "yes, grammar can help you to learn a
language more quickly and more efficiently." It's important to think of grammar as
something that can help you, like a friend. When you understand the grammar (or system)
of a language, you can understand many things yourself, without having to ask a teacher or
look in a book.

TEACHING OF GRAMMAR
Grammar is the study of organization of words into sentences which is based on certain
rules. According to Prof. Nelson Francis, "Grammar is the set of formal patterns in which
the words of a language are arranged in order to convey meanings.
It gives the pupils ability to speak and write correctly and enables them to use formal
language patterns properly for describing a thing." The acquisition of the grammatical
system of a language remains the most important element in language learning.

AIMS OF TEACHING OF GRAMMAR

The aims of teaching grammar are as follows:
1. To develop student's insight into the structures of English language
2. To enable the students to develop their understanding about the rules of English
grammar through use and practice.
3. To enable the students to assimilate the correct patterns of the language
without rote memorization.
4. To enable the students to speak and write correctly.
5. To develop a scientific attitude towards the language.
METHODS OF TEACHING GRAMMAR
There are four main methods of teaching gramm
1. The Traditional method
2. The informal method
3. The inductive-deductive method

The Traditional Method

In this method grammatical items are taught with the help of a grammar book which
contains definitions, rules, examples and exercises. For example:

Definition of Noun: "A noun is the name of a person place or thing"

Examples: Sachin, Seema, Delhi, Kanpur, Book, Chair etc.

Exercise: Underline the nouns in the following sentences.

Rajesh lives in Delhi. My father gave me pen.

The main procedure in this method is from rule to example. It emphasizes on rote learning
of rules and definitions. Students find it least interesting and monotonous.

The Informal Method

This method advocates the teaching of grammar not by rules but by usages. By continuous
practice of using words while speaking, reading and writing grammar can be learnt. This
method proves useful at the early stage when students learn language by lot of oral work.
This method demands a lot of practice and time for learning the grammatical items on the
part of the students. The students do not get systematized knowledge of grammar.
There are some types of grammar, like:

Traditional Grammar

Traditional Grammar is used to describe the grammar of Standard English by comparing it

with Latin. In this type, the students learns parts of speech (nouns, verbs, prepositions,
adverbs, adjective, articles, conjunctions, prepositions, pronouns, and interjections).

Formal Grammar

Formal Grammar is used to describe the structure of individual sentences. This type sets
language as a set of rules which allow or disallow certain sentence structure.

Functional Grammar

Functional Grammar is used to describe language in actual use and so focus on texts and
their contexts. This type sets a language as a resource for making meaning.

FORMAL AND FUNCTIONAL GRAMMAR

Formal Grammar

They are influenced in this desire by their purpose. If the study of the science of language
disciplines the mind — as in their opinion it does — the more considerable the body of the
science, in reason, the greater the discipline derived from the study. This accounts for the
fact that the advocates of formal grammar prefer the grammar of a highly inflected
language. Those who advocate functional gram- mar wish to teach only such facts and
principles as apply to English. Indeed they go farther and say that formal grammar,
properly taught, is a reflective study of language, that pupils in the grades have reached a
stage of maturity that makes profitable a study, not of all the facts and principles of English,
but only of such facts and principles as are necessary in daily speech, and that the finer
points of our language have no place in a grammar intended for the grades. It follows then
that the content of functional grammar is much simpler than the content of formal
grammar. The fullness of the content of the latter is shown in the case of nouns, nouns
being declined with as much care in all three cases as if they had three different forms
instead of two, one for the nominative and objective and one for the possessive. This is
done in spite of the fact that the possessive is the only case of nouns that gives trouble.

Functional Grammar

Functional grammar usually differs from formal as much in method as in purpose and
content, though this is not necessarily true. The teacher of functional grammar tries all the
time to impress upon her pupils that their speech must be governed by the laws of good
usage, and that they have been applying these laws since they began to speak. She helps the
pupils evolve these laws from their own speaking and writing, and shows them how to
become more discriminating in the correction of their own errors. Functional grammar
demands that the child's time and energy be given to the study and application of those
facts of grammar that will make him a better writer and speaker. The statement above
made, that functional grammar usually differs from formal grammar as much in method as
in purpose and content, may lead one astray. As a matter of fact one lesson of a series might
be the same in formal and functional teaching.

The Inductive and Deductive Method

This method is considered to be the best method as it follows certain educational principles
from known to unknown, from simple to complex, from general to particular, from
concrete to abstract etc.

Inductive means to proceed from observation to laws and rules.

Deductive means to proceed from the law and rule to observation and examples. This
method has two processes:
a. Inductive Process
b. Deductive Process
For teaching grammar inductively and deductively following steps are to be followed:
Inductive process

(i) Presentation of examples in a systematic way.

In the first step, the teacher presents the examples of the grammatical item to be
taught in a systematic way.
(ii) Observation and analysis of examples
The teacher asks the students to observe the examples and analyze them with
the help of students.
(iii) Generalization/Generation of rule or definition
After analysis of the examples, they come to certain conclusions or
generalization and draw certain rule or definition.

Deductive Process

(i) Presentation of the rule or the definition.

In this step, the teacher points out the rule or the definition.
(ii) Verification and application of the rules.
(iii) The teacher gives several other examples to verify the rule or the definition. The
teacher again motivates the students to observe and analyze the example and
apply the rule or the definition.
(iv) Practice for the application of the rule.
The teacher gives ample practice for the application of rule and definition.
Inductive & deductive method is based on psychological maxims of learning and makes the
active participation of the students. It has no place for rote memorization as the rules and
definitions are discovered by the students themselves. Thus it stimulates their thinking and
reasoning power. It is advisable that grammar should be taught informally at the early
stage with the inductive and deductive method and incidental method at the middle stage
and with traditional method at the higher stage.
STEPS OF PREPARING A LESSON PLAN FOR GRAMMAR

i) General Objectives

ii) Specific Objectives

1. Motivation

2. Announcement of the title

3. Oral presentation

4. Situational presentation

5. Written presentation

6. Application

7. Recapitalization

8. Assignment

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 UNIT - 2
LESSON PLAN FORMAT – COMPOSITION
 COMPOSITION LESSON PLAN
INTRODUCTION

In the previous chapters, we have discussed the various aspects of a reading

comprehension lesson. We also saw a model lesson plan. You got adequate exposure to
various factors involved in presenting a reading lesson in your class. In this unit, you will
learn about a composition lesson. Let us look at its various details.

WHY A COMPOSITION LESSON PLAN?

As you know composition comes under the productive skill of writing. It is an important
skill since we can find out the students expressional abilities through composition. It is
necessary that you as a teacher should know how to plan a composition lesson so that you
could plan and execute your composition writing activities in a systematic manner in your
classes. In the students’ day to day learning activities most of their work is in the area of
writing.

STEPS INVOLVED IN THE PLAN

A composition lesson has mainly three stages and you may include one more stage namely,
homework. The stages are motivation, discussion, organization and home task.

(i) Motivation
In the motivation stage you may revise the structure which the students will use
for writing the composition. In our case we could select a similar topic based on
the lesson ‘Pongal’ The topic could be Diwali, which is familiar to your students.
For writing this composition your pupils may use the simple present tense and
this forms the basis of the composition. You may also ask some related questions
for leading the pupils to the composition.
(ii) Discussion
After the first stage we could think of the second stage, namely, the discussion
stage. In the discussion stage you could use techniques like questioning, mind
mapping, brain storming, etc. You could include questions based on the topic.
Alternative to this is, suggest the topic, let your students think about it and with
the help of brain storming you could elicit ideas, points from the students. These
points could be written on the blackboard.
(iii) Organization
The third stage in a composition lesson is the organisation stage. In this stage
you could decide the sequence of points or ideas with the help of the students. In
the plan you may write the points, or composition in a logical manner.
Thereafter the individual pupils will develop the whole composition.
 (iv) Home Task
The fourth and the final stage is the home task stage where you could ask your
students to write the composition in the next class hour or at home.

MODEL OF COMPOSITION LESSON PLAN

Basic skills / Type of Lesson
Aural - oral - writing / A composition Lesson
Topic : Diwali - Std. IX
Previous knowledge assumed.
Pupils are familiar with the simple present tense.
They have the background knowledge of various Indian festivals.
❖ Overall Aims
To enable the students to speak / write a few sentences on a given topic coherently
and logically.
To enable the students to develop their aural-oral-writing skills.
❖ Specific Aims
To enable the pupils to speak a few sentences on the topic ‘Diwali’ coherently and
logically followed by writing.
Teaching Experience Techniques
Steps Content Pupil's used/
teacher's Activity
Activity B.B.Summary
To lead them What is your name?
to the topic > When do you get
‘Pongal’ by up in the morning? > They will
revising the > What do you do listen to the
Questioning
Motivation structure the first? > Then teacher.
T -►S
simple present what do you do? > They will give
and by asking > Can you give me answers.
some the names ofsome
questions festivals, etc.

To enable them
to provide
1. They will
several points Diwali 1. celebrate 2.
answer the Mind Mapping
by answering Festival 3. Festival
question asked and Group
Discussion question and of light 4. Decorate
by the teacher. Storming
taking part in 5. Sweets 6. Greeting
2. They work in Questioning
mind-mapping 7. Fire Crackers
Group.
and Brain-
storming
 1. Diwali is festival
of light
2. It comes in the
To enable the month of
individual October/November
Individual will
pupils to 3.People send
develop the
develop the greeting to their Group work
Organization whole
whole friends and Narration
composition
composition relatives.
orally.
coherently and 4. Decorate their
logically. house 5.
Illuminate their
house 6. Fire
cracking

To enable the
pupil to write They will write
the the
Home Task Points as above Assignment
composition in composition
the next class independently
hour / at home.

CONCLUSION

You have seen the various aspects of a composition lesson, its importance, various
steps involved, model lesson plan, planning and presentation, reflective questions, etc.
Thus this unit has given you adequate exposure to a composition lesson plan. In the next
unit you will come to know various details of an oral-communication / speech lesson.

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 UNIT - 3
APPROACHES TO TEACHING ENGLISH LANGUAGE

INTRODUCTION

In the previous unit, we studied about some methods that are used in teaching of
English. These methods have been tried out earlier with varying degree of success. The
common aspect of these is that certain important features of the methods have been totally
absorbed in the pedagogy. In this unit we will be discussing about some approaches used
in teaching of English such as structural approach, situational approach, communicative
approach and constructive approach.

OBJECTIVES

After going through this unit you will be able to

 define different approaches of teaching.

 explain merits and demerits of different approaches.
 use different approaches contextually

STRUCTURAL APPROACH
It is also known as Aural-oral Approach. Each language has its own pattern of
structure. The structural approach is an outcome of the experiments carried out in
language teaching in the army campus during World War II. Meaningful words are used in
particular order. Every structure embodies an important grammatical point. A sentence
needs a grammatical background. The different arrangements or patterns of words are
called structures. Here words are used in particular order to convey their sense and
meaning. In this way structures are the tools of language and should not be confused with
sentences. According to Brewington.

"Structural approach is a scientific study of the fundamental structures of the

English language, their analysis and logical arrangement". The structural approach to
English is teaching the learner certain selected structures in a certain order. The different
arrangement or patterns of words are called structures. Structure may be complete
patterns or they may form a part of a large pattern. Language is viewed as structurally
related elements for the encoding of meaning- the elements being phonemes, morphemes,
words, structures and sentence types. It can be diagrammatically represented as:
 In the structural approach there may be four kinds of structures namely; Sentence
patterns; Phrase patterns; Formulas and Idioms. Sentence Pattern are the word model from
which many things of the same kind and shape can be made like cars which look the same
or shoes made alike all of the same size and shape though perhaps of different colours. A
sentence pattern is therefore a model for sentence which will be of the same shape and
construction although made up of different words. Phrase Pattern is a group of words
which express an idea without its being a sentence of clause e.g. in the house, on the table,
into the tub etc. Formulas are those words which are used on certain occasions e.g. How
are you?, Good morning; Thank you; etc. Idioms like 'Rome was not built in a day', 'hit the
iron when it is hot', etc. come in this category. These should be taught as a whole.

Principles of Structural Approach:

It is based on three main principles:

(i) Importance is given to student's activity rather than the activity of the teacher.
(ii) Importance is given to speech work.
(iii) Importance is given in developing correct language habits among the students,
particularly the habits of arranging words in English in order to replace the
sentence patterns of the pupil's mother tongue.
Aims of Structural Approach:

The main aim of structural approach is to teach four fundamental skills: listening,
speaking, reading and writing. It also enlarges the vocabulary of the student's. It correlates
the teaching of grammar and composition with the lesson of the text-book. It improves and
corrects pupil's speech habit. It makes classroom environment interesting and natural. It
develops student's interest in creating meaningful situations. It lays proper emphasis on
the aural-oral approach, active methods and the condemnation of formal grammar for its
own sake. It also enables the children to attain mastery over an essential vocabulary of
about 3000 root words for active use.

