BOOK 2A

This book includes some of the most important expositions of Mengzi’s

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philosophical psychology and political philosophy. Among the most in-

teresting and often-discussed passages in this book are 2A2 and 2A6.

Mengzi’s disciple Gongsun Chou asked, “If you, Master, were to oc- 1.1
cupy an important position in Qi, could we expect that the achieve-
ments of Guan Zhong or Yanzi would be repeated?” [These were
ministers in Qi who helped their rulers become powerful. (Mengzi did
eventually become High Minister of Qi. See 2B6–2B10.)]
Mengzi said, “You are genuinely a man of Qi. All you know about 1.2
are Guan Zhong and Yanzi, and not the actions of sages and worthies.
[Mengzi gives a more positive impression of Yanzi in 1B4. Perhaps the
primary target of Mengzi’s criticisms here in 2A1 is Guan Zhong, whom
Gongsun Chou carelessly lumps together with Yanzi.] Someone once 1.3
asked Zeng Xi, grandson of Kongzi’s disciple Zengzi, ‘Who is more
worthy: you or Kongzi’s disciple Zilu?’ Zeng Xi replied diffidently,
‘Zilu, of whom my grandfather stood in awe, is more worthy.’ The
questioner then said, ‘So who is more worthy: you or Guan Zhong?’
Zeng Xi was unhappy and angrily said,‘How dare you compare me to
Guan Zhong? For Guan Zhong to have had a ruler’s complete confi-
dence like he did, and for him to have governed for as long as he did,
and then for the height of his achievement to be so base—how dare
you compare me to him?’” [Zilu was not one of Kongzi’s most
talented disciples, and Guan Zhong succeeded in making his ruler
Hegemon (see 2A3). So why would a Confucian rather be compared to
the former? Yang Shi explained, “Compare it to being a chariot driver in
a ritual hunt. Zilu ‘drove . . . in the prescribed manner’ and we don’t get
2008. Hackett Publishing Company, Inc.

anything; Guan Zhong’s achievement was simply to get birds by having

‘violated the rules’ (3B1.4).”]
Mengzi concluded, “Guan Zhong was someone whom Zeng Xi 1.4
would not [Link] you hope for me to become like him?”

33
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 34 Mengzi

1.5 Gongsun Chou then asked,“Guan Zhong made his ruler Hegemon.
Yanzi made his ruler [Link] Guan Zhong and Yanzi not worth
emulating?”
1.6 Mengzi said,“Making the ruler of Qi into a King is as easy as turn-
ing over one’s hand.”
1.7 Gongsun Chou said, “In that case, I have been terribly mistaken. I
thought that when King Wen died after a hundred years, his Virtue had
not yet spread throughout the world, and that King Wu and the Duke
of Zhou perpetuated it, and only then was it broadly put into effect.
Now what you say makes it seem easy to become King. So was King
Wen not worth modeling oneself on?”1
1.8 Mengzi said, “How could anyone match King Wen? From Tang,
founder of the Shang dynasty, to Wu Ding, who revived the Virtue of
that dynasty, six or seven rulers who were worthies or sages [Link]
world had turned toward the Shang for a long [Link] it had been
a long time it was difficult to change. Wu Ding brought the various
lords to his court, and had the world as if it were in the palm of his
hand. It was not long in between Wu Ding and Tyrant [Link] of
the venerable families, surviving customs, prevailing trends, and good
government of the earlier times persisted. There were also Tyrant
Zhou’s minister Jiao Ge,his uncles Wangzi Bigan and Jizi,and his broth-
ers Weizi and Wei [Link] were all worthies who assisted him in
government. Hence, it was a long time before he lost it all. Before King
Wen there was not a foot of ground that did not belong to Tyrant Zhou.
There was not a single group of people that was not subject to [Link]
King Wen arose from a territory of just a hundred leagues [Link]
was very difficult. [Wangzi Bigan kept pleading with Tyrant Zhou to
govern virtuously. Finally, Tyrant Zhou remarked that sages supposedly
have bigger hearts than others, and that he wanted to see if Bigan had a
heart to match his words. So he ordered his guards to rip the heart out
of Bigan’s chest (cf. 6A6.3).]
1.9 “The people of Qi have a saying:‘Being clever isn’t as good as tak-
ing an opportunity. Even if you have a hoe, that isn’t as important as
awaiting the right season.’ In the present time it is easy to become King.
1.10 At the apex of the Xia, Shang, and Zhou, their territory did not ex-
ceed a thousand leagues. But Qi now has that size territory. And you
can hear roosters crow and dogs bark from one side of the state to the

1 On “Virtue,” see the commentary on 1A7.3.

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 Book 2A2.2 35

other. Qi has that many people. Without needing to open any more
land, and without needing to gather any more people, if he puts into
effect benevolent government, nothing will be able to stop Qi’s ruler
from becoming King.
“Moreover, never has the time without a King arising been longer 1.11
than this time. Never has the people’s suffering under ferocious gov-
ernment been greater than it is in this [Link] hungry can easily be
fed; the thirsty can easily be quenched. [Zhu Xi comments, “‘Easily
be fed’ and ‘easily be quenched’ means that their hunger and thirst are
so extreme that they are not waiting for anything delicious.”] Kongzi 1.12
said, ‘Virtue spreads faster than couriers carrying commands.’ At the 1.13
current time, if a state of ten thousand chariots puts benevolent gov-
ernment into effect, the people would be as happy as if they had been
saved from hanging upside down. Hence, only in a time like this can
one exert half the effort of the ancients and be assured twice the
achievement.”

