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(A Complete Book on General Studies)

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Objective

~ Contents ~

1 History 2

2 Polity 140

3 Geography 276

4 Economy 396
 Objective + Subjective General Studies

Objective

PART - 1
History
 Objective + Subjective General Studies
3
History

History 01
The history of India includes the prehistoric settlements
and societies in the Indian subcontinent; the FEATURE • Rough • Stone • Small
advancement of civilisation from the Indus Valley S OF tools stone tools
Civilisation to the eventual blending of the Indo-Aryan TOOLS were which were
culture, to form the Vedic Civilisation. The rise of sharp and finely flaked
Hinduism, Jainism and Buddhism, the onset of pointed. and were
succession of powerful dynasties and empires for more known as
than three millennia throughout various geographical blades and
areas of the Indian subcontinent, including the growth burins.
of Muslim dominions during the Medieval period
intertwined with Hindu powers, the advent of European
traders and privateers, resulting in the establishment of
British rule in India and the subsequent independence
movement that led to Partition of India and the creation • Crude • Stone • They had
of the Republic of India. tools tools smooth
made by attached surface and
THE PRE HISTORIC PERIOD flaking to thick cutting
The pre-historic period in the history of mankind can sides of a branches edges.
be roughly dated from 20000 BC to 2500 BC, when the stone with and tied
first civilisations began to take shape. a heavier with rope
The age when the pre-historic man began to use stones stone. made of
for utilitarian purpose is termed as the Stone Age. The animal
Stone Age is divided into the following broad divisions skin.
based on the specialization of stone tools made at that HIGH- • Human • Bhim • This age
time. LIGHTS s had betka saw
come to caves domesticatio
CHALCOLITHIC PHASE (1800 BC-1000 BC) make and near n of cattle
Also known as the eneolithic period, this period saw the use fire. Bhopal farm
use of copper and bronze to make utilitarian tools famous animals.
Chalcolithic cultures extended from chotanagpur for cave Which were
plateau to upper Gangetic basin. paintings used for
belong to dairy and
Period Age this age. meat
Paleolithi Mesolithi Neolithic products.
c (Old c (Middle (New Stone • Important
Stone Stone Age) invention
Age) Age) was making
Unknow 8000 BC- 4000 BC- of wheel.
n - 8000 4000 BC 2500 BC
BC
 Objective + Subjective General Studies
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INDUS VALLEY CIVILISATION (2500 BC-1750 • Tin and precious stones were imported from Iran
BC) and Afghanistan.
• Indus Valley Civilisation was an ancient • Gold imported from Karnataka
Civilisation that thrived along the course of Indus • Copper from Rajasthan and Oman
river in north-western part of Indian subcontinent.
• The civilisation was primarily urban. DECLINE OF THE INDUS VALLEY
• It is also referred to as 'Harappan Civilisation' CIVILISATION
owing to the fact that this Civilisation was first • By 1800 BC, the Indus Valley Civilisation saw the
discovered by excavator Daya Ram Sahni in 1921. beginning of its decline.
• Mohenjo-Daro was discovered by RD Banerji in • Writings started to disappear, standardized weights
1922. and measures used for trade and taxation purposes
fell out of use.
Geographical Extent • Main causes were Aryan invasion, ecological
• The Indus Valley Civilisation covered parts of disturbance, change in Indus river’s course, low
Punjab, Sindh, Baluchistan, Gujarat, Rajasthan and rainfall, drying of Ghaggar river etc.
fringes of western Uttar Pradesh
• It extended from Jammu in the north to mouth of Important Indus Valley Civilisation Sites have
the river Narmada in the south and from the been provided in following table:
Makran Coast of Baluchistan in the west to Meerut City River Curren Starting Lead
in the east. Bank t Day of Excava
Locatio Excavat tor
Town Plan n ion
• Indus Valley Civilisation had a much planned way Harappa Ravi Punjab, 1921 Daya
of constructing their cities following a grid pattern. Pakista Ram
• Main roads were in north-south direction while the n Sahni
alleys were in east-west direction. Mohejo- Indus Sindh, 1922 R. D.
• Underground covered drains were present with daro Pakista Banerji
manholes. n
• Houses were one to two storeys high, made of burnt Chanhu- Indus Sindh, 1930 N. G.
bricks and size of brick was in ratio [Link] . daro Pakista Majumd
n ar
Agriculture and Domestication Lothal Bhoga Gujarat, 1955 S. R.
