Class 7 Science – Chapter 1: Nutrition in Plants

📃 Detailed Notes: Nutrition in Plants

✅ 1. Introduction to Nutrition
 Food is essential for all living organisms to carry out life processes such as growth, repair, energy
production, and reproduction.
 Food contains nutrients like carbohydrates (provide energy), proteins (help in growth and repair),
fats (store energy), vitamins and minerals (protect and regulate body functions).
 Green plants are the only organisms that can make their own food from simple substances using
sunlight; this is why they are called autotrophs.
 Animals and humans cannot prepare food on their own. They are heterotrophs because they depend
on other organisms (mainly plants) for food.

✅ 2. Mode of Nutrition in Plants

Autotrophic Nutrition:
 The process by which plants prepare their food from simple substances like carbon dioxide and water
using sunlight is called autotrophic nutrition.
 "Auto" means self and "trophos" means nourishment.
 All green plants are autotrophs and perform photosynthesis to prepare food.
Heterotrophic Nutrition:
 Organisms that cannot make their own food and depend on others are called heterotrophs.
 Animals, fungi, and some non-green plants fall into this category.

✅ 3. Photosynthesis – The Food Making Process

Where Does It Happen?
 Photosynthesis takes place mainly in leaves. Leaves have a green pigment called chlorophyll which
helps in absorbing sunlight.
Raw Materials Needed:
1. Carbon dioxide (CO₂) – enters the leaf through tiny pores called stomata.
2. Water (H₂O) – absorbed from the soil by the roots and transported to the leaves through stem and
veins.
3. Sunlight – the source of energy for the process.
4. Chlorophyll – a green pigment present in chloroplasts that traps solar energy.
Definition:
 Photosynthesis is the process by which green plants use sunlight to synthesize food from carbon
dioxide and water.
Word Equation:
Carbon dioxide + Water → (Sunlight + Chlorophyll) → Carbohydrate (glucose) + Oxygen
🌱 Photosynthesis not only provides food for the plant but also releases oxygen into the atmosphere, which is
essential for all aerobic life forms.
Importance:
 Basis of all food chains.
 Stores solar energy in the form of food.
 Maintains oxygen-carbon dioxide balance in the environment.

✅ 4. Other Green Parts Involved in Photosynthesis

 While leaves are the main site, other green parts like green stems and sepals can also
photosynthesize.
 In desert plants, leaves are reduced to spines to reduce water loss, and photosynthesis takes place in
green stems.
 Plants with colored leaves (red, purple) also contain chlorophyll beneath other pigments, so they too
perform photosynthesis.

✅ 5. Synthesis of Plant Food Beyond Carbohydrates

 Photosynthesis primarily produces carbohydrates (glucose).
 Plants convert glucose into starch, which is stored in different parts like roots, stems, fruits, and
leaves.
 To form proteins, plants need nitrogen, which they absorb from the soil in a soluble form.
 Nitrogen-fixing bacteria (like Rhizobium) convert nitrogen gas from the air into a usable form.
 Farmers often use fertilizers and manure rich in nitrogen to support plant growth.

✅ 6. Other Modes of Nutrition in Plants

(a) Parasitic Nutrition:
 Some plants, like Cuscuta (Amarbel), lack chlorophyll and cannot perform photosynthesis.
 They live on other green plants and absorb food and water from them.
 These are called parasites, and the plant they live on is the host.
(b) Insectivorous Plants:
 Some plants grow in nitrogen-poor soil and trap insects to obtain nitrogen.
 Example: Pitcher Plant, which has a modified leaf shaped like a jug or pitcher that traps insects.
 These plants do photosynthesis but supplement their diet with insects — called partial
heterotrophs.
(c) Saprotrophic Nutrition:
  Some plants or fungi absorb nutrients from dead and decaying organic matter.
 Example: Mushrooms, bread mould.
 This is known as saprotrophic nutrition and such organisms are called saprotrophs.
(d) Symbiotic Relationships:
 Two different organisms live together and benefit each other.
 Examples:
o Lichens: Symbiosis between algae (makes food) and fungi (absorbs water).
o Rhizobium bacteria: Lives in roots of legumes and fixes nitrogen, receiving food in return.

✅ 7. How Nutrients are Replenished in Soil

 Continuous crop production depletes soil nutrients, especially nitrogen.
 Farmers add natural (manure) or chemical (fertilizers) to restore nutrient content.
 Growing leguminous plants like peas and beans enriches the soil with nitrogen due to the symbiotic
Rhizobium bacteria in their root nodules.

📊 In-Text and Back Exercise Questions (with Answers)

1. Why do organisms take food?
Answer: To get energy for growth, repair of body parts, reproduction, and for carrying out life functions like
respiration and movement.

2. Distinguish between parasite and saprotroph.

Parasite:
 Lives on another living organism.
 Takes food directly from the host (e.g., Cuscuta).
Saprotroph:
 Lives on dead and decaying organic matter.
 Absorbs digested nutrients from it (e.g., fungi).