Mengzi’s disciple Gongsun Chou asked, “Suppose that you, Master, 2.1
were to be appointed Prime Minister in Qi and were able to put the
Way into practice there. It would not be surprising even if the ruler of
Qi were to become Hegemon or [Link] having such a great re-
sponsibility perturb your heart or not?”
Mengzi replied,“It would not. My heart has been unperturbed since
I was forty.” [Zhu Xi comments, “This is the age when a gentleman is
clear about the Way and his Virtue is well established. When Kongzi
said, ‘at forty, I became free of doubts’ (2.4), he too was referring to hav-
ing an unperturbed heart.”]
Gongsun Chou continued, “In that case, you, Master, have far sur- 2.2
passed Meng Ben.”
Mengzi replied,“This is not difficult. Even Gaozi, though he did not
understand the Way, had an unperturbed heart before I.” [Meng Ben
was a warrior, who “when traveling by water, did not avoid serpents, and
when traveling by land, did not avoid rhinoceroses or tigers.” 2 Gaozi is
a rival Master who is discussed in this passage and in 6A1–6. Gongsun
Chou is praising Mengzi’s courage by comparing it to that of Meng Ben.
But, as Mengzi goes on to explain, the courage of Meng Ben or Gaozi
is a shallow kind that is easily obtained.]

2 Jiao Xun, Mengzi zhengyi, commentary on 2A2.

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 36 Mengzi

2.3 Gongsun Chou then asked,“Is there a Way of having an unperturbed

heart?”
Mengzi replied,“There is. [Chengzi explains, “If the heart is domi-
nated by something, then it can be unperturbed.” In each of the follow-
2.4 ing cases, a person’s heart is dominated by something different.] As for
Bogong You’s cultivation of courage, his body would not shrink, his eyes
would not blink. He regarded the least slight from someone like being
beaten in the marketplace. Insults he would not accept from a man in
baggy rags he also would not accept from a ruler who could field ten
thousand [Link] looked upon running a sword through a ruler who
could field ten thousand chariots like running through a man in rags. He
was not in awe of the various lords. If an insult came his way he had to
return it. [Zhu Xi explains, “Bogong You is an assassin. The necessity of
winning is what dominates him, so he has an unperturbed heart.”]
2.5 “As for Meng Shishe’s cultivation of courage, he said, ‘I look upon
defeat the same as [Link] advance only after sizing up one’s enemy,
to ponder whether one will achieve victory and only then join battle,
this is to be in awe of the opposing armies. How can I be certain of
victory? I can only be without fear.’ [Zhu Xi explains, “Meng Shishe
is an aggressive soldier. Lacking fear is what dominates him, so he has
an unperturbed heart.”
Notice that the account of Bogong You is largely a third-person de-
scription of his actions, while with Meng Shishe we have a first-person
account of how he feels and thinks.]
2.6 “Meng Shishe resembled Kongzi’s disciple Zengzi. Bogong You re-
sembled Kongzi’s disciple Zixia. Now, I do not really know whose
courage was preferable. Nonetheless, Meng Shishe preserved some-
thing crucial. [Zixia had a reputation for being intelligent and learned,
but cold and perhaps lacking in personal commitment to the Way
(Analects 3.8 and 6.13). Zhu Xi comments, “Bogong You concentrated
on his enemy. Meng Shishe focused on maintaining himself. Zixia had
firm faith in Kongzi. Zengzi ‘sought for it in himself’ (2A7, 4A4; Analects
15.21). Hence, although Bogong You and Meng Shishe are not on a level
with Zengzi and Zixia, nonetheless, in terms of the manifestation of their
qi, each resembles one of them in a certain respect. Between the former
two, Mengzi does not know whose courage is preferable. But in terms
of what they preserve, Meng Shishe gets what is more crucial than does
Bogong You.” (On qi, see the commentary on 2A2.8.)]
2.7 “Formerly, Zengzi said to his disciple Zixiang, ‘Are you fond of
courage? I once heard about great courage from Kongzi:

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 Book 2A2.9a 37

If I examine myself and am not upright, even if opposed by a

man in baggy rags, I would not try to intimidate him. If I ex-
amine myself and am upright, even if it is thousands or tens of
thousands of people who oppose me, I shall go forward.’