• Wheat and barley were the main crops. va India Rao
• They also produced rai, peas, sesame and mustard. Kaliban Ghagg Rajasth 1960 Amlana
• Evidence of use of rice has been found only at gan ar an, nd
Lothal. India Ghosh -
• They were the earliest people to produce cotton. Marker,
• Oxen, buffaloes, goats, sheep and pigs were B.B.
domesticated. However, humped bulls were Lal-
favoured. Excavat
• Dogs and cats were regarded as pets. or
• Asses and camels were used as beasts of burden. Banawal Sarasw Haryan 1973 R. S.
i ati a, India Bisht
Religious beliefs
• Chief male deity was Pashupati Shiva. Archaelogical discoveries at various sites
• Chief female deity was Mother Goddess.
Sites Discoveries
Trade and Commerce Harappa Six granaries in a row, Virgin
• Trade and commercial activities were carried out Goddess (seal), cemetry, symbols of
through sea as well as land routes.
 Objective + Subjective General Studies
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Lungiar and Yoni, clay figure of seven rivers encompassing the present East
Mother Goddess, copper scale, mirror Afghanistan, Punjab and Western UP.
Mohenjo- Great bath, granary, Pashupati Shiva • They lived here for many centuries and later shifted
Daro (seal), bronze dancing girl. to the fertile valleys of Ganga and Yamuna.
Chanhu- City without a citadel, inkpot, Rig-Vedic Name Modern Name
Daro terracotta bullock cart. Sindhu Indus
Lothal Dockyard, metal workers, bead Vitasta Jhelum
maker's shops, fire alter, double Askini Chenab
burial, model of ship. Purushni Ravi
Kalibangar Ploughed field surface, Vipasa Beas
Mesopotamian seal, wheals of toy Sutudri Sutlej
cart. Gomal Gomati
Banawali Lack of grid pattern, town planning. Krumu Kurram
Dholavira Water harnessing system, storm water Drishdvati Ghagghar
drainage system, a large well and a Suwastu Swat
bath, stadium.
Political Organisation
EARLY VEDIC AGE : ANCIENT HISTORY • The basic unit of political organization was kula or
• The Vedic Civilisation is named after the Vedas, family and Kulapa was the head of the family.
especially the Rig Veda, which is the earliest • Several families joined together on the basis of
specimen of the Indo-European language and the their kinship to form a village or grama.
chief source of information on the history of this • Villages were headed by Gramini who used to
period. represent village in Sabha and Samiti.
• The Vedic Civilisation flourished along the river • A group of villages constituted a larger unit called
Saraswati, in a region that now consists of the Vish. It was headed by Vishapati.
modern Indian states of Haryana and Punjab. • The highest political unit was called jana or tribe.
• Later, they moved to Indo-Gangetic plains. • The head of the kingdom was called Rajan or king.
• They were mainly cattle-rearing people, and were He was the leader in battle and protector of tribe.
in search of pasture lands. • The Rig Vedic polity was normally monarchical
• By 6th century BC, they occupied the whole of and the succession was hereditary.
North India, which was referred to as Aryavarta. • There were two popular bodies (tribal
• The period between 1500 BC and 600 BC is organizations) called the Sabha and Samiti. The
divided into the Early Vedic Period or Rig Vedic former was a council of elders and the latter, a
Period (1500 BC -1000 BC) and the Later Vedic general assembly of the entire people.
Period (1000 BC – 600 BC). • The Rigveda did not mention any officer for
• The holy book of Iran ‘Zend Avesta’ indicates administering justice.
entry of Aryans to India via Iran. • The officer of pasture ground was called
• A section of Aryans reached the frontiers of the ‘prajapati”, who led the heads of the families called
Indian subcontinent around 1500 BC and first ‘kulapas’ or the heads of the fighting horses called
settled in Punjab and it is here, in this land, where ‘gramanis’ to battle.
the hymns of Rigveda were composed.
• The Aryans lived in tribes and spoke Sanskrit, Social Life
which belonged to the Indo-European group of • The Rig Vedic society was patriarchal.
languages. • The basic unit of society was family or graham.
• The head of the family was known as grahapathi.
Area of Settlement • Marriage was usually monogamous and
• Aryans entered India through the Khyber Pass (in indissoluble, but there are few instances of
Hindukush mountains around 1500 BC). polyandry, levirate and widow-marriage.
• According to Rig Veda, early Aryans first settled
in the region called 'Sapta-Sindhu' or the land of
 Objective + Subjective General Studies
6

