University Biology Notes: Photosynthesis
Introduction to Photosynthesis
Photosynthesis is the process used by plants, algae, and some bacteria to
convert light energy into chemical energy. This chemical energy is stored in
the form of glucose (C6H12O6), a sugar molecule, which serves as food for
the organism. The process is the foundation of most food webs on Earth, as it
produces the organic molecules consumed by almost all life forms.
Photosynthesis occurs primarily in the chloroplasts of plant cells.
The overall chemical equation for photosynthesis is the reverse of cellular
respiration:
6CO2+6H2O+Light Energy→C6H12O6+6O2Error! Filename not specified.
This is an anabolic process, meaning it builds complex molecules from
simpler ones, requiring an input of energy. The process is divided into two
major stages: the light-dependent reactions and the light-independent
reactions (Calvin cycle).
Stage 1: The Light-Dependent Reactions
The light-dependent reactions convert light energy into chemical energy in
the form of ATP and NADPH. These reactions take place in the thylakoid
membranes of the chloroplasts.
Key features of Light-Dependent Reactions:
Input: Light energy, water (H2O).
Output: ATP, NADPH, and oxygen (O2) as a byproduct.
Photosystems and the Electron Transport Chain
The thylakoid membranes contain complexes of pigments and proteins called
photosystems (PS). There are two main types, Photosystem II (PSII) and
Photosystem I (PSI).
1. Light Absorption (PSII): Light energy is absorbed by chlorophyll
pigments in PSII, exciting an electron to a higher energy level.
2. Water Splitting: To replace the lost electron, an enzyme splits a
water molecule (H2O) into electrons, protons (H+), and an oxygen
atom. The oxygen atoms combine to form O2, which is released into
the atmosphere. This is the source of all the oxygen we breathe.
3. Electron Transport Chain: The excited electron travels down an
electron transport chain (ETC), a series of protein carriers. As the
electron moves, its energy is used to pump H+ ions from the stroma
into the thylakoid lumen, creating an electrochemical gradient.
4. ATP Synthesis: The protons in the lumen flow back into the stroma
through ATP synthase, which harnesses the proton-motive force to
produce ATP from ADP. This process is called photophosphorylation.
5. Light Absorption (PSI): The electron, now at a lower energy level, is
re-energized by light absorption in PSI.
6. NADPH Production: The re-energized electron is passed to a short
second ETC, where it is used to reduce NADP+ to NADPH.
The ATP and NADPH produced in this stage are crucial for powering the next
stage of photosynthesis.
Stage 2: The Calvin Cycle (Light-Independent Reactions)
The Calvin cycle uses the ATP and NADPH from the light-dependent reactions
to fix carbon dioxide (CO2) and produce sugar. This cycle occurs in the
stroma of the chloroplast and does not require light directly.
Key features of the Calvin Cycle:
Input: Carbon dioxide (CO2), ATP, NADPH.
Output: Glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate (G3P).
The cycle can be divided into three main phases:
Phase A: Carbon Fixation
An enzyme called RuBisCO (ribulose-1,5-bisphosphate
carboxylase/oxygenase) catalyzes the attachment of a CO2 molecule to a
five-carbon molecule called ribulose-1,5-bisphosphate (RuBP). This forms an
unstable six-carbon intermediate that immediately splits into two molecules
of 3-phosphoglycerate (3-PGA).
Phase B: Reduction
The 3-PGA molecules are phosphorylated by ATP and then reduced by
NADPH. This reaction converts each 3-PGA molecule into a molecule of
glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate (G3P). G3P is the final product of the Calvin
cycle. For every six G3P molecules produced, only one leaves the cycle to be
used by the plant. The remaining five are recycled.
Phase C: Regeneration of RuBP
The remaining five G3P molecules, using ATP, are rearranged into three
molecules of RuBP. This regeneration step is essential to keep the cycle
running. The RuBP molecules are now ready to accept more CO2, continuing
the cycle.
The G3P molecule that leaves the cycle is the building block for the plant.
The plant uses it to synthesize glucose and other organic molecules, such as
cellulose and starch.
Summary of Photosynthesis
Purpo
Stage Location Key Inputs Key Outputs
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Conver
Light- t light
Depend Thylakoid Light, H2OError! ATP, NADPH, O2Error! energy
ent Membran Filename not Filename not to
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energy
Use
chemic
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energy
Calvin to fix
Stroma CO2, ATP, NADPH G3P
Cycle carbon
and
produc
e
sugar
Connection to Cellular Respiration: Photosynthesis and cellular
respiration form a fundamental, cyclical relationship. Photosynthesis
captures light energy and converts it into the chemical energy stored in
glucose, releasing oxygen as a byproduct. Cellular respiration then breaks
down that glucose to release its stored energy for the cell to use, consuming
oxygen and releasing carbon dioxide and water as byproducts. The outputs
of one process are the inputs of the other, creating a global energy and
carbon cycle.