[Zengzi’s comment is consistent with Kongzi’s statement that “To see

what is right, but to fail to do it, is to be lacking in courage” (Analects
2.24).] Meng Shishe’s preserving his qi was not as good as Zengzi’s 2.8
preserving what is crucial.” [As A. C. Graham explains, in Mengzi’s
era, qi “is like such words in other cultures as Greek pneuma ‘wind, air,
breath.’ It is the energetic fluid which vitalises the body, in particular as
the breath, and which circulates outside us as the air.” Later, this con-
cept is “adapted to cosmology as the universal fluid . . . out of which all
things condense and into which they dissolve.” 3 (This late sense is how
thinkers like Zhu Xi understood it.) Qi is thus the physical medium
through which one’s emotions and personal character are manifested. So
to “preserve one’s qi” is to control one’s emotions. Meng Shishe was sim-
ilar to Zengzi in that both focused on something inside themselves, as op-
posed to Bogong You and Zixia, who focused on something external to
themselves. However, as Zhu Xi explains, “what Meng Shishe preserved
was just the qi of one’s self. This is not as good as Zengzi’s examining him-
self and following the Pattern (of the Way). He preserved what is espe-
cially important. Mengzi’s unperturbed heart has its source in this.” 4]
Gongsun Chou next asked, “May I hear about your unperturbed 2.9a
heart, Master, and Gaozi’s unperturbed heart?”
Mengzi replied, “Gaozi said, ‘What you do not get from doctrines,
do not seek for in your [Link] you do not get from your heart,
do not seek for in the qi.’ ‘What you do not get from your heart, do
not seek for in the qi,’ is acceptable. ‘What you do not get from doc-
trines, do not seek for in your heart,’ is unacceptable. [Zhu Xi explains
this difficult passage as follows: “Gaozi said that if there is something
that one does not understand in doctrines, then one should set the doc-
trine aside and need not examine and search for the Pattern in one’s
heart. If one is not at peace in one’s heart, then one should regulate one’s

3 Graham, Disputers of the Tao, 101.

4 For more on qi, see the Introduction. For a discussion of 2A2.1–8, see Van Norden,
“Mencius on Courage,” in The Philosophy of Religion, ed. Peter A. French et al., in Mid-
west Studies in Philosophy, vol. 21 (Notre Dame, IN: University of Notre Dame Press,
1997), 237–56. For more on courage, see 1B3.

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 38 Mengzi

heart with force and need not further seek for help from the qi. This is
the way in which he firmly maintained his heart and quickly became
unperturbed. Having recited Gaozi’s doctrines, Mengzi passes judgment
on them: When Gaozi says that what you do not get from your heart you
should not seek for in the qi, this is being concerned about the root and
relaxed about the branches—that is acceptable. When he says that what
you do not get from doctrines you should not seek from the heart, then
he is already lost due to external things, and so has left behind what is
internal. This is necessarily unacceptable.”
David S. Nivison offered an alternative interpretation, based on a par-
allel between this passage and Zhuangzi’s fictional dialogue between
“Kongzi” and “Yan Hui”: Gaozi recommends that we completely com-
mit ourselves to following correct ethical doctrines, forcing our heart
and our qi to follow what they dictate. In contrast, Mengzi recommends
that we not only follow ethical doctrines but seek further to find the ba-
sis for these doctrines in the reactions of our heart (2A6, 6A10), which
will then guide our qi. Finally, Zhuangzi recommends that we ultimately
eschew doctrines, empty our hearts, and follow the promptings of the
qi, which unites us with other things.5]
2.9b “Your will is the commander of the qi. Qi fills the [Link] your
will is fixed somewhere, the qi sets up camp there. Hence, it is said,
‘Maintain your will. Do not injure the qi.’” [The “will” is simply the
heart when it is focused on some goal.]
2.10 Gongsun Chou continued,“Since you have already said,‘When your
will is fixed somewhere, the qi sets up camp there,’ why do you add,
‘Maintain your will. Do not injure the qi’?”
Mengzi replied, “When your will is unified, it moves the qi. When
the qi is unified, it moves your will. Now, running and stumbling have
to do with the qi, but nonetheless they perturb one’s heart.” [Zhu Xi
comments, “Mengzi explains that if the direction of the will is unified,
the qi will definitely follow it. Nonetheless, if that which the qi rests in
is unified, then the will, on the contrary, will be moved by it. For exam-
ple, if someone is running and stumbling, the qi is focused on this and
it will, on the contrary, move the will. This is why one must both main-
tain one’s will but also not injure the qi.”]
2.11 Gongsun Chou next asked,“May I ask wherein you excel, Master?”
Mengzi replied,“I understand doctrines. I am good at cultivating my

5 See David S. Nivison, “Philosophical Voluntarism in Fourth Century China,” in The

Ways of Confucianism, 121–32, and Zhuangzi 4, “The Human Realm,” in Readings, 228.