• Polygamy was prevalent among the royal and LATER VEDIC AGE
noble families. There was no child marriage and • The Aryans further moved towards east in the Later
the practice of sati was absent. Vedic Period.
• Women were given equal opportunities as men for • The Satapatha Brahmana refers to the expansion of
their spiritual and intellectual development. Aryans to the eastern Gangetic plains.
• There were women poets like Apala, Viswavara, • Kuru and Panchala kingdoms flourished in the
Ghosa and Lopamudra during the Rig Vedic beginning.
period. Women could even attend the popular • After the fall of Kurus and Panchalas, other
assemblies. kingdoms like Kosala, Kasi and Videha came into
• Wheat and Barley, milk and its products like curd prominence.
and ghee, vegetables and fruits were the chief • The later Vedic texts also refer to the three
articles of food. divisions of India – Aryavarta (northern India),
• The staple crop was ‘yava’, which meant Barley. Madhyadesa (central India) and Dakshinapatha
• Chariot racing, horse racing, dicing, music and (southern India).
dance were the favourite pastimes.
• Gradually, the tribal society got divided into three Geographical Expansion
groups warriors, priests and commoners. Later, the • The later Vedic works show a wider knowledge of
fourth division called dasas or shudra was also Indian geography that is found in the Rigveda.
added. • They mention the ‘two seas’ – the Arabian Sea and
• The fourth division appeared towards the end of the the Indian Ocean.
Rig Vedic period because it is mentioned for the • Several Himalayan peaks are also mentioned.
first time in the tenth book of the Rig Veda. • The Vindhya mountains indirectly referred in the
• The term varna was used for color, the Aryans text and archaeology, shows that the Aryans
being fair and the dasas being dark. expanded from Punjab over the whole of Western
Uttar Pradesh covered by the Ganga – Yamuna
Economic Condition doab and even to the borders of Bengal in the east.
• The Aryans came to India as semi-nomadic people • The Aryans cleared the land mainly by means of
with a mixed pastoral and agricultural economy, in fire.
which cattle-rearing played an important role. • Burning may have been supplemented by the use
• The cow was, in fact, a sort of currency and values of the iron axe for cutting the forests in some areas
were reckoned in heads of cattle. towards the end of the Vedic period when this
• Importance of the cow can be measured from the metal is referred to as Shyama Ayas (dark or black
fact that many early linguistic expressions were metal).
associated with cattle.
• The cow is described in one or two places in Society
Rigveda as 'aghnya', not to be killed; but this may • Male ancestor worship began to be practiced and
imply only its economic importance. the position of women started to decline.
• Whenever gifts were given to priests, it was in • They could not attend the Sabha and were excluded
terms of cows and never in terms of measurement from immolation by the widow at the death of her
of land. husband. Inheritance right were taken.
• Gavyuti was used as a measure of distance and • A reference to self-immolate, the origin of the later
Godhuli, as a measure of time. practice of Sati, may be traced to this period. But it
• Of the other animals reared by the Aryans, the is certain that this practice did not prevail on any
horse was the most important of them. considerable scale.
• Among other domestic animals, the early Aryans • Brahmanas claimed both social and political
knew goat and sheep which provided wool, their privileges.
chief textile. • With the emergence of caste system certain social
norms developed.
• Marriage between the members of the same Gotra
was not permitted.
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• The term ‘Gotra’ first appeared in Rigaveda with Vrajapati Officer-in-Charge of pasture land
the meaning of ‘a clan’. Later, it came to signify
descent from a common ancestor. Gotra was Jivagribha Police Officer
primarily a Brahmanical institution adopted rather
half-heartedly by other twice-born classes and Spasas/Dutas Spies who sometimes worked as
hardly affecting the lower orders. messengers
• Marriage monogamy remained the general rule. Gramini Head of the village
Eight types of marriages were listed for the first
time. Kulapati Head of the family
Brahma Marriage of a girl with the boy of the Madhyamasi Mediator on disputes
same Varna with Vedic rite and rituals.
Bhagaduha Revenue collector
Daiva The father gives a daughter to a
sacrificial priest as a part of Dakshina. Sangrahitr Treasurer of taxes
Arsha A token bride price of a cow and a bull Mahishi Chief Queen
is given in the place of dowry.
Suta Charioteer and court ministerial
Prajapatya The father gives the girl without dowry
and without demanding bride price. Govikartana Keeper of games and forests