Merits of the Structural Approach:

The merits of this approach are that it can be adopted for all stages of education. It
stress habit formation, through intensive drills, the students cultivate the habit of speaking
the English language, due to much oral drilling, whatever is learnt in the class remains
stable in the minds of the students. It provides enough opportunities to the students to
express their ideas and feelings and makes both teacher and students active which is
psychologically sound. It puts more emphasis on speech or oral aspects of learning. The
students are provided with carefully selected and graded language material. Making use of
this approach the teacher can attend to more or almost all students of his class.

Demerits of the Structural Approach:

The demerits of this approach are that it is suitable only in lower classes. Only well
selected sentence patterns are taught through this approach. It is rarely successful in
overcrowded classroom. It neglects reading of all types. This approach does not take into
consideration the fact that pupil is a learner. This approach needs specially planned text-
books and well trained teachers to create appropriate environment for learning the
language. While teaching through this approach each structure should be repeatedly
taught many times with different words. The teacher should care that the students get
adequate practice in the use of special words. New words should be introduced gradually
and they must be corrected with the structures already taught. Sufficient practice should be
given in respect of each structure before the next is introduced. New words at early stages
should refer to objects and actions which can be seen and demonstrated in the classroom.
Thus this approach is based on the assumption that language learning is a matter of habit
formation, which involves a lot of repetition and conscious drilling of the language items.
SITUATIONAL APPROACH
Hornby used the term situational approach in the title of a popular series of article
published in ELT (1950). The approach suggests that any language item, whether it is
structure or a word, should not be presented in isolation. It has to be introduced and
practised in a context or situation. In the situational approach, explanations are
discouraged and the learner is expected to apply the language learnt in the classroom to
situation outside the classroom. By using situation the use of mother tongue can be
avoided. If the language item is given in the meaningful situations the learner can deduce
the meaning and context from the situation in which it is used.

The situational approach indicates as to how a teacher should create a real situation
in the classroom. Now the question that arises is how these real situations can be created in
the classroom? The Situational Approach tries to solve this problem. A particular situation
helps the teacher to provide practice to the pupils to explain its meaning. A particular
situation may be created in the classroom by use of maps, pictures, various objects, actions
or by drawing on the black board. It can thus be realized that to create a relevant situation
is practical problem.

According to this approach the English as a second language should be taught by

forming links between the new words and the real situations encountered by the child
while learning their mother tongue. All the items are learnt by a child in real situations. The
situation in which the child learns his mother-tongue are repeated again and again and
whatever the child understands or expresses about his experiences of his own life are then
in same way connected with the terminology of the English Language. The structure or a
word conveys its meaning to the pupil only when it is used in particular situations. This
particular situation helps the teacher to familiarize the pupils with the structure. But how a
teacher can create a real situation, may be created in the classroom and outside by the use
of objects, by the use of pictures, by drawing or displaying maps and sketches, by gestures
and by action etc. Conversation is another way to create real situations in the classrooms.
The teacher may ask questions also. They may have discussion or extempore etc.

Characteristics of Situational Approach:

Speech is the basis of language teaching. The new language items and vocabulary
items are graded according to their usefulness, frequency and teachability. The language
items thus selected and graded are presented and practised in meaningful situations.
Reading and writing are based on items which have already been introduced and practised
orally. New words are introduced incidentally in the class. Opportunities are provided to
the pupils to associate the meaning of new words with the created situation. Lot of
appropriate material is used to create proper and real situations. Examples are given to
make the things clear. Teacher gives continuous statements about his actions – He puts
before his pupils several questions and answers them himself. The use of mother-tongue is
emphasized.

For example – If the teacher wants to teach the parts of a flower. He can show
various pictures to the students depicting different parts of a flower. He may also write the
names of the parts of the trees on these pictures. First of all he will explain orally only and
then the teacher may take the help of the pictures to make his teaching more effective and
interesting.

Merits of the Situational Approach:

1. It creates interest among the students.

2. Emphasis is given on learning by play.
3. Action chains make the classroom atmosphere lively.
4. Lot of material aid is used to make the learning stable and interesting.
5. Lot of examples can be given
6. The teacher can make his illustrations clear by using various materials or by
pictures etc.
7. Stress is given on learning through hearing.

Demerits of the Situational Approach:

1. It is suitable only in the lower classes as this approach cannot be made applicable to
the senior classes.
2. Text books cannot be taught by this method.
3. Only well selected sentence patterns can be taught by this approach.
4. That minimum makes the classroom dull.
5. Trained teachers are required for it.
6. Prose, poetry, rapid reader etc. cannot be taught through this approach.
7. Sometimes it becomes difficult to relate the statement of the teacher with the
created situation.

Situational Language Teaching involves accurate use of vocabulary items and

grammar rules in order to achieve a practical mastery of the four basic skills. Learners
must be able to produce accurate pronunciation and use of grammar. The ultimate aim is to
be able to respond quickly and accurately in speech situations with an automatic control of
basic structures and sentence patterns.
COMMUNICATIVE APPROACH
The development of language learning or teaching from form-based to a meaning-
based approach, the move towards the eclectic approach from a rigid method, the shift
from teacher centered to learner centered classes, are all subsumed under the broad term
communicative approach. The communicative approach is the recent and latest approach
of teaching English. This approach lays a great emphasis on the use of language. It enables
the students to communicate his ideas in a better way. The socio linguists Dell Hymes
propagated this approach. According to him the purpose of teaching language is the
communicative competence. The following materials are used in this approach; different
functions such as requesting, informing, expressing likes and dislikes; notions of time,
location and duration etc.; using language to perform different tasks such as solving
puzzles, dramatization, role play etc. Teachers have known that their aim is to get students
communicating successfully outside the classroom.

Communicative competence not only applies the grammatical rules of a language in

order to form a grammatically correct sentence, but also to know when and where to use
these sentences- in other words, to use them appropriately

Characteristics of the Approach

The communicative approach aim to make all the learner attain communicative
competence i.e. use language accurately and appropriately. The prime focus is on learner
and teacher is just a facilitator. It is based upon need analysis and planning to prepare
communicative curricular and syllabuses. It is based upon the concept of how language is
used and what is functional utility of language. It lays less stress on grammar and emphasis
on language in use rather than language as structure. It gives emphasis on the semantic
objective of the language which means the meaning of language in real life situation and
contexts. The skills of speaking and writing are included in communicative approach. It
provides the communicative opportunities where the students may be able to
communicate their ideas through dialogue, discussion, debate, literary and cultural
activities of the schools.

Merits of Communicative Approach:

1. The merit of communicative approach is to develop the speech ability among the
students.
2. It teaches of different ways of expression.
3. This approach is based on the practical utility.
4. It lays more stress on the functional value of language.
5. It enables the students to communicative their ideas both inside and outside the
class-room.
Demerits of Communicative Approach:

1. This approach ignores grammar and structures.

2. It is not properly and scientifically developed as yet.
3. It is a new approach and it is to be used and tested in our schools for language
teaching.
4. Practical utility of this approach is yet to be confirmed.
5. Trained teachers are not available in this approach to teach English language.
6. Students don't get proper environment for communication.

In communicative approach techniques such as information gap tasks are used. An

information gap occurs in a situation where one person knows something which other
person do not. Information gap task used in the classroom are language games, role play,
retrieving text order etc.

In this approach the teacher is no longer regarded as sole arbiter and controller of what
goes in the language classroom. The independent status of learner is fully accepted. The
communicative approach has implications for the classroom teacher in terms of their way
of teaching and attitude. Thus communicative approach can be the effective way of
developing language competence among learners.

CONSTRUCTIVE APPROACH
This view represents the shift from education based on behaviourism, to education
based on cognitive theory. Thus, behaviourist epistemology essence is based on
intelligence, domains of objectives, levels of knowledge and reinforcement; however in the
case of constructivist epistemology it is the learner who constructs their knowledge on the
basis of interaction with the environment. The primary message of constructivism is that
active learning enables the students to construct their own knowledge and make their own
meaning of what is being thought. According to this approach, acquiring second language
will be effective in authentic and complex learning environment or situation. One of the
primary goals of using constructivist teaching is that students learn how to learn by giving
them the training to take initiative for their own learning experiences.

According to Reinfried constructivist language learning should be action oriented

where language is learned through collaboration, free creation is praised, and learning is
achieved by actively doing projects and self-teaching. Constructivist language learning
should be learner centred that supports individualization of learning and autonomy.
Learner should develop awareness not only for learning but for the language itself and for
the intercultural aspect as well. Constructivist language learning is to be holistic with
content oriented perspective, authentic and complex learning environment.
Principle of Constructive Approach

One of the most important principles in constructivist approach to language

teaching is action orientedness. Co-operative learning (such as pair work, group work or
any other social forms of learning), creative and active participation in classroom activities,
learning by preparing various projects as well as learning by teaching (when the student is
asked to take over teacher's role) have been treated as the major tasks referring to the
action oriented method.

The second principle in constructive language teaching is individualisation of

learning which is centred on the learner. It is the learner who is allowed to decide about the
fragments and sections of the materials provided by the teacher during the lesson. This
possibility to make choices fosters learner's autonomy, thus it takes into account their
preferable style and type of learning.

Another principle of constructive approach refers to holistic language experience

which refers to content-oriented language teaching and usually takes place in bilingual
classes. Constructive approach to language teaching is based on the foundation that
knowledge is constructed not received. It is based on thinking and analysing not
memorising. It also lays emphasis on understanding and applying and not repeating

Principles of Constructive Approach:

 Process oriented Awareness

 Content Awareness
 Intercultural Awareness
 Creativity
 Collaborative Learning
 Language Awareness
 Individual Learning
 Cultural Awareness
 Learner Oriented
 Learners Autonomy

Principles of Constructive Second Language Teaching

Constructivist teaching involves negotiation and scaffolding. Negotiation is an

important aspect of a constructivist classroom. It unites teachers and students in a common
purpose. It is important for the teacher to talk openly with the learners about the choice of
new information as well as the way of introducing it during classes, and the formal
constrains such as obligatory curriculum. Scaffolding is a more systemic approach to
supporting the learner, focusing on the task, the environment, the teacher, and the learner.
Scaffolding provides temporary frameworks to support learning and student performance
beyond their capacities. The concept of scaffolding represents any kind of support for
cognitive activity that is provided by an adult when the child and adult are performing the
task together (Wood & Middleton, 1975).

Instructional practice in constructivist classrooms values prior knowledge, is

context embedded, integrates cooperative group work, multidimensional assessment, and
integrates language, content, and process.

In the constructivist classroom, the teacher’s role is to prompt and facilitate

discussion. Thus, the teacher’s main focus should be on guiding students by asking
questions that will lead them to develop their own conclusions on the subject. Teaching
strategies which can be used in this approach is that a teacher can use a picture from
students’ cultural background. Ask students to describe as they say the words, and write
the words on paper, put words together and look for patterns. Write sentences from the
words formed.

Some of the activities that could be involved in constructive classroom while

teaching language are role playing, theme and content based, oral presentations,
discussions and debates, metaphors, interactive, collaborative, real life examples, portfolio
evaluation etc. Students can construct additional knowledge by writing poems, short plays,
screen plays, legal briefs, journals, diaries etc.

Merits of Constructive Approach

This method of teaching is effective for students who learn better in a hands-on
environment and helps students to better relate the information learned in the classroom
to their lives. Children learn more, and enjoy learning more when they are actively
involved, rather than passive listeners. Education works best when it concentrates on
thinking and understanding, rather than on rote memorization. Constructivism
concentrates on learning how to think and understand. Constructivist learning is
transferable. In constructivist classrooms, students create organizing principles that they
can take with them to other learning settings. Constructivism gives students ownership of
what they learn, since learning is based on students' questions and explorations, and often
the students have a hand in designing the assessments as well. Constructivism promotes
social and communication skills by creating a classroom environment that emphasizes
collaboration and exchange of ideas.

Demerits of Constructive Approach

There are also some demerits to constructive teaching. The training necessary, for
constructive teaching is extensive and often requires costly long-term professional
development. With an average number of students in one classroom, teachers are unable to
customize the curriculum to each student, as their prior knowledge will vary. The
constructivism curriculum also eliminates standardized testing and grades. It requires
more time and energy.

S-O-S APPROACH (Structural Oral Situational Approach)

THE STRUCTURAL APPROACH

A structure in English is the way in which words and word groups are arranged to
form meaningful words. It is based on the assumptions that language can be best learnt
through a scientific selection and grading of the structures or patterns of sentences and
vocabulary. After a careful selection procedure, 250 example structures were identified in
the late 1960’s. But now we have only 100 prescribed structures to study. This approach is
known for selection, gradation and presentation.
The selection and gradation of structural approach was done on the basis of their:

 Usefulness - Only useful items are listed.

 Frequency -The structures must be selected with a high frequency of occurrence.
 Teach ability - Items easy from teaching point of view (The present continuous
tense is introduced earlier than the simple present).
 Productivity - The structures that can give rise to more sentences are listed at the
top, when compared to those which have no scope.

The Principles underlying structural approach

 Language is primarily speech.