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 Book 2A2.15 39

floodlike qi.” [Zhu Xi suggests that Gongsun Chou is asking specifi-

cally about how Mengzi’s unperturbed heart is better than Gaozi’s un-
perturbed heart. He then comments, “By ‘understanding doctrines’ one
has the wherewithal to understand the Way and righteousness and to not
be in doubt about any situation in the world. By ‘cultivating the qi,’ one
has the wherewithal to harmonize with the Way and righteousness and
to not be in fear about any situation in the world. This is the manner in
which he can assume a great responsibility yet have an unperturbed
heart. Gaozi’s learning is the exact opposite of this. His unperturbed heart
is nothing more than being ignorantly unaware and stubbornly unmind-
ful.” (See 2A2.17 for more on “understanding doctrines.”)]
Gongsun Chou continued, “May I ask what is meant by ‘floodlike 2.12
qi’?”
Mengzi replied,“It is difficult to explain. [Zhu Xi uses language sug-
gestive of mystical insight to explain this statement: “Mengzi’s heart has
attained it by itself, and it has no form or sound to give evidence for it. It
has a form that is not easy to put into words. Hence, Cheng Yi said, ‘If
one considers this one statement, we can tell that Mengzi genuinely has
this qi.’”] It is a qi that is supremely great and supremely unyielding. 2.13
If one cultivates it with uprightness and does not harm it, it will fill up
the space between Heaven and Earth. [Cheng Yi explains, “Heaven
and humans are one. There is no division. The floodlike qi is just my qi.
If it is nurtured and not harmed, then ‘it will fill up the space between
Heaven and Earth.’ But as soon as there is the obscuration of the tiniest
selfish thought, one is discontented and ‘starved.’”] It is a qi that har- 2.14
monizes with righteousness and the Way. Without these, it starves.
[Zhu Xi explains, “This verse means that if people can nurture this qi to
completion, then their qi will harmonize with the Way and righteous-
ness and assist them, so that, in one’s actions, one will have a courage
and resoluteness that lacks any doubts or fears. Without this qi, then
even if one’s actions do not necessarily diverge from the Way and righ-
teousness, nonetheless one’s body will not be filled with qi, so that one
cannot avoid doubts and fears, and one will be unable to be effective.”]
It is produced by accumulated righteousness. It cannot be obtained by 2.15
a seizure of righteousness. If some of one’s actions leave one’s heart un-
satisfied, it will starve. Consequently, I say that Gaozi never understood
righteousness, because he regarded it as external. [Zhu Xi explains,
“This means that, although qi can harmonize with the Way and righ-
teousness, the beginning of nurturing it is to have every action
accord with righteousness. If one examines oneself and is constantly

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 40 Mengzi

upright, one will be ashamed of nothing, and this qi will naturally be

produced from within. One cannot do only a single action that acci-
dentally accords with righteousness and then get it by a ‘seizure’ of what
is external. ‘If some of one’s actions leave one’s heart unsatisfied, it will
starve’ means that as soon as what one does is not in accord with righ-
teousness and one examines oneself and is not upright, then there will
be an inadequacy in one’s heart, and one’s body will not be filled. This
being the case, how could righteousness be external? Gaozi did not
understand the Pattern of this, so he said, ‘Benevolence is internal,’
‘righteousness is external’ (6A4–5), and because he did not regard be-
coming righteous as a task, he was necessarily unable to accumulate
righteousness in order to produce the floodlike qi. The earlier verse,
‘What you do not get from doctrines, do not seek for in your heart’
(2A2.9a), is precisely the meaning of treating righteousness as external.”]
2.16a “One must work at it, but do not assume success. One should not
forget the heart, but neither should one ‘help’ it grow. Do not be like
the man from Song. Among the people of the state of Song there was
a farmer who, concerned lest his sprouts not grow, pulled on them.
Obliviously, he returned home and said to his family,‘Today I am worn
out. I helped the sprouts to grow.’ His son rushed out and looked at
them. The sprouts were withered. [The people of the state of Song
were the butt of many jokes because of their supposed stupidity. We
might say that the farmer from Song is someone who “act[ed] out benev-
olence and righteousness,” rather than “acting out of benevolence and
righteousness” (4B19.2). Zhu Xi comments, “Those who nurture their qi
must take accumulating righteousness as their task but not anticipate its
effectiveness. If they happen to fail to be filled (with floodlike qi), they
should simply not forget what they are in service to, and may not do
anything to ‘help’ it grow. This is the process for accumulating righ-
2.16b teousness and nurturing the qi.”] Those in the world who do not
‘help’ the sprouts to grow are [Link] who abandon them, thinking
it will not help, are those who do not weed their [Link] who
‘help’ them grow are those who pull on the sprouts. Not only does this
not help, but it even harms them.” [Zhu Xi comments, “Those who
abandon them and do not weed forget what they are working for. Those
who pull on them and ‘help’ them to grow assume they have it, and
when they do not get it, they act recklessly. If one does not weed, then
one will only fail to nurture it, but if one pulls on it, then one will, on
the contrary, harm it. If one avoids these two things, then one’s qi will
be nurtured and will not be injured. If like Gaozi one is unable to