Gandharva Marriage by the consent of the two Palagala Messenger

parties (love marriage). Kshatri Chamberlain
Asura Marriage in which the bride was bought Akshavapa Accountant
from her father.
Athapati Chief Justice
Rakshasha Marriage by capture, practiced
especially by warriors.
Economy
Paishacha Marriage by seduction. • With the discovery of iron, agriculture became the
chief means of livelihood, but largely remained
Polity primitive.
• The material and social developments of the later • People continued to produce barley, but, rice and
vedic age were amply reflected in the wheat became their chief crop.
contemporary political system. • Rice was called ‘Vrihi’ and its use was
• The expression like ‘kingdom for ten generations’ recommended in rituals.
suggests strengthening of hereditary succession of • The term for wheat was ‘Godhume’.
the king with increasing royal power. • Plough became large and heavy and sometimes
• Formation of wider territory-based kingdoms required as many as 24 oxen to draw it. Manure was
increased the royal power. Sabha and Samiti lost its known.
importance and Vidatha completely disappeared. • In this period, the Vaishyas engaged in trade.
• The king’s influence was strengthened by the Reference to moneylending first occurred in the
rituals like Rajasuya, Ashvamedha, Vajepeya, etc. Shatapatha Brahmana, which describes a user as
• A rudimentary taxation system began with ‘Kusidin’, though definite evidence of the use of
‘Sangrahitri’ as treasurer of taxes and ‘Bhagaduha’ money is wanting.
as tax collector. • The term 'Niska' occurring in contemporary
Imp Ratnas/Officials in Later Vedic Period literature has often been taken as coin. But so far
no actual specimen of the coins of the vedic period
Purohita Chief Priest, also sometimes referred have come to light.
to as Rashtragopa Bali, Sulka, Bhaga were the main heads of taxation
•
Senani Supreme commander of army to be paid to the king.
 Objective + Subjective General Studies
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• Knowledge of metals advanced, in addition to gold SIX SYSTEMS OF PHILOSOPHY

and ayas. Nyaya Darshan Gautam
THE VEDAS Vaisesika Kanada
The Rig-Veda
• “Knowledge of the Hymns of Praise”, for Sankhya (Enumeration) Kapil
recitation. Yoga (Application) Patanjali
• The most important and, according to scholars,
oldest of the Vedas. Purva Mimamsa (Enquiry) Jaimini
• It is divided into ten books (called mandalas) and
has 1028 hymns in praise of various deities. Uttar Mimamsa (Vedanta) Badarayana
• These include Indra, Agni, Vishnu, Rudra, Varuna, In the narrowest of senses, only the Samhitas comprise
and other early 'Vedic gods'. the true Vedas. The first two divisions relate to the
• It also contains the famous Gayatri mantra and the performance of sacrificial rituals (the karma-kanda
prayer called the Purusha Shukta (the story of section), whereas the second pair consists of
Primal Man). philosophy (and belong to the jnana-kanda section).
There are also two important bodies of supplementary
The Yajur-Veda literature, related closely to the Vedas themselves.
• “Knowledge of the Melodies”, for chanting The Vedangas, which expound the sciences required to
• The Yajur-Veda is divided into the 'Shukl and understand and apply the Vedas.
Krishna' Yajur-Veda and contains explanatory The Upavedas (usually considered smriti) which deal
prose commentaries on how to perform religious with the four traditional arts and sciences.
rituals and sacrifices.
The Six Vedangas (limbs of the Vedas)
Sama-Veda • Kalpa (ritual detail)
• “Knowledge of the Sacrificial formulas”, for • Siksha (pronunciation)
liturgy. • Vyakarana (grammar)
• The Sama-Veda has verses that are almost entirely • Nirukti (etymology)
from the Rig-Veda, but are arranged in a different • Chandas (metre)
way since they are meant to be chanted. • Jyotisha (astronomy/astrology)