 Importance of Framing Language Habits.
 Importance is given to student's activity rather than the activity of the teacher.
 Language learning may be very effective if the structure of the language is presented
in the context of the child’s mother tongue.
 Each language as its own Grammar - Instead of teaching Grammar of the target
language, its structures are to be taught.
 It is essential that the structures are drilled properly and repeated in meaningful
contexts. Substitution tables can be used to drill the patterns.

Advantages Of Structural Approach In Teaching English

 It has emphasis on the four fundamental skills, such as, listening,

understanding, speaking, reading and writing.
 It facilitates the learning of English by imparting knowledge of its structures.
 It promotes everyday English.
 It enables the students to speak English correctly.
  By the learning of the structure of sentence the child automatically learns grammar,
word order and use of words.

Disadvantages Of Structural Approach

 It is suitable for lower class students.

 Continuous teaching of structures and their repetition make the atmosphere dull.
 Reading and writing ability of the students are neglected.
 It is very difficult to get skilled teachers for this purpose.
 It is not suitable for the higher classes.

ORAL APPROACH

It is a flexible method. The emphasis is on the spoken method. Some people can use a
language for oral communication only. They are illiterate, but they can understand their
language and also respond suitably. Learning to speak a language is by far the shortest road
to learning to read it and write it.

 The teacher will try to make use of their own oral skills and of the students:
 To introduce language items (structural and vocabulary items)
 To discuss the reading passages and poems
 To teach composition writing
 To prepare the students orally for doing the written exercises.

The oral method is not a complete method in itself, but is a necessary feature or phase
of a complete method. It helps to approach the language from many different ways, by
means of many different forms of work.

Advantages Of Teaching English Through Oral Method

 Natural way of learning any language

 It is a good introduction to the other more difficult skills mainly, reading and
writing.
 It is the only way by which we can ensure economical use of class time.

SITUATIONAL APPROACH

This is yet another approach that goes hand in hand with structural and oral
approach, namely situational approach. All items are presented through pleasurable and
interesting activities in proper situations. Hence these put together and called S-O-S
approach. According to this approach the English as a second language should be taught by
forming links between the new words and the real situations encountered by the child
while learning their mother tongue. All the items are learnt by a child in real situations. The
situation in which the child learns his mother-tongue are repeated again and again and
whatever the child understands or expresses about his experiences of his own life are then
in same way connected with the terminology of the English Language.
In this approach, mother tongue can be used:

 To discuss any matter that is too difficult to understand.

 To confirm that the situational meaning has been understood.
 Understanding of abstract concepts.

Advantages Of Situational Approach

 It creates interest among the students.

 Emphasis is given on learning by play.
 Action chains make the classroom atmosphere lively.
 Lot of material aid is used to make the learning stable.
 The teacher can make his illustrations clear by using various materials or by
pictures etc.

Disadvantages

 It is suitable only in the lower classes as this approach cannot be made applicable to
the senior classes.
 Trained teachers are required for it.
 Prose, poetry, rapid reader etc. cannot be taught through this approach.

The teacher plans situations using the

Environment: classroom, outside the classroom, school premise, society etc.

Teaching aids: objects, models, pictures, charts, stories, anecdotes, incidents, events etc.

Types Of Situations

Contrived situation: Situation planned by the teacher at home for their teaching purpose.

Spontaneous situation: Those situations that can be cropped and made use of if the
teacher is resourceful.

Thus the S-O-S approach is the systematic presentation and practice of carefully
selected and graded grammatical structures of English in effective and meaningful
situations. Sustained efforts for training teachers in S-O-S approach have to be made for the
effective use of any approach.

ECLECTIC APPROACH
Eclectic approach is a method of language education that combines various
approaches and methodologies to teach language depending on the aims of the lesson and
the abilities of the learners.[1] Different teaching methods are borrowed and adapted to suit
the requirement of the learners. It breaks the monotony of the class. In addition, It is a
conceptual approach that does not merely include one paradigm or a set of assumptions.
Instead, eclecticism adheres to or is constituted from several theories, styles, and ideas in
order to gain a thorough insight about the subject, and draws upon different theories in
different cases. ‘Eclecticism’ is common in many fields of study such as psychology, martial
arts, philosophy of teaching, religion and drama.

Principles

Like other approaches and methods of language education, the Eclectic Approach
has some inherent principles. Perhaps, the main principle of this approach is that the
language teacher can choose any suitable methods or techniques befitting the needs of the
learners and learning situation. The following principles as presented by Al-khuli M. Ali
(1981:7) may be considered:

 Giving teachers a chance to choose different kinds of teaching techniques in each

class period to reach the aims of the lesson.
 Flexibility in choosing any aspect or method that teachers think suitable for teaching
inside the classroom.
 Giving a chance to pupils to see different kinds of teaching techniques that break
monotony and dullness on one hand and ensure better understanding for the
material on the other hand.
 Advocacy of the Eclectic Approach to ESL/EFL Teaching in Bangladesh.
 Solving difficulties concerning presenting the language material in the pupils
textbook.
 Using different kinds of teaching aids which leads to better understanding.
 Saving a lot of time and efforts in presenting language activities.

Advantages of using Eclectic approach

 The teacher has more flexibility.
 No aspect of language skill is ignored.
 There is variety in the classroom.
 Classroom atmosphere is dynamic.
These types of programs not only negotiate teacher skill-development within an
improved recognition of and respect for cross-cultural and multi-linguistic classroom
settings, but also encourages student pride in their heritage, language, communication
preferences and self-identity.

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 UNIT - 5
TEACHING OF VOCABULARY
ESSENTIAL OF TEACHING VOCABULARY (SCOPE):

It may be useful to begin this chapter by listing some questions which teachers and
students have asked about vocabulary and language study. We hope to try and lay some
foundations from which answers might be found:
 How many words provide a working vocabulary in a foreign language?
 What are the best words to learn first?
 In the early stages of learning a second / foreign language, are some words more
useful to the learners than others?
 Are some words more difficult than others? Can words be graded for ease of
learning?
 What are the best means of retaining new words?
 Is it most practical to learn words as single items in a list, in pairs (for example as
translation equivalents) or in contexts?
 What about words which have different meanings? Should they be avoided? If not,
should some meanings be isolated for learning first?

OBJECTIVES OF LEARNING VOCABULARY:

To know a word in a target language may mean the ability to:

 recognize it in its spoken / written form.
 recall it when needed.
 relate it to an appropriate objective or concept.
 use it in the appropriate grammatical form.
 pronounce it ! speak in a recognizable way.
 spell it clearly and correctly.
 use it with words that correctly goes with it. i.e., in the correct collocation.
 be aware of its connotations and associations.

DEVELOPMENT OF THE UNIT

Learning a new language is basically a matter of learning the vocabulary of that language.
Not being able to find the words you need to express is the most frustrating experience in
speaking another language. Of course vocabulary is not the whole of the language. The
system of the language (its ‘grammar’ or ‘structure’) is also important: how the plural is
formed, how past tense is signified and so on. Nevertheless it is possible to have a good
knowledge of how the system of a language works and yet not be able to communicate in it;
whereas if we have the vocabulary we need, it is usually possible to communicate.
(i) Active and passive vocabulary
Anyone who learns a new language is likely to recognize more words than he can
produce. It is difficult to produce a word correctly. One has to pronounce or spell
it in the right way, use it in the correct grammatical form, use it appropriately
with the correct words coming before and after it and so on. It may therefore be
important for a teacher to decide which words she wishes the students to
produce correctly. These words form the ‘productive’ or ‘active’ vocabulary. The
teacher also should decide which words she wishes her students merely to
recognize. These words form the ‘receptive’ or ‘passive’ vocabulary.

Producing (speaking or writing) words in the target language makes much

greater demands on the learner. Of course in productive vocabulary, the learner
has an advantage in that he is able to choose which word he wishes to use:
whereas in receptive vocabulary (as in listening or reading) he has to handle
whatever language the speaker or writer uses.

(ii) Selection and Gradation of vocabulary

General service list published in 1953 is the outcome of almost three decades
of major work in English lexicometric. The major contributors to this work are
Michael West himself whose work in English as a foreign language was
concentrated in Bengal in India and Harold Palmer – one of the founding fathers
of English Language Teaching (ELT) who was the Director of the institute of ELT
in Tokyo from 1923 – 1936.
West is also known for his New Method Readers and his New Method
Dictionary which makes use of controlled vocabulary for graded teaching in a
second language.
Michael West’s General Service List consists of 2000 words with Semantic
(meaning) and frequency information drawn from a corpus of two to five million
words. It is claimed that knowing these 2000 words gives access to about 80% of
the words in any written text and thus stimulates motivation.

The main criteria of West, Palmer and others for the selection of
vocabulary for learning in the early stage are:
(a) The frequency of each word in written English should be indicated.
(b) Information should be provided about the relative prominences of the
various meanings and uses of a word form.
e.g. Look at these sentences:
(1) Kandan is sitting on the bank of the river.
(2) I am going to the bank to draw some money.
Is the word ‘bank’ in sentences 1 & 2 the same?
The word ‘bank’ has the same form in both the sentences. But it has a
different meaning in sentence (1) from the meaning of ‘bank’ in sentence (2). It
is the context of the sentence which shows which meaning of ‘bank’ is being
used.
(c) Universality (words useful in all countries).
(d) Utility (enabling discussion on as wide a subject range as possible)
For classroom teachers and the material producers the following guidelines may be
useful in selection and grading :
1. Words selected should include
a) Those frequently used.
b) All structural words.
c) Words which are useful because other words can be built from them
e.g. Spot-spotted, spotless, spotty and unspotted.

2. In the first year we should have vocabulary referring to concrete things – things that can
be seen, touched and gradually we should proceed from concrete to abstract.

Mr. Billow’s four concentric circles can make a basis for this
i) the class room.
ii) the home environment.
iii) vocabulary from outside the classroom and home environment which can be
introduced with the help of the pictures and
iv) similar vocabulary but which cannot be introduced in this way.
In the first year, when the students have fully grasped the vocabulary and structures
concerning class room objects, they should go on to structures and vocabulary concerning
the home environment. Similarly in the second year, they should be introduced to
structures dealing with things outside their environment with the help of pictures and
other audio-visual aids, proceeding from the known to the unknown. As and when the
children move on grasping sufficient vocabulary concerning concrete objects, we have to
introduce vocabulary and structure relating to abstract things outside their own
experience.
The first verb introduced should be am / are / is (this is a book). Afterwards the
idea of continuous tenses should be taken up. Later on in the coming years, the tenses
introduced should include the definite and perfect ones.
The need for controlled composition with the pictures and other visual aids must also
influence the grading of vocabulary and structures.

Techniques to introduce words (Teaching Meaning of Words)

Each new word needs to be taught in the following four aspects:

Children learn :
pronunciation – through the teacher’s model.
meaning – through realia, pictures, gestures / explanation,
spelling – through syllabification and
usage – through different sentences.

Frequent exposure and repetition:

If the word has to be a part of learner’s productive (or active) vocabulary, he must
be given the opportunity to use it, as often as it is necessary for him to recall it, with the
correct pronunciation. It’s not enough that it should happen only in one lesson. Since the
learner is exposed to a large number of words, the words he is meant to remember should
crop up at regular intervals in later lessons.

Inferencing (or guessing) procedures

Many language teaching programmes aspire to teach only about 2000 words. Are
the remaining words learnt from a dictionary? Almost certainly not. If the meanings have
not been supplied by outside sources, as it were, then where have they been found?
The answer is, of course, that we guess the meanings of the words by hearing them
used in a certain situation or by reading them in a certain context and guessing their
meaning from the context. Usually it is clear in a situation what particular thing someone is
referring to: in a written context, a bit more intuitive work may be called for.

At the very elementary level, the teacher’s help may be in the form of
1. drawings on the black board / pictures / real objects.
2. use of mime, gestures.
One obvious method of checking the pupils’ understanding might be simply to ask
the students to say the equivalent in their mother tongue (Teacher should not translate the
meaning) or in simpler English – What do you think ‘X’ means.
As and when the students progress to higher classes –
- it is important to train students to go for the overall meaning of the text they are
reading and not allow themselves to be put off or distracted by individual words that they
don’t know.
- most common words like head, table, bank as already illustrated have a vast range
of denotations – which one is appropriate will depend on the meaning of the passage as a
whole.
In dealing with individual words in the higher classes, the teacher really has a choice
of four techniques:
1) To explain the meaning of the difficult words, gloss in simpler English. This is the
procedure adopted in many course books, where there is a vocabulary list or glossary with
the passage.
2) To get the students to check up the target words in their dictionaries.
3) To try to get the meaning of the word from the class, and if they don’t know try to
get them to guess or infer the meaning.
(Although it takes most class time this technique may well be the most efficient in
the long run).
4) To simply ignore the word, unless a question about it is raised by the students.
This does not mean that the teacher is not ‘doing her duty’. It is not always necessary to
understand the meaning of every single word in a passage to get the general or overall
sense of the passage.

Translation (Use or misuse?)