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 Book 2A2.19 41

accumulate righteousness but desires to force one’s heart to be regu-

lated, then one will be unable to avoid the twin faults of assuming and
assisting. Not only will he not be good at cultivating the ‘floodlike,’ but
he will even harm it.”
Iris Murdoch makes a similar point: “Self-knowledge will lead us to
avoid occasions of temptation rather than to rely on naked strength to
overcome them. We must not arrogate to ourselves actions which be-
long to those whose spiritual vision is higher or other than ours. From
this attempt, only disaster will come.” In short, “One must perform the
lower act which one can manage and sustain: not the higher act that one
bungles.” 6]
Gongsun Chou next asked,“What do you mean by ‘understanding 2.17
doctrines’?”
Mengzi replied,“If someone’s expressions are one-sided, I know that
by which they are obscured. If someone’s expressions are excessive, I
know what they have sunk into. If someone’s expressions are heretical,
I know that by which they are separated from the Way. If someone’s ex-
pressions are evasive, I know that by which they are overwhelmed.
When these faults grow in the heart, they are harmful in governing.
When they are manifested in governing, they are harmful in one’s ac-
[Link] sages arise again,they will surely follow what I have said.”
[Zhu Xi comments, “Gaozi did not understand doctrines, yet he was
unwilling to seek for it in his heart. He reached the point of the theory
that ‘righteousness is external,’ and then he naturally could not evade
those four disabilities. How could he understand the doctrines of the
world and have no doubts about them?!”]
Gongsun Chou continued, “Among Kongzi’s disciples, Zai Wo and 2.18
Zigong were good at rhetoric,while Ran Niu,Minzi,andYanYuan were
good at discussing virtuous actions.7 Kongzi combined all these, but he
said,‘When it comes to rhetoric, I am incapable.’ In that case, are you,
Master, already a sage?” [Cheng Hao takes Kongzi’s comment to be a
strategic lie: “Kongzi said of himself that he was incapable in regard to
rhetoric simply because he desired to make learners focus on the root.”]
Mengzi replied,“Oh, how could you ask me this? 2.19
“Formerly, Kongzi’s disciple Zigong asked him,‘Are you, Master, re-
ally a sage?’ Kongzi replied, ‘One cannot consider me a sage. I simply

6 Iris Murdoch, The Bell (204, 201), as quoted in David S. Nivison, “Motivation and
Moral Action in Mencius,” The Ways of Confucianism, 110.
7 Cf. Analects 11.3.

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 42 Mengzi

learn without tiring and instruct without wearying.’8 Zigong said,‘To

learn without tiring is wisdom; to instruct without wearying is benev-
olence. Being benevolent and wise, the Master is certainly already a
sage!’ So, even Kongzi was not comfortable with being regarded as a
sage. How could you ask me this?”
2.20 Gongsun Chou continued,“Formerly,I heard the following:Kongzi’s
disciples Zixia, Ziyou, and Zizhang all had one part of the substance of
a sage, while Ran Niu, Minzi, and Yan Yuan had the complete substance
of a sage but in miniature. I venture to ask in which group you would
be comfortable?”
2.21 Mengzi replied, “Let’s talk about something else.” [Mengzi does
not want to include himself in such a distinguished group.]
2.22 Gongsun Chou then asked,“What about Bo Yi and Yi Yin?”
Mengzi said, “They had different Ways. If he was not his ruler, he
would not serve him; if they were not his subjects, he would not direct
them; if things were orderly, he would take office; if they were chaotic,
he would leave [Link] was Bo Yi.
“‘Whom do I serve who is not my ruler? Whom do I direct who are
not my subjects?’If things were orderly,he would take office,and if they
were chaotic, he would also take [Link] was Yi Yin.
“When one should take office, he would take office; when one
should stop,he would stop;when one should take a long time,he would
take a long time; when one should hurry, he would hurry. This was
Kongzi. All were sages of ancient times. I have never been able to act
like them, but my wish is to learn from Kongzi.” [Mengzi frequently
cites Bo Yi and Yi Yin as examples of individuals who attain one aspect
of sagehood but fall short of the complete sageliness of Kongzi. For
sketches of their lives and actions, see 5B1.]
2.23 Gongsun Chou continued,“Were Bo Yi and Yi Yin at the same level
as Kongzi?”
Mengzi replied,“No. Since humans were first born there has never
been another Kongzi.”
2.24 Gongsun Chou continued,“In that case,were there any similarities?”
Mengzi replied, “There were. If any became ruler of a territory of
a hundred leagues, he would be able to possess the world by bringing
the various lords to his court. And if any could obtain the world by

8 Cf. Analects 7.34. The comment by Zigong that follows in the Mengzi is not in the
Analects passage. Instead, Gong Xihua comments, “This is precisely what we disciples are
unable to learn.”