Atharva-Veda The Four Upavedas (following the Vedas) explain

• “Knowledge of the Magic formulas”, named after arts and sciences
a kind of group of priests. • Ayur-veda (medicine)
• The Atharva-Veda contains charms and magical • Gandharva-veda (music and dance)
incantations and has a more folkloristic style. • Dhanur-veda (warfare)
• Shilpa-veda (architecture)
Each Veda consists of four parts
• The Samhitas – literary "collections," in this case THE ORIGIN OF BUDDHISM AND JAINISM
of hymns and mantras. They form the proper veda. • During Later Vedic period, the society was divided
• The Brahmanas – prose manuals of rituals and into four Varnas namely, Brahmins, Kshatriyas,
prayers for the guiding priests. They tend to explain Vaishyas and Shudras. Brahmins and Kshatriyas,
the Samhitas. They also contain early versions of who were the two dominating Varnas at that time,
some stories. competed for supremacy. Kshatriyas were the
• The Aranyakas – literary "forest books" for hermits rulers who disliked the domination of the Brahmin
and saints. They are philosophical treatises. priests. Both Gautam Buddha and Mahavira Jain
• The Upanishads – books on philosophy, also called challenged the hegemony of Brahmins. Moreover,
"Vedanta," the end or conclusion of the Vedas. the importance of Vaishyas grew as the importance
of trade increased.
 Objective + Subjective General Studies
9

• The Vaishyas were placed at third position after the ● Bhagwati Sutra – It contains thousands of
Brahmins and Kshatriyas. They looked for new questions and answers on various topics from four
religions to advance their status and position in the Anuyogas such as soul, entities, matter, ultimate
society. That’s why they gave support to both particles and universe.
Jainism and Buddhism. ● Three gems of Jainism i.e. Ratnatraya are as
follows:
Jainism Ratnatraya Meaning
● Jainism was founded by Aadinath and Rishabha Samyak Darshana (Right Knowledge of the Jain
Dev. Faith) Creed
● Vardhamana Mahavira was a contemporary of Samyak Gyana (Right Belief in
Buddha. Knowledge) Tirathankaras
● He was born in 540 BC at Kundagram in Vaishali Samyak Charitra (Right Practice of five Vows
(Bihar). Action/Conduct) of Jainism
● He was a kshatriya prince of the Lichchhavis, a ● The following table shows the five Vows of
group that was part of the Vajji sangha. Jainism, out of them, first four were given by
● Parents of Mahavira were Siddhartha and Trishala. Parshwanath and the fifth was added by Mahavira.
His childhood name was Vardhmana. These are also known as Pancha Mahavaratas.
● Mahavira married a princess named Yashoda. Vows Meaning
● Priyadarshna was the daughter of Mahavira who Ahimsa Non-violence
was married to Jamali, who later became the first Satya Non-lying
disciple of Mahavira. Asteya or Non-stealing
● At the age of 30, Mahavira took permission from Achaurya
his elder brother Nandi Vardhan and left his home. Aparigraha Non-possession/Non-
● At the age of 42, under Sal tree on the bank of river attachment
Rijupalika, he attained the highest spiritual Brahmacharya Chastity
knowledge. ● The principles of Jainism as preached by Mahavira:
● He died in 468 BC because of self-starvation at ▪ He rejected authority of Vedas and Vedic
Pava, near Rajgriha. rituals.
● Mahavir gave his first sermon at Pava to 11 ▪ He did not believe in the existence of God
Brahmans. ▪ He believed in Karma and transmigration of
● Jains believe that by following the three-fold path the soul.
of ▪ He laid great emphasis on equality.
▪ Right belief
▪ Right knowledge Buddhism
▪ Right conduct ● Buddhism, the fourth greatest religion in the world,
Souls will be released from transmigration and originated in India and it spread to neighbouring
reach the pure and blissful abode. countries like - Nepal, Myanmar, Sri Lanka, Japan,
● First Jain Council was held at Patliputra under the China, Vietnam and Thailand.
chairmanship of Sthulabhadra in 367 BC. It ● The founder of Buddhism Gautam Buddha was
resulted in the compilation of 12 Angas replacing born as Siddhartha.
the lost 14 Purvas. ● Siddhartha was born in 566 BC at Lumbini (now
● The Second Jain Council was held at Vallabhi falls in territory of Nepal) in the Shakya clan of
under the chairmanship of Devardhi in 526 AD. Kshatriya. That is why Buddha is also known as
Jainism literature: Shakyamuni.
They were written in Prakrit language. ● The mother of Siddhartha was Maha Maya who
● Aachrang Sutra – Tells about meditation of died days after giving birth to him. Thereafter, he
Mahavir for 12 years. was brought up by Prajapati Gautami, his maternal
● Kalpa-sutra – Biographies of Jain Tirthankaras aunt. Therefore, he was also called Gautam.
mainly Parshvanatha and Mahavira. ● The name of his father was Suddhodana. He was
the only son of his father.
 Objective + Subjective General Studies
10