At one time almost all foreign language teaching was done by translation. All
expressions in the target language were immediately translated and new words were
usually recorded in a ‘vocabulary notebook’. The result of this approach was, usually, that
the target language (English) was used very little in the classroom. Most of the time was
taken up with the mother tongue. The students had very little opportunity to practice using
the foreign vocabulary in conversation or even in writing and hardly ever got to the point
of ‘thinking’ in the foreign language. Many of us are victims to this ‘easy’ approach.
Teachers might feel that use of mother tongue, can save a lot of time, and also
perhaps, reassure the learner in a situation he thinks to be threatening.
But still the disadvantages are many as pointed out. If we think that translation is an
easy way out, think of this – “At what cost?”.
Reference to translation raises one further issue namely – the effect on the burden
of learning of the order of presentation. The research findings (Paul Nation – 1982)
concludes that if vocabulary is needed for productive use (for speaking and writing) then a
learning sequence of mother tongue word – foreign language word would be appropriate. A
direction of foreign word - mother tongue may be more appropriate if only reading and
listening (receptive use) are required.
On the whole, however, translation of vocabulary into the mother tongue should be
kept under tight control – to the barest minimum. From the upper primary stage onwards,
it is better to present a word (only if it cannot be elicited) by using simple explanation in
the target language (Not in mother tongue). Apart from giving the students additional
exposure to the target language, this technique has another benefit. If, on a future occasion,
he is not able to recall the new word, he can always give an explanation. This is a technique
that is, in fact, often used by us in our mother tongue. When we cannot think of the best
word in a particular situation student can approximate by giving a synonymous or
explanation. Students who have been taught by translation techniques often give up if the
exact word or phrase does not come to mind. Those who are used to operating in the
‘target language will often have alternative phrasing to help them. (As learners become
more proficient they have to learn to rely more on their own inferential skills by decoding
words in context. The context may be spoken or written and the extent of decoding may
stretch to several sentences before the word can be understood).

As teachers of English; we all should know the three following terms not only for
teaching but also for using vocabulary effectively. (1) Connotation (2) Collocation (3)
Association.

1. Connotation
What is the difference between a fat baby and a plump one? Denotatively, that is, in
terms of who they are referring to, there may be no difference at all – The slim person, the
thin person, the skinny person may all be the same weight. The choice of one phrase rather
than the other will probably indicate how the speaker feels about the person. Certain
words are chosen because, they convey some kind of feeling or judgement. For example if
you approve of the way in which some one sticks to his opinions, you may appreciate the
fact that he is resolute or determined. To some one for whom this kind of behaviour seem
to be awkward, or nuisance, the same person may be called ‘stubborn or obstinate’. We say
therefore that words like skinny, fat, stubborn or obstinate tend to have unfavourable
connotation whereas words like slim, resolute or determined tend to be used with
intended favourable connotation.
2. Collocation: or word relation.
A simple example of two words having almost same meaning. Which word should go
with which is illustrated here. The words are ‘distant’ and ‘remote’. The grid illustrates the
overlapping but distinct collocability of these two words.

3. Association
Similar to the connotation of a word is its association. Whereas connotations relate
to the system of the language, associations relate to the individual or the culture.
For example while words like father or home generally have favourable association
for most people, they may have unfavourable association for someone who had a very
unhappy home life. A word like ‘market’ may have very different association for someone
coming from a rural area (shandy) as opposed to a city dweller. Similarly it may be very
difficult to convey the association that countryside had for a nature poet like Wordsworth
to a child to whom wild, uncultivated areas are more dangerous and threatening.
Clearly there is not much to be done about the private association which words have
for individuals, but the teacher may well feel that the association which relate to the culture
of the target language and certainly the connotations of a particular word are part of the
“meaning” which has to be learned.

EXPANSION OF VOCABULARY
There is plenty of scope to expand our limited vocabulary. Just as we did a task on
prefixes with – ‘mis’ here is a production exercise for suffixes. Example: The ending-‘ify’ is
often used when something is caused or brought about by someone. For instance, if a
chemist turned something that was solid into a liquid he is said to have liquified it.
 Use both definitional and contextual information about word meanings
 Involve students actively in word learning
 Use discussion to teach the meanings of new words and to provide meaningful information
about words
With some more practice we can expand the vocabulary such ways are:
1. Display with vocabulary key
2. Connections
3. Course book recall
4. Rhyme Time
5. Do you know this word? (upper primary Level)
6. Spelling games
7. Composite picture

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 UNIT – 6
SKILL OF SPEAKING
INTRODUCTION

Speaking in foreign language, however is a challenging task for language learners

since speaking, according to Murcia (2002:103) in Fauziati (2010:17) is “an activity
requiring the integration of many subsystems and all these factors combine to make
speaking a second or foreign language a formidable task for language learners”. She further
mentions a number of features that interact to make speaking a challenging task for foreign
language learners. Firstly, fluent speech contains reduced forms, such as contractions,
vowel reduction, and elision, so that learners who do not get sufficient practice with
reduced speech will retain their rather formal-sounding full forms. Secondly, slang and
idioms are often used in speech; without facility in using these ubiquitous features of
spoken language, learners are apt to sound bookish. Thirdly, learners also must acquire the
stress, rhythm, and intonation of English which are a complicated task for many. Finally,
the most difficult aspect of spoken English is that it is almost always accomplished via
interaction with at least one other speaker.

For these, language teachers should find out an appropriate technique of teaching to
stimulate the students to be active. Based on the preliminary observation in the one class of
the second year students of SMP N 1 TRANGKIL, the writer found that the teacher tried
hard to use techniques to teach speaking skill in which almost the students were interested
to speak. However the writer still found some students who were passive in their class and
they rarely practiced speaking. There are some students who were bored or they are not
active to speak and they were are also afraid to speak English in front of the class because
worry if other friends laughed at her. From those reason, the teacher needs some
techniques for teaching speaking which can make the students more interested and
motivated to learn English as well as they are not afraid to speak in front of the class.

CONCEPT OF SPEAKING IN ENGLISH

Realizing that language used in the oral form is not the same as the language used in
the written form. Speaking is the productive skill . It cannot be separated from listening.
When we communicate we convey the message, which is meaningful. It comes from the
meaning, which is expressed in the form of speech act.

In teaching speaking teachers should know the concept of speaking, the element of the
sound for instance phonemes because it seems the teachers still find difficulties in
pronouncing them based on the classroom observation during the upgrading and it is
important for teachers to pronounce correctly since they
should be a good models for their students. The teachers also still have problems of
understanding and applying models of learning and teaching, and various techniques
of teaching speaking such as: CLT, CTL, educational drama, TPR plus speaking

Speaking is one of the four language skills. If students want to speak English fluently, as
Harmer says [2oo7 ] they have to be able to pronounce correctly. In addition, they need
to master intonation, conversation, either transactional or interpersonal conversation.
Transactional function has its main purpose conveying information and facilitating the
exchange of goods and service, whereas the interpersonal function is all about maintaining
and sustaining good relations between people. Speaking is called productive skill
because when we speak we produce the language.

When communicating his or her idea someone utters English sounds and
he or she expects the response from the listener. Talking about communication,
Harmer [1993] puts forward the nature of communication as follow: Communication
happens when the listener can give the response to the speaker after the listener
understands the message given. The message cannot be understood when pronunciation is
not clear. This is the evidence that mispronunciation can cause the students to have
misunderstanding. In the following section the writers of the module provide a review of
twenty vowel phonemes.

DEFINITIONS OF SPEAKING

Teaching English as a foreign language depends on the four skills which are: writing,
reading, listening and speaking. This latter is considered as the most important
communication skill, whereas most students need to acquire. The term speaking has been
defined by many researchers and writers. Therefore, it has more than one definition
according to each author’s point of view.

Tarigan (1990, p.3-4) defines that “speaking is a language skill that is developed in child
life, which is preceded by listening skill, and at that period speaking skill is learned”. It
means that speaking is the basic skill of language in addition to listening

THE IMPORTANCE OF SPEAKING

Skill People express their ideas and interact with each other to give or ask for information
through speaking which “is so much a part of daily life” (Thornbury, 2005, p.1).

Concerning the importance of speaking skill, Gammidge (2004, p.7) claims that "Speaking is
a highly challenging yet essential skill for most learners to acquire." In addition, Renandya
and Richards (2002) state that “a large percentage of the world's language learners study
English in order to develop proficiency in speaking”(p.201). Many English foreign language
students consider the mastery of speaking skill a priority. Besides, they evaluate their
success according to their spoken language proficiency. (Richards, 2008, p.19)

For many teachers, teaching speaking is so important. Burns and Goh (2012, p. 1-2) claim
that teachers do much efforts to help their students develop their speaking abilities. For
them speaking skill is important because of three main reasons. First, all language learners
should be able to communicate well with the foreign language speakers. Second, many
students are good in reading and writing, but they have poor speaking and listening
abilities. Finally, many students memorize words from dictionaries, but they could not use
them to speak in English or to communicate in formal situations. Therefore, teaching
speaking is very important part in English language teaching and learning.

USE OF PRONOUNCING DICTIONARY

Here are the advantages of a specialized pronunciation dictionary, such as the EPD, over a
general dictionary with definitions of words:

More words. A pronunciation dictionary can list pronunciations for more words than a
general dictionary. It can include first names, last names, geographical names, company
names, trademarks, etc.

Word forms. It can give the pronunciations for inflected forms of words —
e.g. starts, started, starting — not only for the main form like start. This is especially helpful
for beginner learners, who can learn that e.g. goes ends in z, not s.

More pronunciation variants. A pronunciation dictionary can list more ways to

pronounce the same word. Specifically, it can explain how to pronounce a word in a
sentence. For instance, and is pronounced /ænd/, but “and all” may be pronounced /ən
ˈɔ:l/.

More precise transcriptions. It can use additional symbols to give more detailed
information on pronunciation.

More authority. We can expect that a pronunciation dictionary will contain fewer errors in
transcriptions than a general dictionary.

WHAT IS “SPEAKING”?

Speaking is the process of building and sharing meaning through the use of verbal and
nonverbal symbols, in a variety of contexts.
What does it mean to “teach speaking”?

In the ESOL classroom, teaching speaking refers to many things:

✦ produce the English speech sounds and patterns

✦ use word and sentence stress, intonation patterns and the rhythm of the sound language

✦ select appropriate words and sentences according to the proper social setting, audience,
situation and subject matter

✦ organize thoughts in a meaningful and logical sequence

✦ expressing values and judgements

✦ using the language quickly and confidently with few unnatural pauses (fluency)

HOW TO TEACH SPEAKING IN THE CLASSROOM

Many linguists and language teachers agree that students learn speaking skills best through
“interacting”. Teachers should try to use “real” situations that require communication and
collaboration (working together) between students.

FORM, MEANING AND FLUENCY

When preparing a speaking skills lesson, should you focus more on form (grammar),
meaning (expressing ideas clearly) or fluency (the ability to speak the language with ease,
without too many pauses or searching)?

Form - For beginning students, it is often best to start with some simple memorized
phrases, to help students understand the correct form of speaking. Repetition drills and
substitution drills are helpful. In repetition drills, the teacher will vary the speed of the drill
- starting slowly and increasing the speed as students learn the skill. In substitution drills,
the teacher will teach one phrase and then begin to substitute words (example: I like candy.
I like chicken. etc.) For more advanced students, teachers can introduce new grammar to
the class by introducing phrases in speaking drills (example: to teach relative clauses - each
student makes a statement about his/her mother - “My mother is a person who likes to
grow flowers.” “My mother is a person who...”)

Meaning - Meaning focused speaking activities usually follow form focused activities. In
meaning focused activities, the teacher usually provides a topic to the students and gives
them a chance to work with partners or small groups to develop ideas on the topic and
practice talking about the topic. For lower level students, teachers can give them topics
such as animals and provide partners or groups questions to ask each other (example:
which animal is your favorite? Why do you like that animal? What kind of animal would
you like to be?” “Why?”) In this example, students are practicing and repeating simple
forms and also adding extra information. For more advanced students, teachers can
provide discussion topics to partners or small groups.

Fluency - Fluency in speaking is the aim of many language learners. Signs of fluency
include a reasonably fast speed of speaking and only a small number of pauses. These signs
indicate that the speaker does not have to spend a lot of time searching for the language
items needed to express the message.

These are a useful technique for developing fluency and include the features that are
needed in fluency development activities. First the learners choose a topic or are given a
topic with which they are very familiar. The first time that learners use this technique it
may be best if the topic involves recounting (retelling) something that happened to them.
This is because the chronological order of the events will make it easier to recall and repeat
because the time sequence provides a clear structure for the talk. The learners work in
pairs. Learner A tells a story to Learner B and has a time limit of four minutes to do this. B
just listens and does not interrupt or question Learner A. When the four minutes are up,
the teacher says, "Change partners"; learner A then moves to a new Learner B. The teacher
says "Begin" and Learner A tells exactly the same story to the new partner but this time has
only three minutes to tell it. When the three minutes are up, the teacher says "Stop. Change
partners." With a new partner, Learner A now has two minutes to tell the story. During the
three deliveries of the same story, the B learners do not talk and each listens to three
different people. When the A learners have given their talk three times, the B learners can
now go through the same sequence, this time as speakers.