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 Book 2A3.2 43

performing one unrighteous deed, or killing one innocent person, he

would not do it. In these things they are the same.” [Mengzi (and Zhu
Xi) place great emphasis on using “discretion” (4A17) to flexibly respond
to complex circumstances. However, this verse makes clear that there
are some absolute prohibitions that one may not violate.]
Gongsun Chou continued,“I venture to ask wherein they differed?” 2.25
Mengzi replied, “Consider what was said by Kongzi’s disciples Zai
Wo, Zigong, and You [Link] had wisdom sufficient to appreciate
the Way of Kongzi, and would not stoop to showing favoritism to
someone simply because they were fond of him. Zai Wo said, ‘In my 2.26
view, Kongzi is far more worthy than Yao and Shun!’ [Cheng Yi said,
“Yao and Shun ruled the world, but the Master extended their Way, hold-
ing it up to instruct ten thousand generations. How could later genera-
tions have based themselves on the Way of Yao and Shun without
Kongzi?”] Zigong said, ‘If you see their rituals, you understand their 2.27
government; if you hear their music, you understand their Virtue; from
a hundred generations later, through the succession of a hundred kings,
nothing can get away: from this perspective, I can see that, since hu-
mans were first born, there has never been another like Kongzi.’ You 2.28
Ruo said,‘There is something that is the case not only with people: the
unicorn among beasts, the phoenix among birds, Mount Tai among
mounds and anthills, and the Yellow River and the seas among flowing
waters are all of the same [Link] sage is also of the same kind as other
people. But some stand out from their kind; some stand out from the
pack: since humans were first born, there has never been one who has
reached a greater summit than Kongzi.’” [Cheng Yi and Cheng Hao
said, “In this chapter, Mengzi develops what has not been expressed be-
fore by previous sages. Learners should immerse their hearts and delve
into it.”]

Mengzi said, “One who uses power to feign benevolence is a Hege- 3.1
mon.A Hegemon must have a large state. One who uses Virtue to put
benevolence into effect is a King.A King does not depend on [Link]
had a territory of seventy leagues square. King Wen had a hundred
leagues square. If one makes others submit with power, their hearts 3.2
do not submit. Power is inadequate to make their hearts submit. If
one makes others submit with Virtue, they are pleased in their hearts
and genuinely submit, like the seventy disciples who served Kongzi.
The Odes say,

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 44 Mengzi

From west, from east

From south, from north
None do not long to submit.9

This expresses it.”

4.1 Mengzi said, “If one is benevolent, one will have glory. If one is not
benevolent, one will have disgrace. Now, to dislike disgrace yet to dwell
in what is not benevolent, this is like disliking wetness and dwelling in
4.2 the damp. If one dislikes it, there is nothing better than esteeming the
Virtuous and respecting the noble. If the worthy are in office and the
capable have authority, the state is at [Link] at this moment, they
should make clear to the people the government rules and punishments.
Then even the large states will have to be in awe. [Zhu Xi comments,
“The ‘worthy’ are those with Virtue. If one puts them in office, that is suf-
ficient to correct the ruler and make the customs of the people good. The
‘capable’ are those with talent. If one gives them authority, that is suffi-
4.3 cient to improve government and put affairs in order.”] The Odes say,

When it has not yet rained

I use mulberry bark
To weave the door of my nest.
Now who of the people below
Dares to reproach me?10

Kongzi said,‘The one who made this ode understood the Way! If one
is capable of ruling one’s state,who would dare to reproach him?’ [Zhu
Xi claims that the author of this ode was the Duke of Zhou, who “thought
that a bird’s building a nest is like this, and compared it to a ruler’s mak-
ing a state. One should similarly reflect upon calamities and prepare for
them” in times when one is “at ease” (as described in 4.2).]
4.4 “But nowadays when a state is at ease, it is overly joyful and arro-
4.5 [Link] is to seek disaster for oneself. Disaster and good fortune are
4.6 always things that one seeks outside oneself. The Odes say,

As long as one’s doctrines accord with the Mandate

One is seeking much good fortune for oneself.11

9 Mao no. 244. This ode describes the reign of King Wen.
10 Mao no. 155.
11 Mao no. 235.

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 Book 2A6.1 45

The ‘Tai Jia’ chapter from the Documents says, ‘Disasters heaven-sent
can still be escaped; disasters self-made one cannot survive.’12 This ex-
presses it.” [In the ode, “Mandate” refers to the Way decreed by
Heaven (cf. 5A5).]

Mengzi said,“If one respects the worthy, employs the capable, and puts 5.1
the outstanding in office, then the nobles of the world will be pleased
and will wish to take their place in your court. If one taxes the shops 5.2
in one’s markets, but not their goods, or regulates them but does not
tax either the shops or their goods, then the merchants of the world
will all be pleased and will wish to store goods in one’s markets. If one’s 5.3
customs officers inspect but do not tax, then the travelers of the world
will be pleased and will wish to go out on your roads. If those who 5.4
plow must provide assistance but are not taxed, then the farmers of the
world will be pleased and will wish to plow your fields.13 If shophold- 5.5
ers need not pay the personal or village surtax, then the people of the
world will be pleased and willing to be one’s subjects. If one is truly ca- 5.6
pable of putting into effect these five things, then the people of neigh-
boring states will welcome you like a father or [Link] lead sons and
younger brothers to attack a father and mother is something that has
never succeeded since the birth of humans. If it is like this, one will have
no enemies in the world. One who has no enemies in the world is the
agent of Heaven. It has never happened that someone is like this yet fails
to become King.” [This passage illustrates that Mengzi was not a purely
theoretical philosopher. He was a “public intellectual,” concerned with
the concrete details of government reform and public policy.
Zhu Xi comments, “This chapter means that if one is capable of put-
ting into effect Kingly government, then bandits and barbarians will be-
come like one’s father and sons. If one does not put into effect Kingly
government, then even children will be one’s enemies.”]