3. How would you test the presence of starch in leaves?

Answer:
 Boil the leaf in water to kill it.
 Dip it in alcohol to remove chlorophyll.
 Rinse in warm water to soften it.
 Add iodine solution — if starch is present, the leaf turns blue-black.
4. Describe the process of synthesis of food in green plants.
Answer:
 Plants take carbon dioxide from the air through stomata.
 Water is absorbed by roots and transported to leaves.
 Chlorophyll captures sunlight, and in its presence, water and CO₂ are converted into glucose (food)
and oxygen.
 This process is called photosynthesis.

5. Show that plants are the ultimate source of food.

Answer:
 All food chains start with plants.
 Herbivores eat plants, and carnivores eat herbivores.
 Even omnivores and decomposers ultimately depend on plant-based energy.
 Hence, green plants are the primary producers in ecosystems.

6. Fill in the blanks:

(a) Green plants are called autotrophs.
(b) The food synthesised by plants is stored as starch.
(c) In photosynthesis, solar energy is absorbed by chlorophyll.
(d) Plants take in carbon dioxide and release oxygen.

7. Name the following:

(i) A parasitic plant – Cuscuta (Amarbel)
(ii) A partially autotrophic plant – Pitcher plant
(iii) The pores in leaves for gas exchange – Stomata

8. Tick the correct answer:

(a) Cuscuta is a: (ii) parasite
(b) Plant that feeds on insects: (iii) pitcher plant

9. Match the following:

Column I Column II

Chlorophyll Leaf

Nitrogen Rhizobium

Cuscuta Parasite
Column I Column II

Animals Heterotrophs

Insects Pitcher Plant

10. Mark True/False:

(i) CO₂ is released during photosynthesis – False
(ii) Plants that make food are called saprotrophs – False
(iii) Photosynthesis does not produce protein – True
(iv) Solar energy is stored as chemical energy in food – True

11. Which part of plant takes in CO₂ for photosynthesis?

Answer: (ii) Stomata
12. Plants take CO₂ mainly through:
Answer: (iv) Leaves
13. Why do farmers grow fruits/vegetables in greenhouses?
Answer: Greenhouses provide controlled conditions of light, temperature, humidity, and protection from
pests to promote better plant growth.

🌟 Final Summary:
 Green plants perform photosynthesis and are the base of all food chains.
 They convert solar energy into chemical energy and maintain ecological balance.
 Different nutrition types in plants (autotrophic, parasitic, saprotrophic, symbiotic) show diversity in
nature.
 Plants also help in maintaining soil fertility and are essential for life on Earth.
"Plants are not only food makers but life-givers — protect them, and you protect life itself."
 Class 7 Science – Chapter 2: Nutrition in Animals

📚 Detailed Notes: Nutrition in Animals (Enriched with More Explanation)

✅ 1. Introduction to Nutrition in Animals

 All living organisms require food for survival. Animals, in particular, need food to perform essential
functions such as growth, development, movement, repair of damaged tissues, and reproduction.
 Animals are heterotrophs — they cannot make their own food and depend on other organisms
(plants or animals) for nutrition.
 The process of nutrition in animals includes the following key steps:
1. Ingestion: The process of taking food into the mouth.
2. Digestion: Conversion of complex food into simpler, soluble forms using digestive juices and
enzymes.
3. Absorption: Transfer of digested food into the blood.
4. Assimilation: Utilization of absorbed nutrients by body cells for energy, growth, and repair.
5. Egestion: Elimination of undigested and unabsorbed food through the anus.

✅ 2. Different Ways of Taking Food

Animals have evolved various ways of ingesting food based on their structure, feeding habits, and
environment. Examples include:
 Chewing – Animals like cows and goats use strong molars to grind food.
 Swallowing – Snakes swallow their prey whole due to their expandable jaws.
 Sucking – Mosquitoes and leeches suck fluids through a tube-like mouth.
 Sponging – Houseflies soak up liquid food using sponge-like mouthparts.
 Scraping – Snails use a rough tongue (radula) to scrape algae from surfaces.
 Filter feeding – Whales filter plankton from water using baleen plates.
 Siphoning – Butterflies use a proboscis to suck nectar from flowers.
These feeding mechanisms reflect the diversity in animal structures and diets.

✅ 3. Human Digestive System

The human digestive system is a complex structure designed to convert food into energy and nutrients the
body can use. It consists of the alimentary canal and digestive glands.
➤ Main Parts of the Alimentary Canal:
1. Mouth – Entry point for food
2. Oesophagus – Food pipe
 3. Stomach – Site of initial protein digestion
4. Small Intestine – Site of complete digestion and absorption
5. Large Intestine – Absorbs water and minerals
6. Rectum and Anus – Store and eliminate waste
➤ Digestive Glands:
 Salivary glands: Secrete saliva containing enzymes
 Liver: Produces bile which emulsifies fats
 Pancreas: Produces pancreatic juice containing digestive enzymes