Research on this activity shows that the learners' speed of speaking increased during the
talks, the hesitations they make decrease, and surprisingly their grammatical errors in the
repeated parts of the talk decrease and they tend to use several, more complex
grammatical constructions in the last of the three talks than they did in the first talk.

UNDERLYING THEORY

TECHNIQUE

Technique is a particular trick, strategy, or contrivance used to accomplish an immediate

objective. Technique must be consistent with a method, and therefore in harmony with an
approach as well” (Anthonys in Fauziati, 2009: 17). Thus, technique encompasses the
actual moment-to-moment practices and behaviors that operate in teaching a language
according to a particular method. In other words, technique is classroom practices done by
the teacher when presenting a language program. This is the way the classroom activities
are integrated into lessons and used as the basis for teaching and learning.
TEACHING SPEAKING

Speaking in foreign language, however is a challenging task for language learners since
speaking. According to Murcia (in Fauziati, 2010 : 17), speaking is “an activity requiring the
integration of many subsystems and all these factors combine to make speaking a second
or foreign language a formidable task for language learners”.Fauziati (2008:15) states that
“teaching of speaking skill should be figured as central in foreign language pedagogy”. The
goal of teaching speaking is to communicative efficiency.

Speaking is the skill that the students will be judged upon most in real-life situations. It is
an important part of everyday interaction and most often the first impression of a person is
based on his/her ability to speak fluently and comprehensibly. So, teachers have a
responsibility to prepare students to be able to speak in the real world. Speaking is a skill,
just like swimming, driving a car, or playing ping-pong. Too often, in the traditional
classroom, the learning of English has been relegated to linguistic knowledge only, e.g.
knowledge of vocabulary and grammar rules, with little or no attention paid to practicing
language skills.

TECHNIQUE FOR TEACHING SPEAKING

There are many techniques for teaching speaking. The following are some of the techniques
for teaching speaking which can be implemented by the teacher:

Role-Playing

One of the methods suggested for developing speaking skill is roleplaying, that is, creating a
dramatic situation in a classroom, or in a part, simply acting out dialogues, but also in part
re-labeling objects and people in the room to prepare for an imaginative role playing
(Newmar in Fauziati, 2010:19).

Game

A game is one of activities which can help to crate dynamic, motivating classes. The reason
is that real learning takes place when the students, in a relaxed atmosphere, participate in
activities that require them to use what they have been drilled on.

Problem-Solving

Materials which focus on problem solving offer further opportunities for the students to
work in pairs or small groups, to share information and opinions on topics, which are
meaningful to them.
Discussion

Discussion may be composed of three to five students. If such a group work is used
regularly and introduced with a careful explanation of its propose, the class will soon
accept it as a natural activity.

Song

Using song in EFL classroom, especially speaking one can be both enjoyable and
educational. Song usually provides a peaceful and happy mood for the listeners. Songs can
also be used as a useful aid in the learning of vocabulary, pronunciation, structures, and
sentence patterns.

TYPES OF DRILLS

A drill is a drill is a drill, right? Not so! They come in various forms—repetition drills, Ear
Training, Dialogues and conversation are among the main types. Each type of drill can be
meaningful or mechanical, depending upon how you develop it. We will explain several
types of drills on the following pages.

REPETITION DRILLS

Repetition drills are useful for familiarizing students quickly with a specific structure or
formulaic expression (Doff 1990, 71). The teacher’s language is repeated with no change.
Be sure to teach the meaning of the utterance first. The example that follows illustrates this
type of drill:

Teacher : It’s cold outside.

Students : It’s cold outside.

Teacher : It’s warm outside.

Students : It’s warm outside.

Because repetition drills are extremely mechanical, they should not be used for prolonged
practice. Preferably they should lead quickly into another kind of drill or oral practice
activity that allows students to manipulate the form being practiced in meaningful and
relevant ways.

EAR TRAINING DRILLS

Ear training is an essential element in any phonetics or pronunciation teaching. Ear

training is an effective teaching technique, where learners’ attention is focused on hearing.
Ear training is also used in teaching music. In pronunciation there is a close relationship
between speech production and speech perception. Traditionally, ear training was
connected to identifying individual sounds, but it can be just as efficient in teaching
suprasegmental features, such as word stress, rhythm or intonation (Morley, 1991).
Recognition of sounds can be done using minimal pair tests. Dictation and listening for a
specific task can be used for both segmental and suprasegmental features. The following
websites provide activities ear training for sounds but also parts of sentences. BBC
pronunciation tips (2009) offer activities for recognition of sounds. Recordings of words
with the same sound are provided and learners choose a one sound out of three. Kiz
Phonics (2012) provide a recording of a word and four written words to choose from. ESL
Tower (2014) offer quizzes focusing on individual sounds. A word is played and the learner
chooses the correct word out of the two. ESL Games plus (2014) offer various games for
children. The provided activity plays a recording of various sentences. The first part of a
sentence is provided and the second part must be chosen out of four possible answers. The
learner has to listen and recognize the correct ending of the sentence.

Open Up Your Ears and Just Listen

First, open up your ears and trust your sense of hearing. Listen to as much native speech as
you can find. There is a world of radio stations, podcasts and other audio to be heard on
line today. Even a few years ago, language students had a much harder time finding live
speech to listen to. Today, the problem is more about how to choose what you like from the
abundant material available. It is nice to have a transcript of what you are hearing but
listening without one is also good exercise, even if you don’t understand everything.

No matter what you’re hearing, just put yourself into a receptive frame of mind and let the
sounds of the language come in through your ears. Welcome these sounds into your mind
and they will become your most helpful friends.

If it seems that the sounds go by too fast, be patient. A new language sounds fast at first, but
that is not because “they speak so fast.” People say that all the time about languages they
are learning but the reverse is actually true. Native speakers are speaking their language at
their normal pace and your listening skills are, at first, too slow to keep up with them. In
other words, they aren’t speaking fast, it’s your listening that is slow. Gradually you will
learn to understand the language at its normal speed and the only way to do this is to
practice listening until you can hear the language at its own natural pace.

Use Your Auditory Memory

Second, use your auditory memory, which is the strongest type of memory we have.
Psychologists and advertisers know this and it can be a powerful tool for you too.
Consciously try to put the sounds of words and phrases into your memory. Then, when you
try to use these phrases, bring them back out as sounds (without bothering with mental
reference to spelling or to their meaning in your native language).

Imitate Fragments of Native Speech

Third, imitate fragments of native speech that you hear. Take a few words that you have
heard from any native speaker and repeat them to yourself until you can reproduce the
sound of what you heard. Do this without writing anything down and choose words from
any speaker in any context. Listen for single words and for the intonation of whole phrases.
Pay special attention to how native speakers string words together in a spoken sentence,
and to where the breaths are. By taking a few words at a time, you can slow down the
listening process and focus on getting the sounds into your mind as a model for your own
speech.

Here is where your ear training involves learning to trust your own ears, even when you
are studying and practicing alone. Listen to anyone speaking, or to a short recording of
someone speaking, and practice reproducing the sound. Even if you don’t have a teacher or
a conversation partner to help you, you can (and should) learn to judge your own sounds
for yourself. (Never mind talking to a computer… who ever learns a language so that they
can talk to a computer?!) The more attention you pay to the sound, the better judge of it
you will be. You will develop a critical ear for the sounds that you make. Once this process
takes hold in your mind, it will become second nature to you and will be a source of
strength, since you will be more sure about sounds.

As your ears work, so goes your accent. By repeating these simple techniques, you can train
your ear, which will affect your accent. When learning a language at first, we hear with an
accent as well as speak with one. That means that our speech and hearing can be induced to
develop together when we take a conscious approach to improving our ability to hear at
the same time that we are learning to make the right sounds when we speak.

Written pronunciation guides have an important role, but if using them keeps you from
developing your listening skills without written assistance, too much reliance on them is a
waste of time. The way to influence your accent is first, to get the sounds of the language
into your mind through your ears. Too much use of written pronunciation guides in
language learning can slow down the development of listening skills.

Ear Training is a Key Process

If you give your ears their due, they will reward you with something no written text can
give you – the certainty that you understand what you hear and that you can make the
same sounds back to other people.
Practice understanding first and better pronunciation will follow, because the language you
hear is the language you will speak.

Ear training also raises the question about finding the appropriate pronunciation for you.
Most adults never completely lose their accent in any language they learn, but once you
become familiar with diverse accents and can tell one from another, you can try to adjust
your pronunciation as you please.

I have heard Italians who learned English by visiting North Carolina, and they spoke with
the southern accent that they heard in that state. I knew one Italian man who was from
Napoli, whose native speech was half Italian and half Napoletano dialect. He also spoke
English, but with a very strong Napoletano accent, which is different than the accent of
most other Italians.

It is fun and useful to learn to recognize the differences among various accents of a new
language. This is one way to refine your listening and imitation skills. Whatever language
you come from or that you are learning, you will have some kind of accent, either a strong
or weak one, unless you learned a language under the right circumstances not to develop
an accent, which including being young enough and receiving the right exposure to the
other language.

DIALOGUE DRILLS

It is important that students have the opportunity to practise speaking clearly and
confidently, explaining their own point of view, beliefs or values. When we take part in
dialogue it is important to remember that we are not just learning from others but that, at
the same time, we are also responsible for teaching them. Within the context of the
Essentials of Dialogue it is critical that we communicate our experiences and ideas to
others (in our classrooms and globally) who may not share our backgrounds; our
explanations must be clear so that everyone understands; free from jargon, slang or
cultural assumptions.

When students encounter their global peers, many of them are using English as a second
(or additional) language – so it is imperative that everyone remembers the importance of
explaining their ideas with a focus upon simplicity and clarity.

Active Listening is not just paying attention but is a specific methodology that enables
practitioners to deepen dialogue to improve communication and to address controversial
and difficult issues. Listen carefully to what the other person is saying.
Some of the Checklist of Dialogue Drills
Students are open to learning about the lives, values and beliefs of others
 Students have a healthy level of curiosity
 They are confident to share their own lives, values and beliefs with others
 They can suspend judgments in favour of listening with open hearts, minds, eyes
and ears
 They are concerned to find solutions to shared problems.
 They are able to make others in the dialogue feel safe enough to share personal
thoughtsMy students speak for themselves and not on behalf of others in dialogue
(using ‘I’ instead of ‘we’)
 Students can give good descriptions, details and explanations when speaking about
their communities, cultures, faiths, beliefs and values
 They can speak from the heart and are not reliant on prepared statements and text
 They do not use ‘them’ and ‘us’ language or make unfair comments about those not
represented in the dialogue.
 They can go beyond describing and explaining events and features to sharing
‘meaning’ and ‘significance’.
 They can frame questions within the context of their own experiences

Dialogue building

This is useful particularly for low level students to build confidence in speaking and to
learn useful chunks of language. Use pictures to set a scene and elicit a dialogue.

Example:

1. Have you got a pet?

2. Yes, I've got a cat.
3. Oh, what's its name?
4. It's called Fred.

Drill each line as you elicit the dialogue.

Rather than writing the whole dialogue on the board as you go, you can just write one or
two words to help them remember each line.

Example:

1. Have/pet?
2. Yes/
3. /name?
4. /Fred.
Then let the students choose different pets and make up similar dialogues in pairs. Aim for
not more than eight lines or so in the dialogue or it may become difficult to memorise.

CONVERSATION SKILL

Conversation is interactive communication between two or more people.

The development of conversational skills and etiquette is an important part of socialization.

The development of conversational skills in a new language is a frequent focus of language
teaching and learning.

Conversation analysis is a branch of sociology which studies the structure and organization
of human interaction, with a more specific focus on conversational interaction.

DEFINITION AND CHARACTERIZATION OF CONVERSATION

No generally accepted definition of conversation exists, beyond the fact that a conversation
involves at least two people talking together. Consequently, the term is often defined by
what it is not. A ritualized exchange such as a mutual greeting is not a conversation, and an
interaction that includes a marked status differential (such as a boss giving orders) is also
not a conversation. An interaction with a tightly focused topic or purpose is also generally
not considered a conversation. Summarizing these properties, one authority writes that
"Conversation is the kind of speech that happens informally, symmetrically, and for the
purposes of establishing and maintaining social ties."

From a less technical perspective, a writer on etiquette in the early 20th century defined
conversation as the polite give and take of subjects thought of by people talking with each
other for company.

Conversations follow rules of etiquette because conversations are social interactions, and
therefore depend on social convention. Specific rules for conversation arise from
the cooperative principle. Failure to adhere to these rules causes the conversation to
deteriorate or eventually to end. Contributions to a conversation are responses to what has
previously been said.

Conversations may be the optimal form of communication, depending on the participants'

intended ends. Conversations may be ideal when, for example, each party desires a
relatively equal exchange of information, or when the parties desire to build social ties. On
the other hand, if permanency or the ability to review such information is important,
written communication may be ideal. Or if time-efficient communication is most important,
a speech may be preferable.