● Siddhartha was married to Yashodhara. He also ● Sutta Pitaka – Sermons on matter of doctrines and
had a son named Rahul. But neither his wife nor his ethics, Buddha's teachings
son were able to tie him to the worldly life. ● Abhidhamma Pitaka – On metaphysics and
● He left his home and became an ascetic at the age philosophy.
of 29 in search of truth and end of sorrows . This
event in Buddha’s life is known as Buddhist Councils
"Mahabhinishkramana". There were four councils/Sangeethis of Buddhism
● Buddha’s teachers were – Alar and Udyak. organised under different regimes:
● After seven years of roaming around, at the age of First Council
35, Siddhartha got enlightenment at Uruvela while ● It was held under the patronage of Ajatashatru
meditating on the bank of river Niranjana under a (Haryak Dynasty) in 483 BC.
Peepal(Banyan) tree. This tree is called the Bodhi ● Monk Mahakasapa presided over the first council.
Tree. The place is known as Bodh gaya. ● It was held at Sattapani caves in Rajgriha just after
● Buddha attained the knowledge on the Poornima of the death of Buddha.
Vaishakha month. ● Compilation of Vinaya Pitaka and Sutta Pitaka was
● He then gave his first sermon at Sarnath (Varanasi). accomplished here.
This historic event in buddha’s life is known as Second Council
"Dhammachakra Pravartan". ● In 383 BC. under the patronage of Kalashoka
● Buddha passed away in 486 BC at the age of 80 (Shishunaga Dynasty).
under a Sal tree in Kushinagar (Kushinagar was ● It was held at Vaishali after one century of
under Licchhavi Kingdom). Buddha’s death(parinirvana).
● Various notable rulers of his time were Buddha’s ● The second council was presided over by
disciples such as Prasenjit, Bimbisara and Sabbakami.
Ajatsatru. ● First division in Sangha took place. Theravedin and
● Some famous Bikshuks of Budhdhism were Mahasamghika split up here.
Sariputra, Ananda, Mahakassapa, Annuradha, Third Council
Upali, and Rahul. ● In 250 BC; under the patronage of King Ashoka.
● Vardhman Mahavir(Jainism) was a contemporary ● It was held at Pataliputra
of Gautam Buddha(Buddhism). ● It was presided by Mogaliputta Tissa.
● Compilation of Abhidhamma Pitaka was done.
The events in Buddha’s life are depicted by various Fourth Council
symbols in Buddhism: ● In the 1st century AD, under patronage of King
Event in Life of Buddha Symbolised Kanishka(Kushan dynasty).
By ● It was held in Kundalvana of Kashmir.
Buddha’s Birth Lotus and Bull ● Under the presidency of Vasumitra along with his
The Great Departure Horse deputy Asvaghosha.
(Mahabhinishkramana) ● Buddhism was divided into two sects namely,
Enlightment Bodhi Tree Hinayana and Mahayana.
First Sermon Wheel
(Dhammachakraparivartan) The Doctrine of Buddha
Death (Nirvana or Stupa The four noble truths are:
Mahaparinirvana) ● The world is full of sorrow and misery.
Buddhist Sects ● The cause of all pain and misery is desire
● The Theravada ● Pain and misery can be ended by controlling the
● The Mahayana desire.
● The Vajrayana ● Desire can be controlled by following Eight-Fold
Buddhist Literature path.
● Vinaya Pitaka – Rules of the order or Buddha's The Eight-Fold Path (Ashtang Marga):
disciplinary code ● Samyak Dristi: Right Understanding
● Samyak Sankalpa: Right Resolve
 Objective + Subjective General Studies
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● Samyak Vachan: Right Speech ● When the admiral achieved his aim he invited his
● Samyak Karma: Right Action master, who at once responded to his call and
● Samyak Jivika: Right Living invaded the north-western India sometime after