✅ 4. Steps of Digestion in Humans

1. Mouth/Buccal Cavity
 Digestion begins in the mouth where food is broken down by teeth (mechanical digestion).
 Salivary glands release saliva which contains salivary amylase, an enzyme that begins starch
breakdown.
 The tongue mixes food with saliva and helps in rolling it into a bolus for swallowing.
 This step is essential for smooth passage through the oesophagus.
2. Oesophagus
 A muscular tube that connects the mouth to the stomach.
 Food moves through it by peristalsis – rhythmic contraction and relaxation of muscles.
 No digestion occurs here, but it ensures safe and one-way movement of food.
3. Stomach
 A muscular, sac-like organ where food is stored temporarily and mixed thoroughly with digestive
juices.
 The stomach produces gastric juices containing:
o Hydrochloric acid (HCl) – Provides acidic environment and kills bacteria.
o Pepsin – An enzyme that starts digestion of proteins.
o Mucus – Protects the stomach lining from acid damage.
 The churning action converts the food into a semi-liquid called chyme.
4. Small Intestine
 The longest part (~7.5 metres), where most digestion and absorption occurs.
 Digestive juices enter here from the liver, pancreas, and intestinal walls:
o Bile juice (from liver): Emulsifies fats into smaller droplets.
o Pancreatic juice: Contains enzymes to break down starch, proteins, and fats.
o Intestinal juice: Completes digestion of all nutrients.
End Products of Digestion:
 Carbohydrates breaks into Glucose
 Proteins breaks into Amino acids
 Fats breaks into Fatty acids and Glycerol
5. Absorption
 Occurs through villi — tiny, finger-like projections on the inner lining of the small intestine.
 Villi increase the surface area and contain capillaries to absorb nutrients into the bloodstream.
 These nutrients are then transported to different body cells.
6. Assimilation
 The absorbed nutrients are used by the body cells:
o Glucose is used during respiration to release energy.
o Amino acids are used to build proteins and repair tissues.
o Fatty acids are stored or used for energy.
7. Large Intestine
 Absorbs remaining water and minerals from the undigested portion.
 The waste becomes solid and is called faeces.
8. Egestion
 Faeces is temporarily stored in the rectum.
 It is expelled from the body through the anus in the process called egestion or defecation.
✅ 5. Nutrition in Ruminants (Grass-Eating Animals)
 Ruminants like cows, buffaloes, deer, and goats eat plant-based food, especially grass, which is rich
in cellulose — a carbohydrate that humans cannot digest.
 These animals have a complex stomach divided into four chambers: rumen, reticulum, omasum,
and abomasum.
➤ Digestion in Ruminants:
1. Ingestion: Ruminants quickly swallow grass and store it in the rumen, where microbes begin
breaking down cellulose.
2. Cud Formation: The partially digested food (called cud) returns to the mouth for re-chewing. This
process is called rumination.
3. Re-swallowing and Digestion: The cud passes into the reticulum, omasum (where water is
absorbed), and finally the abomasum, where digestion is completed with enzymes.
✅ Ruminants depend on symbiotic bacteria to digest cellulose.
  All living organisms require food for survival. Animals, in particular, need food to perform essential
functions such as growth, development, movement, repair of damaged tissues, and reproduction.
 Animals are heterotrophs — they cannot make their own food and depend on other organisms
(plants or animals) for nutrition.
 The process of nutrition in animals includes the following key steps:
1. Ingestion: The process of taking food into the mouth.
2. Digestion: Conversion of complex food into simpler, soluble forms using digestive juices and
enzymes.
3. Absorption: Transfer of digested food into the blood.
4. Assimilation: Utilization of absorbed nutrients by body cells for energy, growth, and repair.
5. Egestion: Elimination of undigested and unabsorbed food through the anus.

✅ 6. Feeding and Digestion in Amoeba

 Amoeba is a unicellular (single-celled) organism that lives in freshwater bodies such as ponds.
 It has an irregular shape and moves using extensions called pseudopodia (false feet).
➤ Steps of Nutrition in Amoeba:
1. Ingestion: Amoeba approaches food particles, such as tiny plant matter or microorganisms, and
surrounds them by extending its pseudopodia. This forms a pocket called a food vacuole.
2. Digestion: Enzymes are secreted into the food vacuole, which break the food into simpler
substances.
3. Absorption: The digested nutrients are absorbed into the cytoplasm of the Amoeba and used as fuel.
4. Assimilation: The absorbed food is utilized by Amoeba for producing energy and for growth and
repair of the cell.
5. Egestion: The waste materials and undigested food are expelled outside the cell by rupturing the
vacuole near the surface of the Amoeba.
🔬 Amoeba performs intracellular digestion, as all the steps of digestion occur inside a single cell.

✅ 7. Important Terms and Definitions

 Ingestion: The process of taking food into the body.
 Digestion: The breakdown of large, complex food molecules into simpler, absorbable forms.
 Absorption: The transfer of digested food from the intestine into the bloodstream.
 Assimilation: The use of absorbed nutrients by the body for energy, growth, and repair.
 Egestion: The elimination of undigested and unabsorbed food from the body.
 Peristalsis: A wave-like movement of muscles in the alimentary canal that pushes food forward.
 Villi: Small finger-like projections in the inner wall of the small intestine that increase surface area
for absorption.
  Ruminants: Animals that chew cud and have a stomach with four compartments.
 Pseudopodia: Temporary projections of Amoeba’s body used for movement and engulfing food.