Mengzi said, “All humans have hearts that are not unfeeling toward 6.1
others. [There are various causal accounts of why humans have this
“heart.” For Mengzi, this heart is implanted in us by Heaven, a sort of
semi-personal higher power (7A1). For Zhu Xi, benevolence is not only
a personal virtue, it is a basic cosmological principle underlying even
the natural world: “The heart of Heaven and Earth is giving birth to

12
“Tai Jia,” Part 2, from the Documents of Shang in the Documents (Legge, The Shoo
King, vol. 3 of The Chinese Classics, 207).
13 On providing “assistance,” see the commentary on 1B5.3.

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 46 Mengzi

things. These things each get this as their heart. This is why humans all
6.2 have hearts that are not unfeeling toward others.”] The Former Kings
had hearts that were not unfeeling toward others, so they had govern-
ments that were not unfeeling toward others. If one puts into practice
a government that is not unfeeling toward others by means of a heart
that is not unfeeling toward others, bringing order to the whole world
is in the palm of your hand. [This chapter illustrates how Mengzi’s
philosophical psychology relates to his political philosophy.]
6.3 “The reason why I say that all humans have hearts that are not un-
feeling toward others is this. Suppose someone suddenly saw a child
about to fall into a well: anyone in such a situation would have a feel-
ing of alarm and compassion—not because one sought to get in good
with the child’s parents, not because one wanted fame among one’s
neighbors and friends, and not because one would dislike the sound of
the child’s cries.14 [Note that Mengzi does not say that every human
would necessarily act to save the child. All he claims is that any human
would have at least a momentary feeling (literally, “heart”) of genuine
compassion, and that the reaction would occur “suddenly” (which
shows that it is not the result of calculations of self-interest). This pas-
sage is, in part, a response to the “ethical egoist” Yang Zhu, who seems
to have claimed that only self-interested motivations are part of human
nature. (See 3B9.9 and the Introduction for more on this philosopher.)15]
6.4 “From this we can see that if one is without the feeling of compas-
sion, one is not human. If one is without the feeling of disdain, one is
not human. If one is without the feeling of deference, one is not hu-
man. If one is without the feeling of approval and disapproval, one is
not human. [On these feelings (literally, “hearts”) see also 6A6. With
the story of Ox Mountain (6A8), Mengzi explains how someone could
6.5 lose these hearts and become “not human.”] The feeling of compas-
sion is the sprout of [Link] feeling of disdain is the sprout
of [Link] feeling of deference is the sprout of [Link]

14 Zhu Xi understands the last clause as meaning, “. . . and not because one would dis-

like having a bad reputation.”

15
For a dialogue that may represent something like Yang Zhu’s position, see Readings,
369–75. See also Van Norden, Virtue Ethics and Consequentialism in Early Chinese Phi-
losophy, 200–11.
16 Zhuangzi is criticizing this passage when he argues that “the sprouts of benevolence

and righteousness and the pathways of right and wrong are all snarled and jumbled”
(Zhuangzi 2; in Readings, 222).

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 Book 2A7.3 47

feeling of approval and disapproval is the sprout of wisdom.16 [Zhu Xi

believes that righteousness, propriety, and wisdom are manifestations of
benevolence, and that this is why Mengzi goes on to discuss each of
them here, after giving an illustration of only benevolence. Zhu Xi thus
interprets Mengzi as holding the doctrine of “the unity of the virtues”
(see commentary on 2A7.2). He also suggests, “Compassion, disdain,
deference, and approval and disapproval are emotions. Benevolence,
righteousness, propriety, and wisdom are human nature. The heart is
what links the nature and emotions.” (See “Zhu Xi’s Reinterpretation,”
in the Introduction, for more on how he understands this verse.)]
“People having these four sprouts is like their having four [Link] 6.6
have these four sprouts, yet to claim that one is incapable (of virtue), is
to steal from [Link] say that one’s ruler is incapable is to steal from
one’s ruler. [A “normal,” healthy human has four limbs. Similarly, a
normal human has the four “sprouts.” But, as the comparison to limbs
suggests, it is possible to lose the sprouts (6A8).] In general, having 6.7
these four sprouts within oneself, if one knows to fill them all out, it will
be like a fire starting up, a spring breaking through! If one can merely
fill them out, they will be sufficient to care for all within the Four Seas.
If one merely fails to fill them out, they will be insufficient to serve one’s
parents.” [Mengzi thinks the capacity for virtue is innate in humans,
but it must be cultivated (“filled out”) in order for us to become fully vir-
tuous. He discusses this process of filling out (which he also calls “ex-
tending”) in many passages, including 1A7.12, 7A15, 7A17, and 7B31.]

