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Undergraduate Topics in Computer Science

John Hunt

Advanced Guide
to Python 3
Programming
Second Edition
Undergraduate Topics in Computer Science

Series Editor
Ian Mackie, University of Sussex, Brighton, UK

Advisory Editors
Samson Abramsky , Department of Computer Science, University of Oxford,
Oxford, UK
Chris Hankin , Department of Computing, Imperial College London, London,
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Mike Hinchey , Lero – The Irish Software Research Centre, University of
Limerick, Limerick, Ireland
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NY, USA
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Stony Brook, NY, USA
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UK
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University of Tennessee-Chattanooga, Chattanooga, TN, USA
‘Undergraduate Topics in Computer Science’ (UTiCS) delivers high-quality instruc-
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John Hunt

Advanced Guide to Python 3

Programming
Second Edition
John Hunt
Midmarsh Technology Ltd.
Chippenham, Wiltshire, UK

ISSN 1863-7310 ISSN 2197-1781 (electronic)

Undergraduate Topics in Computer Science
ISBN 978-3-031-40335-4 ISBN 978-3-031-40336-1 (eBook)
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-40336-1

© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2019, 2023

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The publisher, the authors, and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information in this book
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This Springer imprint is published by the registered company Springer Nature Switzerland AG
The registered company address is: Gewerbestrasse 11, 6330 Cham, Switzerland
For Denise, my wife, my soulmate, my best
friend.
Preface to the Second Edition

This second edition represents a significant expansion of the material in the first
edition, as well as an update of that book from Python 3.7 to 3.12.
This book includes whole new sections on advanced language features, Reactive
Programming in Python and data analysts. New chapters on working with Tkinter,
on event handling with Tkinter and a simple drawing application using Tkinter have
been added. A new chapter on performance monitoring and profiling has also been
added. A chapter on pip and conda is included at the end of the book.
In all there are 18 completely new chapters that take you far further on your Python
journey. Enjoy the book and I hope you find it useful.

Chippenham, UK John Hunt

vii
Preface to the First Edition

Some of the key aspects of this book are

1. It assumes knowledge of Python 3 and of concepts such as functions, classes,
protocols, abstract base classes, decorators, iterables and collection types (such
as list and tuple).
2. However, the book assumes very little knowledge or experience of the topics
presented.
3. The book is divided into eleven topic areas: advanced language features,
Computer Graphics, games, testing, file input/output, database access, logging,
concurrency and parallelism, Reactive Programming, network programming and
data analytics.
4. Each topic in the book has an introductory chapter followed by chapters that
delve into that topic.
5. The book includes exercises at the end of most chapters.
6. All code examples (and exercise solutions) are provided on line in a GitHub
repository.

What You Need

You can of course just read this book; however following the examples in this book
will ensure that you get as much as possible out of the content. For this you will need
a computer.
Python is a cross-platform programming language, and as such you can use Python
on a Windows PC, a Linux box, an Apple Mac, etc. So you are not tied to a particular
type of operating system; you can use whatever you have available.
However you will need to install some software on that computer. At a minimum
you will need Python. The focus of this book is Python 3 so that is the version that
is assumed for all examples and exercises. As Python is available for a wide range

ix
x Preface to the First Edition

of platforms from Windows, to Mac OS and Linux, you will need to ensure that you
download the version for your operating system.
Python can be downloaded from the main Python website which can be found at
http://www.python.org/.

You will also need some form of editor to write your programs. There are numerous
generic programming editors available for different operating systems with VIM on
Linux, Notepad++ on Windows and Sublime Text on windows and Macs being
popular choices.
However, using an Integrated Development Environment (IDE) editor such as
PyCharm, Visual Studio Code or Spyder can make writing and running your programs
much easier.
However, this book does not assume any particular editor, IDE or environment
(other than Python 3 itself).

Conventions

Throughout this book you will find a number of conventions used for text styles.
These text styles distinguish between different kinds of information. Code words,
variable and Python values, used within the main body of the text, are shown using
a Courier font. A block of Python code is set out as shown here:
Preface to the First Edition xi

def draw_koch(size, depth):

if depth > 0:
for angle in ANGLES:
draw_koch(size / 3, depth - 1)
turtle.left(angle)
else:
turtle.forward(size)
# Draw three sides of snowflake
for_in range(3):
draw_koch(SIZE_OF_SNOWFLAKE, depth)
turtle.right(120)

Note that keywords and points of interest are shown in bold font.
Any command line or user input is shown in standard font as shown below, for
example:
Hello, world
Enter your name: John
Hello John

Example Code and Sample Solutions

The examples used in this book (along with sample solutions for the exercises at the
end of most chapters) are available in a GitHub repository. GitHub provides a web
interface to Git, as well as a server environment hosting Git.
Git is a version control system typically used to manage source code files (such
as those used to create systems in programming languages such as Python but also
Java, C#, C++ and Scala). Systems such as Git are very useful for collaborative
development as they allow multiple people to work on an implementation and to
merge their work together. They also provide a useful historical view of the code
(which also allows developers to roll back changes if modifications prove to be
unsuitable).
The GitHub repository for this book can be found at:
• https://github.com/johnehunt/advancedpython3_2nd
If you already have Git installed on your computer, then you can clone (obtain a
copy of) the repository locally using:
git clone https://github.com/johnehunt/advancedpyth
on3_2nd.git
If you do not have Git, then you can obtain a zip file of the examples using
https://github.com/johnehunt/advancedpython3_2nd/arc
hive/refs/heads/main.zip
xii Preface to the First Edition

You can of course install Git yourself if you wish. To do this, see https://git-scm.
com/downloads. Versions of the Git client for Mac OS, Windows and Linux/Unix
are available here.
However, many IDEs such as PyCharm come with Git support and so offer another
approach to obtaining a Git repository.
For more information on Git see http://git-scm.com/doc. This Git guide
provides a very good primer and is highly recommended.