✅ 8. Exercise Questions – Explained Answers

1. Fill in the blanks:
(a) The main steps of nutrition in humans are ingestion, digestion, absorption, assimilation, and egestion.
(b) The largest gland in the human body is the liver.
(c) The stomach releases hydrochloric acid, mucus, and digestive enzymes.
(d) The finger-like projections in the small intestine are called villi.
(e) In Amoeba, digestion takes place inside the food vacuole.
2. True/False:
(a) Digestion of starch starts in the stomach. → False (It starts in the mouth)
(b) The tongue helps in mixing food with saliva. → True
(c) The gall bladder temporarily stores bile. → True
(d) The ruminants bring back swallowed food to the mouth for chewing. → True
3. Choose the correct option:
(a) Fat is completely digested in the – Small intestine.
(b) Water from the undigested food is absorbed mainly in the – Large intestine.
4. Match the following:
 Food components → End products
o Carbohydrates → Glucose
o Proteins → Amino acids
o Fats → Fatty acids and Glycerol
5. What are villi? What is their function?
Villi are tiny, finger-like projections lining the inner walls of the small intestine. They increase the surface
area for absorption of digested nutrients into the blood. Each villus has blood capillaries that transport
absorbed nutrients to different parts of the body.
6. Where is bile produced and what is its role in digestion?
Bile is produced in the liver and stored temporarily in the gall bladder. It helps in digestion by breaking
down fats into small droplets — a process called emulsification, which increases the efficiency of fat-
digesting enzymes.
7. Can humans digest cellulose? Why or why not?
No, humans cannot digest cellulose because they do not have the necessary enzyme cellulase, nor do they
have cellulose-digesting bacteria in their intestines.
8. Why does glucose provide instant energy?
Glucose is a simple sugar that can be quickly absorbed into the bloodstream and used by cells for energy
through respiration.
9. Name the part of the alimentary canal where complete digestion of food takes place.
Small intestine is the site where complete digestion and absorption of food occurs.
10. How is the process of digestion in Amoeba different from humans?
In Amoeba, digestion occurs inside the food vacuole within a single cell (intracellular digestion), while in
humans, digestion occurs inside the digestive tract with the help of various organs (extracellular digestion).
11. Match the organs with their functions:
 Salivary gland → Secretes saliva
 Stomach → Releases acid and enzymes
 Liver → Secretes bile
 Rectum → Stores faeces
 Small intestine → Completes digestion and absorbs nutrients
 Large intestine → Absorbs water and forms faeces

✅ Final Summary
 Nutrition is essential for all animals to maintain life processes.
 The human digestive system consists of various organs that work together to break down food into
usable nutrients.
 Grass-eating animals (ruminants) have a specialized digestive system to digest cellulose.
 Amoeba, a unicellular organism, shows how even simple life forms can perform complex digestion
inside their cells.
 Chapter – Heat
Hot and Cold
 The tea is hot and the ice is cold.
 The hotness or coldness of an object is determined by comparing it with another object.
 The sense of touch is not always a reliable way to decide whether an object is hot or cold.
 The reliable measure of the hotness of an object is called its temperature.
 The temperature is measured with the help of a thermometer.

Measuring Temperature
 The thermometer used to measure the human body temperature is called a clinical thermometer.
 The clinical thermometer has a range from 35°C to 42°C.
 The normal temperature of the human body is 37°C.
 The clinical thermometer contains mercury in its bulb.
 The kink present near the bulb of a clinical thermometer prevents the mercury from falling back on
its own.
 The laboratory thermometer is used to measure the temperature of substances other than the human
body.
 The laboratory thermometer generally has a range from –10°C to 110°C.
 The laboratory thermometer must be kept upright, and its bulb should not touch the sides or bottom
of the container.

Transfer of Heat
 The heat flows from a body at a higher temperature to a body at a lower temperature.
 In solids, the heat is transferred by the process of conduction.
 The materials which allow the heat to pass through them easily are called conductors of heat.
 The materials which do not allow the heat to pass through them easily are called insulators of heat.
 The water and air are poor conductors of heat, but they transfer heat by the process of convection.
 In convection, the heated part of the fluid rises and the colder part moves down.
 The transfer of heat by radiation does not require any medium.
 The heat from the Sun reaches the Earth by the process of radiation.

Sea Breeze and Land Breeze

 During the day, the land gets heated faster than the sea water.
 The air above the land becomes hotter and rises up, and the cooler air from the sea moves towards
the land.
  This movement of cooler air from the sea towards the land is called a sea breeze.
 During the night, the land cools faster than the sea water.
 The cooler air from the land moves towards the sea, and this is called a land breeze.

Kinds of Clothes We Wear in Summer and Winter

 The dark-coloured clothes absorb more heat than light-coloured clothes.
 In summer, the light-coloured clothes reflect most of the heat and keep us cool.
 In winter, the dark-coloured clothes absorb more heat and keep us warm.
 The wool is a poor conductor of heat and has air trapped in between its fibres.
 The trapped air prevents the flow of heat from the body to the cold surroundings, so woollen clothes
keep us warm

Answers to Exercises – Chapter: Heat

1. Similarities and differences between laboratory thermometer and clinical thermometer
 The laboratory thermometer and the clinical thermometer are both used to measure temperature.
 The laboratory thermometer and the clinical thermometer both have a glass tube with mercury in a
bulb.
 The clinical thermometer is used to measure the temperature of the human body, while the laboratory
thermometer is used to measure the temperature of other substances.
 The clinical thermometer has a range from 35°C to 42°C, while the laboratory thermometer generally
has a range from –10°C to 110°C.
 The clinical thermometer has a kink near the bulb, while the laboratory thermometer does not have a
kink.