● Samyak Prayas: Right Efforts 518 BC and before 486 BC.
● Samyak Smriti: Right Mindfulness/thought ● He conquered a large territory including the north-
● Samyak Samadhi: Right Self-Concentration west Frontier Province and certain portions of Sind
There are three base Pillars known as Tri-ratnas in and Punjab.
Buddhism: Buddha, Dhamma, Sangha.
● Buddha means the highest spiritual potential in Effects of the Invasion
every human being. ● The conquest and later on occupation of north-west
● Dhamma refers to the teachings of Buddha. India by the Persians left far reaching effects on the
● Sangha is the organization of the monks practicing history of India.
Buddhism. ▪ Indian traders now began to sell their goods
SIXTEEN MAHAJANAPADAS throughout the Persian Empire without the
India was divided into sixteen states called least hitch and thus Indian trade got a great
'Mahajanapadas' just before the rise of Buddhism in impetus.
India. A list of these states is given in the Buddhist text ▪ The Indians learnt a new script - the Kharosthi
(the Anguttara Nikaya). These sixteen states and their script -from the Persians, which remained in
capitals are the following: use in Northern India up to the third century
● Anga - Champa AD.
● Magadha - (Rajgriha) Giriraj ▪ The Indian art was also greatly influenced
● Kashi - Varanasi during this period. Some scholars are of the
● Kosala - Shravasti, Kushavati opinion that the style of Ashoka's edicts as well
● Vajji - Vaishali as the construction of his pillars especially their
● Malla - Kushinagar, Pawa capitals (where animals like the lion, the bull
● Chedi - Sothivat or Suktimati and the horse etc., and different birds are made)
● Vatsa - Kausambi are borrowed from the Persians.
● Kuru - Indraprastha (Hastinapur)
● Panchala - Ahicchatra (Western Panchala), Alexander's Invasion
Kampilya (Eastern Panchala) ● Alexander ascended the throne at the age of twenty
● Matsya - Viratnagar (Bairat) and at once embarked upon the policy of conquests.
● Surasena - Mathura ● Within a very short time he over-ran many
● Asmaka - Potan or Potali or Poudanva countries of the world including Asia Minor, Syria,
● Avanti - Mahismati, Ujjain Egypt, Turkistan, Persian Gulf, Afghanistan and
● Gandhara - Taxila Bactria, etc.
● Kamboja - Haatak ● After conquering Kabul in 328 BC Alexander also
During the lifetime of Buddha, all the above-mentioned thought of conquering India and consequently
sixteen states were reduced to only four. These four invaded India in 326 BC.
important kingdoms were those of Vatsa, Avanti, ● Alexander marched forward and crossed the river
Kosala and Magadha. Ultimately, in the fourth century Indus by constructing a bridge of boats near Ohind.
BC, the Magadha state became all powerful and under Here at Ohind, he met the representatives of king
the Mauryas all these four states were welded together Ambhi of Taxila, who offered his services to him
into one thereby giving rise to the mighty Mauryan against Porus and other Indian chiefs.
empire. ● Alexander at once marched forward and reached
Taxila where king Ambhi was already prepared to
Persian Invasion of India help him with all his forces and resources. Here a
● In the sixth century BC Persian King Darius or message was sent to king Porus to submit, but he
Dara I (522 - 486 BC) tried to conquer India. flatly refused and got ready for a fight.
● He first sent his admiral Skylax to explore the ● Then he made a sudden attack on the Indian forces.
Indus River. Porus and his forces gave a heroic fight but
Alexander came out to be victorious. To
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12