Acknowledgement I would like to thank Phoebe Hunt for creating the pixel images used for the
Starship Meteors game in Chap. 22.
Contents

1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.2 Useful Python Resources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3

Part I Advanced Language Features

2 Python Type Hints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
2.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
2.2 Pythons Type System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
2.3 The Challenge for Python Developers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
2.4 Static Typing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
2.5 Python Type Hints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
2.6 Type Hint Layout . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
2.7 Type Hints for Multiple Types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
2.8 The Self Type . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
2.9 The Benefits of Type Hints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
2.10 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
2.11 Online Resources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
3 Class Slots . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
3.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
3.2 The Problem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
3.3 Slots to the Rescue . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
3.4 Performance Benefits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
3.5 Why Not Use Slots? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
3.6 Online Resource . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
4 Weak References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
4.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
4.2 How Garbage Collection Works: Reference Counting . . . . . . . . 23
4.3 Weak References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
4.4 When to Use Weak References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25

xiii
xiv Contents

4.5 The Weakref Module . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26

4.6 Creating Weak References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
4.7 Retrieving Objects from Weak References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
4.8 The WeakValueDicitonary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
4.9 WeakKeyDictionary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
4.10 Proxy Objects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
4.11 Online Resources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
5 Data Classes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
5.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
5.2 A Traditional Class . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
5.3 Defining Data Classes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
5.4 Defining Additional Behaviour . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
5.5 The Dataclass Decorator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
5.6 Custom Factory for Fields . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
5.7 Immutable Dataclasses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
5.8 Data Classes and Inheritance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
5.9 Post Initialisation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
5.10 Initialisation Variables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
5.11 Positional Attributes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
5.12 Exercise . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
6 Structural Pattern Matching . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
6.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
6.2 The Match Statement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
6.3 Matching Classes with Positional Attributes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
6.4 Matching Against Standard Classes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
6.5 Online Resource . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
7 Working with pprint . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
7.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
7.2 The pprint Data Printer Module . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
7.3 Basic pprint Usage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
7.4 Changing the Width . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
7.5 Changing the Depth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
7.6 Managing the Indentation Level . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
7.7 Reducing Line Breaks Using Compact . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
7.8 The pformat Function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
7.9 The saferepr() Function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
7.10 Using the PrettyPrinter Class . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
7.11 Online Resource . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
8 Shallow v Deep Copy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
8.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
8.2 Copying a List of Lists . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
8.3 The Problem with Copying . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
Contents xv

8.4 The Copy Module to the Rescue . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68

8.5 Using the deepcopy() Function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
8.6 Online Resource . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
9 The __init__ Versus __new__ and __call . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
9.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
9.2 The __new__ and __init__ Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
9.3 The __new__ Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
9.4 When to Use the __new__ Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
9.5 Using __new__ to Create a Singleton Object . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
9.6 The __init__ Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
9.7 Can __new__ and __init__ Be Used Together? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
9.8 The __call__ Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
9.9 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
10 Python Metaclasses and Meta Programming . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
10.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
10.2 Metaprogramming . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
10.3 Decorators as a Form of Metaprogramming . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
10.4 Metaclasses for Metaprogramming . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
10.4.1 Singleton Metaclass . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
10.5 Exec and Eval for Metaprogramming . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
10.5.1 The exec() Function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
10.5.2 The eval() Function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
10.5.3 eval Versus exec() . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86

Part II Computer Graphics and GUIs

11 Introduction to Computer Graphics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
11.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
11.2 Background . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
11.3 The Graphical Computer Era . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
11.4 Interactive and Non Interactive Graphics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
11.5 Pixels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94
11.6 Bit Map Versus Vector Graphics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
11.7 Buffering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
11.8 Python and Computer Graphics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
11.9 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
11.10 Online Resources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
12 Python Turtle Graphics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
12.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
12.2 The Turtle Graphics Library . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
12.2.1 The Turtle Module . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
12.2.2 Basic Turtle Graphics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100
12.2.3 Drawing Shapes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
12.2.4 Filling Shapes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
xvi Contents

12.3 Other Graphics Libraries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105

12.4 3D Graphics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
12.4.1 PyOpenGL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
12.5 Online Resources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
12.6 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
13 Computer Generated Art . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
13.1 Creating Computer Art . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
13.2 A Computer Art Generator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
13.3 Fractals in Python . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114
13.4 The Koch Snowflake . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114
13.5 Mandelbrot Set . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116
13.6 Online Resources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
13.7 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
14 Introduction to Matplotlib . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121
14.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121
14.2 Matplotlib . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122
14.3 Plot Components . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
14.4 Matplotlib Architecture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125
14.4.1 Backend Layer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125
14.4.2 The Artist Layer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126
14.4.3 The Scripting Layer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127
14.5 Online Resources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128
15 Graphing with Matplotlib Pyplot . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129
15.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129
15.2 The pyplot API . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129
15.3 Line Graphs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130
15.3.1 Coded Format Strings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132
15.4 Scatter Graph . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
15.4.1 When to Use Scatter Graphs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134
15.5 Pie Charts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136
15.5.1 Expanding Segments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137
15.5.2 When to Use Pie Charts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138
15.6 Bar Charts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139
15.6.1 Horizontal Bar Charts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140
15.6.2 Coloured Bars . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141
15.6.3 Stacked Bar Charts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141
15.6.4 Grouped Bar Charts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
15.7 Figures and Subplots . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144
15.8 3D Graphs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146
15.9 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148
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