2. Examples of conductors and insulators of heat

 The aluminum and copper are examples of conductors of heat.
 The wood and plastic are examples of insulators of heat.

3. Fill in the blanks

 (a) The hotness of an object is determined by its temperature.
 (b) The temperature of boiling water cannot be measured by a clinical thermometer.
 (c) Temperature is measured in degree Celsius.
 (d) No medium is required for transfer of heat by the process of radiation.
 (e) A cold steel spoon dipped in a cup of hot milk transfers heat to its other end by the process of
conduction.
 (f) Clothes of dark colours absorb more heat better than clothes of light colours.
4. Match the following
 (i) Land breeze blows during → night.
 (ii) Sea breeze blows during → day.
 (iii) Dark coloured clothes are preferred during → winter.
 (iv) Light coloured clothes are preferred during → summer.

5. Why wearing more layers of clothing during winter keeps us warmer than wearing just one thick
piece of clothing
 Wearing more layers of clothing during winter keeps us warmer because air is trapped between the
layers, and this trapped air acts as an insulator of heat.

6. Fig. 3.13 – Heat transfer

 The heat is transferred by conduction from the utensil’s handle to the hand.
 The heat is transferred by convection in the water in the pot.
 The heat is transferred by radiation from the flame to the utensil.

7. Why outer walls of houses in hot climates should be painted white

 The outer walls of houses in hot climates should be painted white because white surfaces reflect most
of the heat that falls on them, which helps keep the house cooler.

8. Temperature after mixing 1 litre water at 30°C with 1 litre water at 50°C
 The temperature of the mixture will be between 30°C and 50°C.

9. Iron ball and water both at 40°C

 The heat will not flow from iron ball to water or from water to iron ball because both are at the
same temperature.

10. Wooden spoon dipped in ice cream

 The other end of the wooden spoon does not become cold because wood is a poor conductor of heat.

11. Stainless steel pans with copper bottoms

 Stainless steel pans are provided with copper bottoms because copper is a better conductor of heat
than stainless steel.
Extra Questions – Heat
1. Concept Understanding
 Why is it not safe to measure the temperature of hot milk with a clinical thermometer?
 Why does the mercury level in a laboratory thermometer fall immediately after removing it from hot
water?
 Why is a metal spoon better than a wooden spoon for stirring hot soup?
2. Reasoning Questions
 A person wears a black shirt and a white shirt on two different sunny days. On which day will they
feel hotter, and why?
 Why do people in coastal areas keep the windows of their houses facing the sea?
 Why do woollen clothes have air trapped in their fibres?
3. Application Questions
 A cook accidentally touches the metal part of a frying pan and burns his hand. Which mode of heat
transfer caused the burn?
 In winter, which will cool faster: a bucket of water in a black container or in a white container?
Explain.
 Why do desert people often wear loose, light-coloured clothes?
4. Numerical / Logical Thinking
 If the temperature difference between two objects is doubled, how will it affect the rate of heat
transfer between them?
 Two cups of water are kept in sunlight — one covered with a glass lid and the other uncovered.
Which will heat faster and why?
5. Higher Thinking
 Imagine you are in space where there is no air. Which modes of heat transfer can occur between two
objects? Explain with an example.
 Why does a ceiling fan not cool the air but still make us feel cooler?

 thermometer?
o It is not safe because the range of a clinical thermometer is only from 35°C to 42°C, and hot
milk can be much hotter, which may break the thermometer.
 Why does the mercury level in a laboratory thermometer fall immediately after removing it
from hot water?
o The mercury level falls because the thermometer cools quickly when taken out of hot water,
and the mercury contracts.
 Why is a metal spoon better than a wooden spoon for stirring hot soup?
 o A metal spoon is better because metals are good conductors of heat, so the heat spreads
quickly and evenly.

2. Reasoning Questions
 A person wears a black shirt and a white shirt on two different sunny days. On which day will
they feel hotter, and why?
o They will feel hotter in the black shirt because dark colours absorb more heat from the
sunlight.
 Why do people in coastal areas keep the windows of their houses facing the sea?
o They keep windows facing the sea to receive the cool sea breeze during the day.
 Why do woollen clothes have air trapped in their fibres?
o Woollen clothes trap air because air is a poor conductor of heat and prevents heat from
escaping from the body.

3. Application Questions
 A cook accidentally touches the metal part of a frying pan and burns his hand. Which mode of
heat transfer caused the burn?
o The burn was caused by conduction because heat travelled through the metal from the hot
pan to the hand.
 In winter, which will cool faster: a bucket of water in a black container or in a white container?
Explain.
o The bucket in the black container will cool faster because black surfaces radiate heat more
effectively.
 Why do desert people often wear loose, light-coloured clothes?
o They wear loose, light-coloured clothes because such clothes reflect most of the sunlight and
allow air circulation, keeping them cool.