Conversation involves a lot more nuanced and implied context that lies beneath just the
words.
Conversation is generally face-to-face person-to-person at the same time (synchronous) –
possibly online with video applications such as Skype, but might also include audio-only
phone calls. It would not generally include internet written communication which tends to
be asynchronous (not same time – can read and respond later if at all) and does not fit the
'con'='with' in 'conversation'. In face to face conversation it has been suggested that 85% of
the communication is non-verbal/body language – a smile, a frown, a shrug, tone of voice
conveying much added meaning to the mere words. Short forms of written communication
such as sms are thus frequently misunderstood. Yet the convenience and apparent control
makes them increasingly popular now that many people seem to prefer to communicate via
short text or Facebook post and/or 'like' than actually meeting face to face.

Face to face conversation is increasingly deemed less important when people have already
seen all the relevant news about the other person they have already shared online. Also
people would typically never say face to face some things they might easily write with the
apparent impunity of anonymous online posts. To this extent the decreasing popularity of
face to face conversation can be seen as a loss to society and civility.

THEORY AND PRACTICE

Although conversations are highly dynamic, they typically have a beginning, a middle and
an end.

Teachers can provide examples of real-life conversations and draw learners’ attention to
common initiation strategies. Teachers can highlight aspects such as gender, culture and
the relationship between the conversation participants, and discuss how they influence the
way conversations are initiated.

While questions are a resource to engage conversation partners and to sustain a

conversation, learners can sometimes feel nervous about whether some questions are
culturally appropriate. This may prevent learners from going beyond talking about the
weather. Teachers can encourage learners to make a list of ‘safe’ topics, such as pets, sports
and local news.

Teachers can play audio recordings of authentic conversations and ask learners to discuss
the appropriateness of how each conversation ends. The main goal of this activity is to help
learners develop pragmatic awareness.

ROLE OF AUDIO-VISUAL AIDS IN TEACHING SPEAKING SKILLS

INTRODUCTION

Teaching and learning English as a foreign language is based on productive and receptive
skills. Since speaking is considered as an important skill which many EFL students want
and need to develop. This chapter introduces the importance of using audio visual aids in
teaching and learning. Besides, it deals with different kinds of audio-visual aids that can be
used in classroom in order to develop students speaking abilities. The first kind is video.
We mention its definition, advantages, types and strategies. Then the use of computer and
television and their importance. In addition to teacher's role as a teaching aid.

THE DEFINITIONS OF AUDIO-VISUAL AIDS

Audio-visual aids are useful materials which help both teachers and students in the
teaching and learning process. Many scholars, writers and websites provide different
definitions of audio visual aids.

According to Kinder S. James,"audio visual aids are any devise which can be used to make
the learning experience more concrete,more realistic and more dynamic."

Burton states that " audio visual aids are those senory objects or images which initiate or
stimulate and reinforce learning." In addition, Carter.V.Good defines "audio visual aids are
those aids which help in completing the triangular process of learning that is motivation,
classification and stimulation." So audio visual aids are very useful devices because they do
not facilitate the learning process only, but they motivate students and make the course
interesting.

AUDIO-VISUAL AIDS IN SPEAKING SKILL

Audio Visual Materials is an techniques and which involves the sense of vision as well a s
hearing. It is usually used in presentation prepared by the businessman to show graphs on
the study of the company, college/university students to their reports and especially the
teacher who use audio visual materials to clearly explain the lesson to the students.

Audio Visual Aids:

Audio visual aids are any device which can be used to make the learning experience more
concrete, more realistic and more dynamic.

Audio visual aid is the combination of two media:

Auditory aids: Any instructional device that can be heard but not seen. E.g. Tape record,
Microphones, Ear phones etc..

Visual aids: Any instructional device that can be seen, but not heard. Slide, film strips etc..

Purpose of Audio Visual Aids:

 Best motivation.
 Clear image.
  Save energy and time.
 Antidote of the disease of verbal instructions.
 Capture attention.
 reinforcement to learner.
 Positive transfer of learning.
 Gain & hold student interest.
 Increase understanding and retention.
 Stimulate the development of understanding and attitudes.

Functions of Audio visual aides:

 They supply a concrete basis for conceptual thinking and hence, reduce meaningless
word response of students.
 They have high degree of interest for students.
 They make learning more permanent.
 They offer a reality of experience which stimulate self activity on the part of pupil.
 Develop continuity of though; this is especially true of motion pictures.
 They provide experience not easily obtained through other materials and contribute
to the efficiency, depth and variety of learning.

Use of Audio Visual materials in education:

 Students will gain knowledge of the latest in evolving theoretical and practical
application in the communication field utilizing various resources and methods of
inquiry.
 Students will grow intellectually in their oral and written communication and
critical thinking skills.
 Student will become aware of the ethical and spiritual implications of
communication on a diverse and global level.
 Student will be knowledgeable of the latest in technology, software applications, and
visual communication skills with the ability to demonstrate the skills in using
technology.

**********************************************************************
 UNIT 8
CHALLENGES OF TEACHING ENGLISH LANGUAGE
INFLUENCE OF MOTHER TONGUE IN TEACHING ENGLISH LANGUAGE
*******************************************
 UNIT 9
ANALYSIS OF SYLLABUS, TEXTUAL MATERIALS AND
PROFESSIONAL COMPETENCY OF ENGLISH TEACHERS
DEFINITION OF SYLLABUS

The syllabus is defined as the documents that consist of topics or portion covered in
a particular subject. It is determined by the examination board and created by the
professors. The professors are responsible for the quality of the course. It is made available
to the students by the teachers, either in hard copy or electronic form to bring their
attention towards the subject and take their study seriously.

A syllabus is considered as a guide to the in charge as well as to the students. It helps

the students to know about the subject in detail, why it is a part of their course of study,
what are the expectations from students, consequences of failure, etc. It contains general
rules, policies, instructions, topics covered, assignments, projects, test dates, and so on.

CURRICULUM

There is available a multiplicity of concepts of curriculum since educationists give

their own different interpretations of the content and functions of curriculum. Let us
discuss three such concepts by three different thinkers, which represent three major
contributions to the body of knowledge on curriculum. The first concept, stated by Albert
Oliver, refers to curriculum merely as the educational program consisting of three
important elements, such as studies, activities and guidance. The second concept, described
by Philip Phenix, is based on a carefully thought out scheme of values which constitute the
aims and objectives, or purposes of education. The third concept, given by Hilda Taba, looks
at curriculum as the function of the public school, she list the three functions as preserving
and transmitting cultural heritage, serving as an instrument for transformation of culture,
and working as a means for individual development.

DEFINITION OF CURRICULUM

The curriculum is defined as the guideline of the chapters and academic content
covered by an educational system while undergoing a particular course or program.

In a theoretical sense, curriculum refers to what is offered by the school or college.

However, practically it has a wider scope which covers the knowledge, attitude, behaviour,
manner, performance and skills that are imparted or inculcated in a student. It contains the
teaching methods, lessons, assignments, physical and mental exercises, activities, projects,
study material, tutorials, presentations, assessments, test series, learning objectives, and so
on.
 The curriculum is well planned, guided and designed by the government or the
educational institution. It is aimed at both physical and mental development of a student. It
is the overall learning experience that a student goes through during the particular course
of study.

SCOPE OF CURRICULUM

Curriculum, is therefore, very comprehensive in its scope. It touches all aspects of

the life of the pupils- the need and interest of the pupils, environment which should be
educationally congenial to them, ways and manners in which their interests can be handled
and warmed up, the procedures and approaches which cause effective learning among
them, the social efficiency of the individuals and how they fit in with the community
around. It is intimately related with the individual as a member of the society. It embodies
the educational philosophy, the values which it aims to achieve, the purposed it wants
philosophy, the values it aims to achieve purposes it wants to realise and the specific goals
that it wants to achieve. The emphasis is on the child. In the total education of the child, all
the subjects’ likes history, geography, science and language are but tools. These are the
means, and therefore, the children must not be made to fit in such study.

CURRICULUM AND SYLLABUS

Many people still equate a curriculum with a syllabus. An UNESCO publication

entitled Preparing Text Book Manuscripts “(1970)” has differentiated between the
curriculum and syllabus. The curriculum sets out the subjects to be studied, their order and
sequence and so ensures some balance between humanities and science and consistency in
the study of subjects, thus facilitating inter subject links. It follows that the curriculum
determines the amount of school times allotted to each subject, the aim of teaching each
subject, the place of the motor skills which take time to acquire and possibly, the variations
between rural and urban school teaching. The curriculum in the schools of developing
countries is often directly related to the requirements for developments. The syllabus
determines the basic content of instructions in a given subject and the range of knowledge
and skills which the pupils must acquire and establish in detail the themes and individual
points to be studied in each school year. The syllabus is a refined detail of the curriculum at
a particular stage of learning for a particular subject.

CURRICULUM SYLLABUS
Curriculum is based on the philosophy, Syllabus does not take into account these
goals and values of education. factors.
Curriculum refers to all the educational Syllabus refers to a list of unelaborated
activities of the school in the widest possible headings or book let
sense
Curriculum is the sum total of school It is basically concerned with school
subjects, learning experiences and activities. subjects
There is prescribed co-curricular and extra No prescribed co-curricular and extra-
– curricular activities in the curriculum. curricular activities in the form of syllabus.
Curriculum includes not only indoor Syllabus is concerned with activities mostly
activities but also out-door activities of the undertaken in the class room (in-door
school activities)
The curriculum has a countless role to play The syllabus has a limited role to play and
and it is considered as a plan, an experience, has less significance in the educational
a subject matter or content and as a field world.
map.
It is an inclusive concept. It includes syllabus It is a part of a curriculum.
also.

Differences between Syllabus and Curriculum

The basic differences between syllabus and curriculum are explained in the point given
below:

1. The syllabus is described as the summary of the topics covered or units to be taught
in the particular subject. Curriculum refers to the overall content, taught in an
educational system or a course.
2. Syllabus varies from teacher to teacher while the curriculum is same for all teachers.
3. The term syllabus is a Greek origin, whereas the term curriculum is a Latin origin.
4. The curriculum has a wider scope than the syllabus.
5. The syllabus is provided to the students by the teachers so that they can take an
interest in the subject. On the other hand, normally the curriculum is not made
available to the students unless specifically asked for.
6. Syllabus is descriptive in nature, but the curriculum is prescriptive.
7. Syllabus is set for a particular subject. Unlike curriculum, which covers a particular
course of study or a program.
8. Syllabus is prepared by teachers. Conversely, a curriculum is decided by the
government or the school or college administration.
9. The duration of a syllabus is for a year only, but curriculum lasts till the completion
of the course.
QUALITIES OF GOOD ENGLISH LANGUAGE TEXTBOOK
A good English textbook has the following qualities:
A. Vocabulary and Structure:
1. Vocabulary and structures should be carefully selected keeping the level of the
students in mind.
 2. Words and structures need to be carefully graded.
3. New words should be introduced in regular intervals and it should be ensured
that they are repeated in the neighbouring units also.
4. Already learnt words and structures should be repeated.
5. Meticulous flashing of records of words and structures should be maintained.
B. Subject Matter:
1. Introducing new vocabulary should be put in an interesting subject matter.

2. The variety of topics should correspond to the variety of interests.

3. The topics should be dealt with in different forms which should provide different
pieces of composition.
4. The matter has to provide new information.
5. The various language items should be used in natural context.
6. The sense of enjoyment can be heightened by providing some pieces of poetry.
C. Exercises:
A good text book is not only meant for teaching but also for testing. The real
consolidation of the learning process takes place at the time of practice and testing.
1. There should be practice and test
2. The exercises should test as many items of vocabulary as possible.
3. The test is meant for both active and passive vocabulary.
4. The vocabulary and the sentence structures taught should be put to use in similar
but
new situations.
5. Instructions to do the exercise should invariably be clear and unambiguous.
6. Exercises should be graded.
7. Variety in the form of exercises is also needed.
D. Illustrations:
1. The pictures in a good textbook need special attention. If they are well-drawn and
realistically coloured, they make the process of learning convenient and quick.
2. Too many details should not be stuffed into.
3. The illustrations should be suitable for language practice.
4. Illustrations should be attractive.
5. Colour pictures are the most sought after ones.
E. Technical Consideration:
The appearance of the book has to be attractive. If it is repulsive, then there is no
charm
to read and learn from the book. The physical appearance of the text books should have the
following points.
1. It should be printed on a quality paper.
2. The type used should be bold and thick and heading and sub-headings should be
in
still bolder type.
3. The binding should be proper and strong and it should be flexible to turn pages.
4. Misprint and Misspelt words should never be presented to the pupils.
 5. The book should be easy to carry.
6. The price should be affordable.
F. General:
It is always advisable to have Teachers‟ Handbook along with students‟ textbook.
The aims and objectives are uniform to all the students across the areas where the textbook
is used.