Mengzi said,“Is the arrow-maker less benevolent than the armor-maker? 7.1
Yet the arrow-maker only fears that he may not harm people; the
armor-maker only fears that he may harm [Link] shaman-healer
and the coffin-maker are the same way, respectively. Hence, one may
not fail to be careful about one’s choice of craft. [The arrow-maker
and the coffin-maker are born with the same heart of benevolence as
the armor-maker and the shaman-healer. But their choices of career and
way of life determine whether they want humans to live or die.]
“Kongzi said,‘To dwell in benevolence is beautiful; if one chooses to 7.2
not dwell in benevolence, how can one be wise?’ (4.1) Now, benevo-
lence is Heaven’s rank of respect and people’s abode of peace. If one is
not benevolent though nothing prevents it, this is to fail to be wise.
[Zhu Xi explains this in terms of the unity of the virtues: “Benevolence
is the heart of Heaven and Earth in giving birth to things. One gets it first
of all, and it links all four virtues together.” (Cf. 2A6.5.)] One fails to 7.3

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 48 Mengzi

be benevolent and fails to be wise. So one lacks propriety and right-

[Link] is to be the lackey of other [Link] be the lackey of
other people yet to be ashamed of being a lackey is like being a bow-
maker yet to be ashamed of making bows, or to be an arrow-maker yet
to be ashamed of making arrows. [Zhu Xi explains, “Because one is
not benevolent, one is not wise. Because one is not wise, one does not
understand wherein propriety and righteousness lie.”]
7.4 “If you are ashamed of it,there is nothing as good as becoming benev-
olent. [Zhu Xi comments, “He does not discuss wisdom, propriety, and
righteousness, because benevolence encompasses the entire substance.
If one can become benevolent, then the other three are in its midst.”]
7.5 Benevolence is like archery. An archer corrects himself and only then
shoots. If he shoots but does not hit the mark, he does not resent the
one who defeats him but simply turns and seeks for it in himself.”
[As Kongzi observed, “Does becoming benevolent come from oneself,
or does it come from others?!” (12.1)]

8.1 Mengzi said, “Kongzi’s disciple Zilu was pleased if someone informed
him of his faults. [Zhu Xi explains, “He was pleased that he heard about
them so he could reform them. Such was his courage in self-cultivation.”
Zhou Dunyi commented, “Nowadays, when people have a fault, they
are not pleased to be corrected by others. This is like concealing an ill-
8.2 ness and shunning medicine.” (On Zilu, cf. 5.14)] When King Yu
heard good teachings he bowed down in thanks. [Zhu Xi explains,
“He did not wait to have a fault, but was capable of humbling himself
8.3 to accept what was good in the world.”] The Great Shun was even
greater than they. He was good at unifying himself with others. He put
himself aside and joined with others. He delighted in copying from
8.4 others in order to do good. From plowing, planting, making pottery,
and fishing on up to being Emperor—he never failed to copy from
others. [Zhu Xi explains that “when Shun was undistinguished, he
plowed on Mount Li, he made pottery on the shores of the Yellow River,
and he fished in Thunder Pond.” (Shun was greater than Zilu or King Yu,
because he did not await being told criticisms or hearing good advice.)]
8.5 To copy others when they do good is to do good with others. Hence,
for a gentleman,nothing is greater than to do good with others.” [Zhu
Xi comments, “If I copy what is good in someone else and do it myself,
then it encourages him to do good too. This is my helping him to do
good. What greater good is there for the gentleman than to be capable
of encouraging all the people of the world to do good?”]

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 Book 2A9.3 49

Mengzi said,“If someone was not BoYi’s ruler,he would not serve him. 9.1
If someone was not his friend, he would not treat him as his friend. He
would not take a position at the court of a bad person, nor would he
have a discussion with a bad person. He looked upon taking a position
at the court of a bad person or having a discussion with a bad person
like wearing one’s court cap and gown and sitting down in filth. He
extended his heart of disdain for evil to the point that, if he stood with
an ordinary villager, but his cap was not on correctly, he would leave
without meeting his eyes, as if he thought he was about to be defiled.
For this reason, when the assorted lords came with fine rhetoric, he
would not accept [Link] did not accept them because he was adamant
that going to them was not pure. [Bo Yi’s disdain to do what is wrong
is a manifestation of the heart of righteousness (2A6, 6A6). Consequently,
he is highly commendable. However, he has extended his heart too far.
On “extension,” see 1A7.12. For more on Bo Yi, see 5B1.]
“Liuxia Hui was not ashamed of a corrupt lord, and did not consider 9.2
a petty office unworthy. In taking office, he did not conceal what was
worthy but would necessarily act in accordance with the Way. When
he was discharged, he was not bitter. In difficult and impoverished cir-
cumstances, he was not anxious. Hence, he said,‘You are you, and I am
[Link] if you are stark naked beside me,how can you defile me?’Hence,
contentedly, he was with others without losing himself. If constrained
to remain, he would remain. He remained when constrained to remain
because he was adamant that leaving was not pure.” [Zhu Xi explains
that, “‘Without losing himself’ is without losing his uprightness.” Liuxia
Hui’s willingness to adapt to circumstances shows the “discretion” that
is so central to Confucianism (4A17). However, he ends up compro-
mising too much. For more on Liuxia Hui, see 5B1.]
Mengzi observed, “Bo Yi was too constrained; Liuxia Hui was not 9.3
dignified. A gentleman is neither too constrained nor lacking in dig-
nity.” [Zhu Xi comments, “The actions of Bo Yi and Liuxia Hui defi-
nitely both reached the highest level. Nonetheless, since they have some
biases, they definitely have an obscured view (of the Way). Hence, they
cannot be followed as models.”]

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