4. Numerical / Logical Thinking

 If the temperature difference between two objects is doubled, how will it affect the rate of heat
transfer between them?
o The rate of heat transfer will increase because heat flows faster when the temperature
difference is greater.
 Two cups of water are kept in sunlight — one covered with a glass lid and the other uncovered.
Which will heat faster and why?
o The cup with the glass lid will heat faster because the lid traps heat inside and reduces heat
loss by convection.

5. Higher Thinking
 Imagine you are in space where there is no air. Which modes of heat transfer can occur
between two objects? Explain with an example.
o In space, only radiation can occur because there is no medium for conduction or convection.
For example, the Sun heats the Earth by radiation.
 Why does a ceiling fan not cool the air but still make us feel cooler?
o A ceiling fan does not lower the temperature, but it moves the air, which increases
evaporation of sweat from our skin, making us feel cooler
Chapter – Physical and Chemical Changes

Definition of Change
 A change is when a substance or object becomes different in appearance, state, or properties.
 Changes can occur naturally or can be caused by human activities.
 The two main types of changes are physical changes and chemical changes.

1. Physical Changes
Definition
 A physical change is a change in the physical properties of a substance such as shape, size, colour, or
state, without forming a new substance.
 A physical change is generally reversible.
Key Points
 No new substance is formed in a physical change.
 Most physical changes are reversible.

2. Chemical Changes
Definition
 A chemical change is a change in which one or more new substances are formed with different
properties from the original substances.
 A chemical change is also called a chemical reaction.
Indicators of a Chemical Change
 A new substance is formed.
 A colour change may occur.
 Heat, light, or sound may be produced.
 A gas may be released.
 A smell change may occur.
Examples from Activities
 Rusting of Iron
o Iron + Oxygen + Water → Rust (Iron oxide, Fe₂O₃)
o Rust is a new substance that is different from iron.
o Rusting is faster in humid air.
Other Examples of Chemical Changes
 Burning of wood or coal produces new substances and heat.
 Spoiling of food produces foul smell.
 Browning of cut apples or potatoes forms new substances.
 Photosynthesis and digestion are chemical changes.
 Explosion of fireworks produces heat, light, sound, and gases.

3. Rusting of Iron
Definition
 Rusting is the slow formation of a reddish-brown layer (rust) on the surface of iron when it is
exposed to moisture and air.
Conditions for Rusting
 Presence of oxygen.
 Presence of water or water vapour.
Prevention of Rusting
 Coating with paint or grease.
 Galvanisation – coating iron with zinc.
 Making alloys like stainless steel (iron mixed with carbon, chromium, nickel, etc.).
Special Note
 Ships rust faster due to salty seawater.
 Iron structures in coastal areas rust faster than in dry areas.

4. Crystallisation
Definition
 Crystallisation is the process of forming large, pure crystals of a substance from its saturated
solution.
.
Key Points
 Crystallisation is a physical change.
 It is used to purify substances.
Detailed Explanation of Activities – Physical and Chemical Changes

Activity 5.1 – Cutting a piece of paper

 You cut a piece of paper into four equal squares, then cut each square into four smaller pieces.
 Observation – The size and shape of the paper pieces have changed.
 Explanation – Only the physical appearance has changed; the paper is still made of the same
material.
 Conclusion – This is a physical change because no new substance is formed and it is irreversible
only in terms of shape.

Activity 5.2 – Crushing chalk into dust

 You collect chalk dust or crush a chalk stick into powder, then mix the dust with water to form a
paste and shape it into a stick.
 Observation – The chalk dust can be reshaped into a solid stick after drying.
 Explanation – The chalk remains the same substance before and after crushing; only the size and
shape have changed.
 Conclusion – This is a physical change because no new substance is formed and the change is
reversible.

Activity 5.3 – Melting and freezing ice

 You place ice in a glass and let it melt in sunlight to form water. Then you place it in a freezing
mixture to turn the water back into ice.
 Observation – Ice melts into liquid water, and water freezes back into solid ice.
 Explanation – Only the state of water changes; the chemical composition (H₂O) remains the same.
 Conclusion – This is a physical change because it is reversible and no new substance is formed.

Activity 5.4 – Condensation of steam

 You boil water in a container and hold an inverted pan above the steam.
 Observation – Water droplets form on the inside of the pan.
 Explanation – Steam (water vapour) cools down and condenses into liquid water.
 Conclusion – This is a physical change because only the state changes, and it is reversible.

Activity 5.5 – Colour change in a heated blade

 You hold a hack-saw blade with tongs, heat one end over a flame, and observe a colour change.
 Observation – The heated part of the blade changes colour but returns to normal after cooling.
 Explanation – Heating changes the surface oxidation temporarily, which reverts on cooling.
  Conclusion – This is a physical change because no new substance is formed and the change is
reversible.