SELECTIONS OF MATERIAL
The materials had to be selected according to the content of the course. The targeted
areas were the following: teaching and testing listening, speaking, reading and writing
skills, plus use of English. Since the content reflected the examination description and
specifications, the course designers turned to the only public document about the
examination at the time, the Working Document (Vándor, 1998). In order to select the most
important areas, the examination description of each paper was thoroughly examined from
the point of view of the new elements they contained compared with the current
examinations. These new elements were highlighted in each skill (plus the use of English
paper), and the materials were then selected with great emphasis on them.
While selecting the materials for the course, two main aims had to be born in mind:
1. The materials had to present clear and typical examples of the new examinations,
since only thus could they inform teachers about the principles, content and procedures of
the new examination system.
2. Through the materials the participants had to study, analyse and practise the
classroom implications of the new examinations.
To satisfy the first aim, the course designers selected materials from the item-bank,
which was developing parallel to the course. A team of trained item-writers had been
supplying the project with items for each paper continuously since June 1998. The course
designers themselves went through the process of item-writer training, and participated in
each standardisation and evaluation event together with the project team members. It was
absolutely essential for them to know the exact mechanism of writing, analysing,
evaluating, selecting and piloting items in order to be able to give valid information about
them in the later courses.
A selection of the items from the item-bank was piloted all over Hungary. The pilots
held in December 1998 (for speaking and writing tasks) and in April 1999 (for reading,
listening and use of English tasks) provided excellent sample materials for the pilot courses
(for more details about these pilot examinations see Alderson et al, 2000). Since two more
pilots took place in 2000, the updated version of the course will present examples from
them as well. The materials taken from the pilots were used for the following purposes in
the sessions:
a) demonstrating the content and procedures of the new examinations
b) serving as practice material for demonstrating and practising the new grading
system that was planned to be introduced along with the new examinations
c) serving as sample tasks for trailing in the participants’ classrooms
In order to reach the second aim, course designers intended to rely on the course
books generally available for teachers in Hungary. Several course books had been analysed,
and a selection of materials was presented in each module of the course. Course designers
wished to show participants that it is possible to prepare the students for the new
examination with the help of the materials currently available in the schools, with very
little or no adaptation at all.
The process of selection should be basically synthetic and interdependent. The
selection is based on the following considerations.
1. The purpose, level and duration of the course.
2. The choice of linguistic items covering:
a. Phonological selection
b. Grammatical selection
c. Vocabulary selection
d. Semantic selection
The selection of linguistic items is determined by:
a. the frequency of occurrence
b. the range and usefulness.
c. the coverage in terms of inclusion, extension, combination and definition
d. the learnability, covering such factors as clarity, brevity, regularity and learning
load.
DEVELOPMENT OF ACTIVITIES AND TASKS
1. Derive input from authentic sources.
2. Involve learners in problem solving activities in which they are required to negotiate meanings.
3. Relate to learners’ real life communicative needs.
4. Integrate the 4 macro skills.
Tasks
i. Group discussion
ii. ii. Reading comprehension
iii. iii. Listening comprehension
iv. iv. Language development activities
a. Matching words with meanings
b. Using words in sentences v. Role play

ROTE LEARNING
Rote learning is a learning technique which focuses on memorization. The major
practice involved in rote learning is learning by repetition by which students commit
information to memory in a highly structured way.

The idea is that one will be able to quickly recall the meaning of the material the
more one repeats it. Rote methods are routinely used when quick memorization is
required, such s learning one's lines in a play or memorizing a telephone number.

ROTE LEARNING TO CONSTRUCTIVISM

The constructivist theory is considered to be the latest theory on how learners

learn. The word ‘construct’ comes from the Latin word ‘constrvere’, which means ‘to
organise’ or ‘to construct’. This is why, the main theme of this theory is to develop ideas.
The theory also believes that learning takes place through continuous changes and
development in our thinking brought by different types of tangible information. Every
individual learner develops new knowledge and ideas in own way according to his/her
own experience and environment. If we encounter anything new, we compare and contrast
it with our previous knowledge and experience. Thus we acquire or develop our new ideas.
In this process if anything appears irrelevant, we discard it. In the field of learning Jerome
Bruner emphasizes more on the development of environment and language. He perceives
that environment has more effects on the development of a language and opines that a
child uses unique ways to solve his problems in the process of learning development. The
whole process is related to a child’s previous experience.

1. Education works best when it concentrates on thinking and understanding, rather

than on rote memorization. Constructivism concentrates on learning how to think
and understand.
2. Constructivist learning is transferable. In constructivist classrooms, students create
organizing principles that they can take with them to other learning settings.
3. By grounding learning activities in an authentic, real-world context, constructivism
stimulates and engages students. Students in constructivist classrooms learn to
question things and to apply their natural curiousity to the world.
4. Constructivism gives students ownership of what they learn, since learning is based
on students' questions and explorations, and often the students have a hand in
designing the assessments as well. Constructivist assessment engages the students'
initiatives and personal investments in their journals, research reports, physical
models, and artistic representations. Engaging the creative instincts develops
students' abilities to express knowledge through a variety of ways. The students are
also more likely to retain and transfer the new knowledge to real life.
5. Constructivism promotes social and communication skills by creating a classroom
environment that emphasizes collaboration and exchange of ideas. Students must
learn how to articulate their ideas clearly as well as to collaborate on tasks
effectively by sharing in group projects. Students must therefore exchange ideas and
so must learn to "negotiate" with others and to evaluate their contributions in a
socially acceptable manner. This is essential to success in the real world, since they
will always be exposed to a variety of experiences in which they will have to
cooperate and navigate among the ideas of others.

QUALITIES OF A GOOD LANGUAGE TEACHER.

There are several qualities that a good language teacher must have. To pass on
knowledge to students, a teacher must be competent with the knowledge that she has.
Secondly, a teacher must be willing to explore other types of learning styles to pass on
knowledge and be ready to try different methods when one does not work. A good
language teacher must be passionate about teaching language. Finally, a good language
teacher should be able to assess the learning that her students have done and make
changes based on those assessments.
Competent
A good language teacher must be competent. This requires a lot of study on the part
of the teacher. If you are a foreign language teacher, you must have mastered the language
you are teaching and the skills it takes to teach that language. As an English language
teacher, you need to have a handle on the elements of English as well as having a
background in education.
Exploratory
A good language teacher realizes there are several different learning methods. Some
learn by hearing, some by seeing and some by speaking. Therefore, a good teacher will
create a course that weaves together all of the various learning techniques. A good teacher
is also willing to explore the different ways of teaching language, even the experimental
ones, to provide her students with the best chance to learn.
Passion
People do not teach for money or fame. People teach because they have a passion
for their chosen subject and for passing on their knowledge to students. A passion for
teaching is an important part of the teaching process.
Assessment
A good language teacher is not only skilled at creating assessments for her class, but
she can also use those assessments to figure out how successful her teaching methods are.
The teacher who understands some things work better than others and some things do not
work at all will be able to make changes in her own teaching methods.
Benefits
A good language teacher is going to be a benefit to her students because she will
provide them with a path to knowledge. A teacher who is good at her job will guide a
student toward the most comprehensive understanding of which he or she is capable.

PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT OF ENGLISH TEACHER

Professional development should be based on the notion of teacher as learner and

reflective practitioner (Schon, 1987). Teacher education and professional development
should be focussed on the needs of students in a particular school community. Teacher
professional development should be seen as a collaborative activity as well as an individual
activity. The particular needs of individual teachers may be met by professional
development, however, this should take place in the context of collegial support, team
building, collaborative planning at school level and interactive action research. The more
highly skilled, motivated and effective are English teachers, the more effective learning
outcomes will be for students in English classrooms.
 In the context of increased system accountability, it is imperative that systems
provide teachers with opportunities to participate in professional development that will
assist teachers in the implementation of curriculum initiatives.

Professional development has been defined in various ways such as:

 It is an inclusion of in-service training and workshops.

 It is a process in which teachers work under supervision to gain experiences.
 It is an ongoing learning process in which teachers primarily aim at how to teach in
accordance with the expectations and needs of the students.
 Involve groups of teachers rather than individuals from a number of schools, and
enlist the support of the school and district administration, students, parents and
the broader school community.
 Recognise and address the many impediments to teachers’ growth at the individual,
school and district level.
 Using teachers as participants in classroom activities or students in real situations,
model desired classroom approaches during in-service sessions to project a clearer
vision of the proposed changes.
 Allow time and opportunities for planning, reflection, and feedback in order to
report successes and failures to the group, to share “the wisdom of practice,” and to
discuss problems and solutions regarding individual students and new teaching
approaches.
 Enable participating teachers to gain a substantial degree of ownership by their
involvement in decisionmaking and by being regarded as true partners in the
change process.
 Recognise that change is a gradual, difficult and often painful process, and afford
opportunities for ongoing support from peers and critical friends.
 Encourage teachers to set further goals for their professional growth.

The Importance of Professional Development

Quality English teaching requires the provision of continuing opportunities for professional
development. Teachers need:
• access to new research and knowledge in the teaching of literacy, language
development and an integrated curriculum;
• appropriate, up to date qualifications in both the content area of the subject and in
teaching methodology;
• opportunities to share expertise with other experienced teachers and educators
leading to reflection on practice;
• opportunities for discipline renewal for teachers whose teacher education took place
some years ago;
 • a commitment at all levels to time release to attend professional development
activities; and
• recognition at all levels of the value of professional development.
Quality teaching is directly related to the development of a strong, well informed and well
supported professional body to respond to community and educational concerns and to
influence opinion. Access to professional development is crucial in enabling teachers to:
• improve learning outcomes for students;
• take a more active role in curriculum planning, including building on and refining
existing practices;
• constantly develop excellent teaching practices;
• actively participate in the evaluation of teaching practices and programs; and
• actively participate in the implementation of local, state and national curriculum
initiatives.

Effective Professional Development of a language teacher

a. work in a group to share experiences

b. communicate effectively amongst themselves about the innovation

c. are given an opportunity to develop a sense of ownership of the innovation

d. are supported in questioning their beliefs about teaching and learning

e. have plenty of opportunity for practice and reflection

Effective Professional Development Strategies

1. Peer-Coaching
2. Study Groups
3. Action Research
4. Mentoring
5. Teaching Portfolios
6. In-service Training
7. Team Teaching

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 UNIT 10
ASSESSMENT AND EVALUATION IN ENGLISH

INTRODUCTION:

The term Assessment has been widely used by educators to evaluate, measure, and
document the academic readiness, learning progress, and skill acquisition of students
throughout their learning in life. Different terminologies are there for assessment and
evaluation such as Measurement, Tests, Examination, Appraisal and Evaluation. There are
certain Learning theories which are having conceptual frameworks describing how
information is absorbed, processed and retained during learning. Behaviourism is a
philosophy of learning that only focuses on objectively observable behaviors and discounts
mental activities. Piaget proposed that a child's cognitive structure increases in
sophistication with development, moving from a few innate reflexes such as crying and
sucking to highly complex mental activities. Constructivist learning theory stated that the
process of adjusting our mental models to accommodate new experiences. Assessments are
classified based on the different purposes, scopes, attribute measured, nature of
information gathered, nature of interpretation and context.

As we all know that learning is an important activity in the teaching-learning process.

Learning not only changes the behavior of the organism but also modifies it. During the
teaching-learning process, children and teacher both face many difficulties, so for removing
this difficulty there is a need of judging the performances of each and every child is must
and for this purpose, a measurement is needed and that measurement is known
as evaluation.

LEARNING OBJECTIVES

After learning this unit, you will be able to

 describe the meaning Assessment and different evaluations

 state the purposes, principles and characteristics of quality assessment
 bring out the specialty of different learning theories like Behaviorist, Cognitivist and
Constructivist of
 classify the assessment based on purpose, scope, attribute measured, nature of
information gathered, nature of interpretation and context
EVALUATION

Education is a changing process that requires to be continuously evaluated. Evaluation is

an element of education that is based upon the educational objectives and the learning
experience. Evaluation is a systematic process of collecting, examining and interpreting
information to determine the extent to which pupils are achieving instructional objectives.

METHOD OF EVALUATION

There is two method of evaluation that is used in the teaching and learning evaluation
process:

Norm-Referenced Evaluation: It is a type of evaluation in which the performance of the

students is measured by comparing the relation with a hypothetical average student.

Criterion-Referenced evaluation: In the Criterion-Referenced test the performance of a

child is measured against a predetermined learning standard. These tests are extensively
used in school education.

THE NEED OF EVALUATION

With the help of evaluation process ensures learning takes place.

Evaluation process ensures teachers effectiveness in learning by setting student learning

objectives instead of what a teacher will do.

Evaluation process helps in making learner-centered environment in the school

environment.

Evaluation process helps in creating knowledge-centered environment in the school.

Evaluation in teaching creates the assessment centered environment in the school.

Evaluation process in teaching-learning creates the community-centered environment

within the school.