Activity 5.6 – Burning magnesium ribbon

 You clean a strip of magnesium ribbon with sandpaper and ignite it in a flame.
 Observation – It burns with a bright white light, leaving a white ash.
 Explanation – Magnesium reacts with oxygen in the air to form magnesium oxide (MgO).
o Reaction: Magnesium + Oxygen → Magnesium oxide
o When mixed with water, magnesium oxide forms magnesium hydroxide, which is basic and
turns red litmus blue.
 Conclusion – This is a chemical change because a new substance is formed with different
properties.

Activity 5.7 – Reaction of copper sulphate with iron

 You prepare a blue copper sulphate solution with a few drops of dilute sulphuric acid, place an iron
nail in it, and leave it for 30 minutes.
 Observation – The solution turns green, and a brown deposit forms on the nail.
 Explanation – Iron displaces copper from copper sulphate, forming iron sulphate and copper.
o Reaction: Copper sulphate + Iron → Iron sulphate + Copper
 Conclusion – This is a chemical change because new substances with different properties are
formed.

Activity 5.8 – Reaction of vinegar and baking soda

 You add baking soda to vinegar in a test tube and pass the gas produced through lime water.
 Observation – Bubbles are formed, and lime water turns milky.
 Explanation – Vinegar (acetic acid) reacts with baking soda (sodium hydrogencarbonate) to release
carbon dioxide.
o Reaction: Acetic acid + Sodium hydrogencarbonate → Carbon dioxide + other products
o Carbon dioxide + Lime water → Calcium carbonate (milky) + Water
 Conclusion – This is a chemical change because a new gas and new solid are formed.

Activity 5.9 – Crystallisation of copper sulphate

 You heat water with a few drops of dilute sulphuric acid, dissolve copper sulphate until saturated,
filter, and allow it to cool.
 Observation – Large blue crystals of copper sulphate form.
 Explanation – Cooling a saturated solution allows pure copper sulphate to crystallise out.
  Conclusion – This is a physical change because the substance remains copper sulphate; only its
form changes.

Keywords with Definitions

 Physical change – A change in which only the physical properties change and no new substance is
formed.
 Chemical change – A change in which new substances with different properties are formed.
 Chemical reaction – The process by which chemical changes occur.
 Rusting – The slow formation of iron oxide (rust) on iron when exposed to air and moisture.
 Galvanisation – The process of coating iron with a layer of zinc to prevent rusting.
 Crystallisation – The process of obtaining large, pure crystals of a substance from its solution.

Answers – Physical and Chemical Changes

1. Classify the changes involved as physical or chemical changes

 (a) Photosynthesis → This is a chemical change because new substances (glucose and oxygen) are
formed.
 (b) Dissolving sugar in water → This is a physical change because no new substance is formed and it
can be reversed by evaporation.
 (c) Burning of coal → This is a chemical change because new substances (carbon dioxide, ash, etc.)
are formed.
 (d) Melting of wax → This is a physical change because only the state changes and no new substance
is formed.
 (e) Beating aluminium to make aluminium foil → This is a physical change because only the shape
changes.
 (f) Digestion of food → This is a chemical change because new substances are formed during
digestion.

2. True or False (with corrections)

 (a) Cutting a log of wood into pieces is a chemical change → False, it is a physical change.
 (b) Formation of manure from leaves is a physical change → False, it is a chemical change because
new substances are formed.
 (c) Iron pipes coated with zinc do not get rusted easily → True.
 (d) Iron and rust are the same substances → False, rust is a new substance (iron oxide) different from
iron.
 (e) Condensation of steam is not a chemical change → True.
3. Fill in the blanks
 (a) When carbon dioxide is passed through lime water, it turns milky due to the formation of calcium
carbonate.
 (b) The chemical name of baking soda is sodium hydrogencarbonate.
 (c) Two methods by which rusting of iron can be prevented are painting and galvanisation.
 (d) Changes in which only physical properties of a substance change are called physical changes.
 (e) Changes in which new substances are formed are called chemical changes.

4. Baking soda with lemon juice

 This is a chemical change because a gas (carbon dioxide) is evolved and new substances are formed.

5. Burning of a candle
 Physical change → Melting of wax.
 Chemical change → Burning of wax to produce carbon dioxide, water vapour, and heat.
 Another example → Cooking of food involves physical changes (cutting, mixing) and chemical
changes (cooking reactions).

6. Setting of curd
 Setting of curd is a chemical change because new substances are formed from milk, and the change
is irreversible.

7. Burning vs cutting wood

 Burning wood is a chemical change because new substances such as carbon dioxide and ash are
formed.
 Cutting wood is a physical change because only the size and shape change.

8. Preparation of copper sulphate crystals

 Add a few drops of dilute sulphuric acid to water and heat it.
 Add copper sulphate powder until no more dissolves.
 Filter the solution and cool it undisturbed.
 Blue copper sulphate crystals form.

9. Painting an iron gate

 Painting prevents rusting by blocking contact between iron and moisture/oxygen.
10. Rusting faster in coastal areas
 Rusting is faster in coastal areas because salty and humid air increases corrosion.

11. LPG change

 Change A (liquid LPG to gas) is a physical change.
 Change B (burning LPG) is a chemical change.
 Correct option → (ii) Process B is a chemical change.

12. Biogas change

 Change A (digestion of waste to biogas) is a chemical change.
 Change B (burning biogas) is a chemical change.
 Correct option → (iii) Both processes A and B are chemical changes
A. Concept Check Questions
1. Why is dissolving salt in water considered a physical change?
 Dissolving salt in water is a physical change because no new substance is formed and the salt can be
recovered by evaporation.
2. Is melting butter a physical or chemical change? Why?
 Melting butter is a physical change because only the state changes from solid to liquid without
forming a new substance.
3. Why is burning of paper a chemical change?
 Burning of paper is a chemical change because new substances such as carbon dioxide, water vapour,
and ash are formed, and the change is irreversible.

B. Application-Based Questions
4. A blacksmith heats a piece of iron until it glows red and then shapes it into a tool. What type of
change(s) occur?
 Heating iron until it glows is a physical change because it only changes temperature and colour
temporarily.
 Shaping the iron is also a physical change because no new substance is formed.
5. Why is ripening of mango a chemical change?
 Ripening of mango is a chemical change because new substances responsible for colour, taste, and
smell are formed, and the change is irreversible.
6. Why is curdling of milk by adding lemon juice a chemical change?
 Curdling of milk is a chemical change because milk proteins change to form curd, which is a new
substance.

C. Reaction Reasoning Questions

7. When an iron nail is dipped into copper sulphate solution, it turns reddish-brown. Explain the
change.
 Iron displaces copper from copper sulphate solution, forming iron sulphate (green) and copper
(brown deposit). This is a chemical change because new substances are formed.
8. Why does lime water turn milky when carbon dioxide is passed through it?
 Lime water turns milky because carbon dioxide reacts with calcium hydroxide in lime water to form
calcium carbonate, which is insoluble and appears milky.
9. In which way is galvanisation different from painting in preventing rusting?
 Galvanisation protects iron by coating it with zinc, which acts as a barrier and also prevents rusting
even if scratched. Painting only blocks moisture and oxygen but does not provide sacrificial
protection.

D. Higher-Order Thinking Questions

10. Can a change be both physical and chemical? Give an example.
 Yes, burning of a candle involves both physical and chemical changes. Melting of wax is a physical
change, while burning wax to form gases and heat is a chemical change.
11. Why is evaporation of alcohol a physical change but fermentation of fruit juice a chemical change?
 Evaporation of alcohol is a physical change because no new substance is formed.
 Fermentation of fruit juice is a chemical change because sugars are converted into alcohol and
carbon dioxide, which are new substances.
12. Why does iron rust faster in coastal areas than in deserts?
 Iron rusts faster in coastal areas because the high humidity and presence of salt in the air speed up
the rusting process.

A. Concept Check Questions

1. Why is dissolving salt in water considered a physical change?
 Dissolving salt in water is a physical change because no new substance is formed and the salt can be
recovered by evaporation.
2. Is melting butter a physical or chemical change? Why?
 Melting butter is a physical change because only the state changes from solid to liquid without
forming a new substance.
3. Why is burning of paper a chemical change?
 Burning of paper is a chemical change because new substances such as carbon dioxide, water vapour,
and ash are formed, and the change is irreversible.

B. Application-Based Questions
4. A blacksmith heats a piece of iron until it glows red and then shapes it into a tool. What type of
change(s) occur?
 Heating iron until it glows is a physical change because it only changes temperature and colour
temporarily.
 Shaping the iron is also a physical change because no new substance is formed.
5. Why is ripening of mango a chemical change?
 Ripening of mango is a chemical change because new substances responsible for colour, taste, and
smell are formed, and the change is irreversible.
6. Why is curdling of milk by adding lemon juice a chemical change?
 Curdling of milk is a chemical change because milk proteins change to form curd, which is a new
substance.

C. Reaction Reasoning Questions

7. When an iron nail is dipped into copper sulphate solution, it turns reddish-brown. Explain the
change.
 Iron displaces copper from copper sulphate solution, forming iron sulphate (green) and copper
(brown deposit). This is a chemical change because new substances are formed.
8. Why does lime water turn milky when carbon dioxide is passed through it?
 Lime water turns milky because carbon dioxide reacts with calcium hydroxide in lime water to form
calcium carbonate, which is insoluble and appears milky.
9. In which way is galvanisation different from painting in preventing rusting?
 Galvanisation protects iron by coating it with zinc, which acts as a barrier and also prevents rusting
even if scratched.
 Painting only blocks moisture and oxygen but does not provide sacrificial protection.

D. Higher-Order Thinking Questions

10. Can a change be both physical and chemical? Give an example.
 Yes, burning of a candle involves both physical and chemical changes. Melting of wax is a physical
change, while burning wax to form gases and heat is a chemical change.
11. Why is evaporation of alcohol a physical change but fermentation of fruit juice a chemical change?
 Evaporation of alcohol is a physical change because no new substance is formed.
 Fermentation of fruit juice is a chemical change because sugars are converted into alcohol and
carbon dioxide, which are new substances.
12. Why does iron rust faster in coastal areas than in deserts?
 Iron rusts faster in coastal areas because the high humidity and presence of salt in the air speed up
the rusting process.