FORMATIVE EVALUATION

 Formative evaluation is the process by which the achievement of the pupils is

judged at every stages of the teaching-learning process.
 It involves immediate feedback.
 Formative Evaluation will motivate the pupil for better performance.
 Formative Evaluation helps the teacher in diagnosing the difficulties of pupils and in
modifying teaching strategies.
SUMMATIVE EVALUATION

 Summative evaluation is one administrated to pupil at the end of the lesson or unit
of learning.
 Helps the teachers and pupils to know how far they have succeeded in realizing the
pre-determined educational objectives.
 Summative evaluation includes classification, gradation and certification of learners
in terms of their total attainment.
 Summative evaluation helps in organizing the total system of education more
effectively.
 Summative evaluation may be conducted at the end of a term and cover number of
learning units.
 Annual examination also may be said to be summative in nature.

MEANING OF ASSESSMENT

In education, the term assessment refers to the wide variety of methods that
educators use to evaluate, measure, and document the academic readiness, learning
progress, and skill acquisition of students from preschool through college and adulthood. It
is the process of systematically gathering information as part of an evaluation. Assessment
is carried out to see what children and young people know, understand and are able to do.
Assessment is very important for tracking progress, planning next steps, reporting and
involving parents, children and young people in learning.

TYPES OF ASSESSMENT

Usually, three kinds of assessment are used in the teaching-learning process in the
school education. They are:

1. Formative assessment: This assessment is one of the most powerful tools of

assessment for improving the understanding and performance of the students over a short
period of time. In this type of assessment, the teacher comes to knows the result of the
learners within a very short duration by conducting the written test, observing the
behavior of the students and provides quick feedback to the learners. With the help of
quick feedback, learners change their behavior and understanding. Teacher act as the
coach here and it is an informal process.

2. Portfolio assessment: This assessment takes place occasionally over a long period of
time. The project, written assignments, tests etc. are the tools of this assessment. In this
assessment feedback to the learner is more formal and also provides opportunities for
learners to re-demonstrate their understanding after the feedback has been understood
and acted upon.
3. Summative assessment: This assessment can be done at the end of a year or term.
Through this assessment, the teacher comes to know about the strength and weakness of
curriculum and instruction. The result of this assessment may take time to return to
parents or students. Here feedback is very limited and provides no opportunity to improve
it. The result of this assessment is used to compare the performance of a student with the
standard or with a group of students.

Distinction/Difference between Formative and Summative Evaluation

Formative Evaluation Summative Evaluation

Conducting during the process of Conducting at the end of a lesson or

instruction chapter
Aim to evaluate the learning process Aim to evaluate the final output of
learning
Take place continuously in the course of Usually Takes place in regular intervals
instruction ie, weekly,monthly or yearly
Implementing through teacher Purpose is placement, certification etc.
observation, oral questioning etc. Implementing through tests, Exams etc.

Important paradigm in Assessment:

1. Assessment for learning: Assessment for learning focuses on where the learners are in
learning, where they need to go and how best to get there. It occurs throughout the
learning and sometimes it is also referred to as Formative Assessment.

2. Assessment of Learning: This assessment is also known as Summative Assessment.

This assessment occurs when the teacher uses proofs of students learning for determining
student’s achievement against goals or standards at the end of term or year.

3. Assessment for learning: In this assessment, student assess their own performance and
monitors their own learning and also uses the number of strategies to decide what they
know and what they can do and how they use assessment for new learning.

SCHOOL-BASED ASSESSMENT:

It covers the scholastic areas based upon guidelines by the Board of Education. It focuses
on continuously developing skill and competencies of the children, diagnosing the
weakness and taking appropriate remedial measures. In this type of assessment, teachers
have full authority on the class without external interference. It is the traditional system
which is used earlier and this system considers school Board exam as the important one
and ignores actual capabilities of the learners. Nowadays Central Board of Secondary
Education (CBSE) started using SBA in the form of Continuous Comprehensive
Evaluation from 2010 onwards.

CONTINUOUS AND COMPREHENSIVE EVALUATION (CCE):

CCE is a type of school-based assessment which covers both the aspects of child learning
i.e., scholastic and co-scholastic areas. Co-Scholastic areas cover the development of
psychomotor skills, attitudes etc. while scholastic related to the intellectual development of
childlike curricular subjects, assignments, project works, tests etc. One of the main
objectives of CCE is to improve the ongoing teaching-learning process by diagnosing
learning gaps and through fair feedback. CCE introduced up to secondary level (class 10) by
CBSE divided into two terms i.e. Formative Assessment and Summative Assessment.

Need of continuous assessment:

An increased sense of inclusiveness. Continuous assessment provides students with a

constant stream of opportunities to prove their mastery of material and sends the message
that everyone can succeed if given enough time and practice. This reduces the anxiety and
finality around testing and heightens the emphasis on the learning itself.

Higher learning standards for all. In a system of continuous assessment, advanced

students can progress through material at their own pace and remain engaged by pursuing
more challenging work as they pass out of the basics. In this sense, the standards for such
students stretch to help each student maximize potential.

Clarified purpose of assessment. The problem with administering assessments only once
in a while is that the primary aim is to compare students while at the same time allowing
them to “pass” to the next level. This produces a situation in which the purpose of
assessment is muddled: the tendency is to let students level up (because, regardless of
standards, everyone is generally expected to pass) although they may not truly grasp the
material or have a very weak understanding of it.

Capacity to remediate weaknesses through strengths. When we, as Christensen

suggests, begin measuring the length of time it takes to master a concept or skill and
contrast the efficacy of different approaches, we are able to gather data about the learning
process and put this knowledge to work for students: “Because learning will no longer be
as variable, we can compare students not by what percentage of the material they have
mastered, but by comparing how far they have moved through a body of material.”

Increased self-awareness for students who, through continuous assessment, come to

understand their proficiencies and knowledge gaps. Time and again, we encounter
evidence that self-awareness — understanding of how one feels, thinks, and learns — is
one of the most significant factors in professional and personal success.

Capacity to uncover interdisciplinary relationships between subject domains and

concepts. Continuous assessment allows us to refine our understanding of the content that
we are teaching students. We might discover that effective remediation in a subject
requires attention to another subject or that the root of common misunderstandings within
a subject is something altogether unexpected

NEEDS FORMATIVE ASSESSMENT:

Formative assessment with appropriate feedback is the most powerful moderator in the
enhancement of achievement (Hattie & Timperley, 2007).

Formative assessment helps

 teachers identify the current state of learners’ knowledge and skills;

 make changes in instruction so that students meet with success;
 create appropriate lessons, activities, and groupings; and inform students about
their progress to help them set goals (Ainsworth & Viegut, 2006, p. 23).
 Teachers can use results of formative assessments to adjust their teaching strategies
and match students with appropriate materials and learning conditions.

Information gained from formative assessment can help a teacher determine

(1) how to group students,

(2) whether students need alternative materials,
(3) how much time to allocate to specific learning activities,
(4) which concepts need to be re-taught to specific students, and
(5) which students are ready to advance.

NEEDS OF DIAGNOSTICS ASSESSMENT:

Diagnostic assessment is an essential device in a teacher’s “tool kit”.

It can be used to diagnose strengths and areas of need in all students.

Diagnostic assessment involves the gathering and careful evaluation of detailed data using
students’ knowledge and skills in a given learning area.

The data assist teachers to plan for appropriate pedagogy and targeted learning to more
effectively scaffold the learning needs of their students.
Consequently, diagnostic assessment is used ‘for learning’ where taking action to adjust
teaching plays a significant role in improving learning outcomes for all students.

TYPES OF TEST

Achievement or Progress Tests

Achievement or progress tests measure the students’ improvement in relation to
their syllabus. These tests only contain items which the students have been taught in class.
There are two types of progress tests: short-term and long-term.
Short-term progress tests check how well students have understood or learned
material covered in specific units or chapters. They enable the teacher to decide if remedial
or consolidation work is required.
Long-term progress tests are also called Course Tests because they check the
learners’ progress over the entire course. They enable the students to judge how well they
have progressed. Administratively, they are often the sole basis of decisions to promote to a
higher level.
Progress tests can also be structured as quizzes, rather than as tests. They can be
answered by teams of students, rather than individuals. They can be formulated as
presentations, posters, assignments, or research projects. Structuring progress tests in this
way takes into account the multiple intelligences and differing learning styles of the
students. Yet many students still expect a regular test as a part of normal learning.

Proficiency Tests
These tests check learner levels in relation to general standards. They provide a broad
picture of knowledge and ability. In English language learning, examples are
the TOEFL and IELTS exams, which are mandatory for foreign-language speakers seeking
admission to English-speaking universities. In addition, the TOEIC (Test of English for
International Communication) checks students’ knowledge of Business English, as a
prerequisite for employment.

Diagnostic Tests
These tests are used of diagnose how much you know and what you know. They can help a
teacher know what needs to be reviewed or reinforced in class. They also enable the
student to identify areas of weakness.
Prognostic test
A prognostic test expands the findings of an assessment with analysis of abilities
and potentials with a further dimension: the future development of the concerned person,
as well as the necessary conditions, timeframe and limits.
Finding the right person for an executive position needs a reliable comprehension of
the personality as well as the possibilities and limits concerning the personal development.
Even an experienced and keen observer of human nature may get deluded, even recognized
and proven test procedures may be incomplete or leading to wrong results – and
misjudgments can become expensive in substantial and immaterial ways.
Six Goals of the Prognostic Personality and Abilities Assessment
Analysis of existing abilities and interests, including the not (yet) known ones and
the development to be expected.

 If needed, a comparison with job description and profile of requirements.  Basic

conditions and needs for the development: how it can be enhanced and ensured.
 Period: how long the development will take until the defined goals can be reached.
 Limits of developmental possibilities, either referring to the defined goals (selection
assessment), or generally, with a realistic time frame of 3 to 5 years.
 Quality assurance and sustainability: how the results can be monitored and ensured
in the long term.
The prognostic assessment is suitable for all management levels including executive
board and administrative council, but likewise for young people with the aim of a
comprehensive potential analysis. Typically, the prognostic assessment is accomplished as
an individual one day-assessment. The objectives are defined individually.

Placement Tests

These tests are used to place students in the appropriate class or level. For example, in
language schools, placement tests are used to check a student’s language level through
grammar, vocabulary, reading comprehension, writing, and speaking questions. After
establishing the students level, the student is placed in the appropriate class to suit his/her
needs.

Objective Tests
Objective tests are those that have clear right or wrong answers. Multiple-choice tests fall
into this group. Students have to select a pre-determined correct answer from three or four
possibilities.

Subjective Tests
Subjective tests require the marker or examiner to make a subjective judgment regarding
the marks deserved. Examples are essay questions and oral interviews. For such tests, it is
especially important that both examiner and student are aware of the grading criteria in
order to increase their validity.
PREPARATION OF AN ACHIEVEMENT TEST

Achievement Test

Any test designed to assess the achievement in any subject with regard to a set of predetermined
objectives

Major steps involved in the construction of achievement test

 Planning of test
 Preparation of a design for the test
 Preparation of the blue print
 Writing of items
 Preparation of the scoring key and marking scheme
 Preparation of question-wise analysis

1. Planning of test

 Objective of the Test

 Determine the maximum time and maximum marks

2. Preparation of a design for the test

 Important factors to be considered in design for the test are:

 Weightage to objectives
 Weightage to content
 Weightage to form of questions
 Weightage to difficulty level.

Weightage to objectives

This indicates what objectives are to be tested and what weightage has to be given to each
objectives.
Sl.No Objectives Marks Percentage
1 Knowledge 9 36

2 Understanding 4 16

3 Application 6 24

6 Evaluation 6 24

Total 25 100
Weightage to content

 This indicates the various aspects of the content to be tested and the weightage to be
given to these different aspects.
Sl.No Content Marks Percentage
1 Sub topic - 1 15 60

2 Sub topic - 2 10 40

Total 25 100

Weightage to form of questions

This indicates the form of the questions to be included in the test and the weightage to be given
for each form of questions.

Sl.No Form of questions No. of Questions Marks Percentage

1 Objective type 13 13 52

2 Short answer type 8 8 32

3 Essay type 1 4 16

Total 22 25 100

Weightage to difficulty level

This indicates the total mark and weightage to be given to different level of questions.

Sl.No Form of questions Marks Percentage

1 Easy 5 20

2 Average 15 60

3 Difficult 5 20

Total 25 100
3. Preparation of the blue print

Blue print is a three-dimensional chart giving the placement of the objectives, content and form
of questions.
Objectives
Under-
Knowledge Application Skill
standing
Form of Qtn Grant Total
O SA E O SA E O SE E O SA E
Content
3 2 1 2 2 4
Sub Topic- 1 15
(3) (4) (2) (4) (1) (1)
1 1 2 4 1
Sub Topic – 2 10
(2) (2) (1) (2) (3)
Total Marks 5 4 0 4 0 0 4 2 0 0 2 4
25
Grand Total 9 4 6 6

Note: O – Objective Type, SA – Short Answer Type, E – Essay Type

The number outside the bracket indicates the marks and those inside

indicates the number of questions.

4. Writing of items

 The paper setter write items according to the blue print.

 The difficulty level has to be considered while writing the items.
 It should also checked whether all the questions included can be answered within
the time allotted.
 It is advisable to arrange the questions in the order of their difficulty level.

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