commemorate this victory, Alexander is said to Vajji (a Lichchavi princess) and third from the
have laid the foundation of two cities Bucephala chief of Madra clan of Punjab.
and Nicaea at the site of the battle. ● Magadha's most serious rival was Avanti with its
● Alexander had proceeded up to the Beas with a capital at Ujjain. Its king Chanaprodyata Mahasena
view to conquer the Magadh Empire, but here his fought Bimbisara. But ultimately the two became
fatigued army refused to cross the river. Alexander friends and Bimbisara sent royal physician (Jivaka)
tried his best to rouse the morale of his soldiers but to Ujjain.
to no avail. ● The earliest capital of Magadha was at Rajgriha.
● Ajatashatru (493-460 BC) seized the throne after
Effects of Invasion killing his father Bimbisara and pursued an
● Although Alexander's invasion failed to Hellenize aggressive policy of expansion.
India and did not leave any direct effect of great ● He subdued the Kosal king and enlarged his
importance yet it produced many indirect kingdom by conquering Kashi and Vaishali.
consequences, some of which are the following: ● Udayin (460-444 BC) succeeded Ajatashatru and is
▪ Alexander's invasion brought India in close remembered for building the fort upon the
contact with the European countries. Now four confluence of the Ganga and the Son at Patna. The
new routes (three by land and one by sea) were famous city of Pataliputra was founded in this way.
found by which Indian scholars, merchants and
religious leaders began to go to European Shishunaga Dynasty (412 BC-344 BC)
countries. ● It is said that Udayin was among the five successor
▪ The date of Alexander's invasion of India (i.e., kings who had acquired throne by patricides; the
326 BC) has helped us a lot in solving the people of Magadha finally outraged by this,
Indian chronology. deposed the last of the five in 412 BC and
▪ The Indians learnt a good deal from the Greeks appointed Shishunaga, a Viceroy of Banaras, as
in the field of coinage, astronomy, architecture king.
and sculpture. ● The most famous event was the shifting of capital
▪ In the religious field, the Hindu religion and to Vaishali. Their greatest achievement was the
philosophy affected the Greek a lot and many destruction of the power of Avanti and its
Greeks adopted the Hindu religion and Hindu incorporation into the Magadha empire.
names.
Nanda Dynasty (344 BC-321 BC)
MAGADHA ● The founder of the dynasty was Mahapadmananda.
Magadha Empire He added to the Magadha kingdom, Kalinga, from
● Of all the kingdoms that flourished in the sixth where he brought an image of the Jina as a victory
century BC, the kingdom of Magadha was the first trophy.
to make a successful bid for supremacy and ● Mahapadmananda claimed to be 'ekarat', the sole
establish its suzerainty. sovereign who destroyed all the ruling princes.
● With Rajgriha as its capital, this kingdom was ● The Nandas were fabulously rich and enormously
situated in the Patna and Gaya districts of Bihar. powerful. They had developed an effective taxation
● Its political power and prosperity reached its zenith system, built canals and carried out irrigation
in the reign of Bimbisara and Ajatashatru who one- projects and had a strong army.
by-one conquered all the neighbouring states and ● The Nandas were overthrown by the Maurya
extended/their empires. dynasty, under whom the Magadha empire reached
the apex of its glory.
Haryak Dynasty (544 BC-413 BC)
● The first important ruler of Magadha was Causes of the Rise of Magadha
Bimbisara of Haryak Dynasty, a contemporary of ● Advantageous strategic geographical location both
Buddha and patronised Buddhism. at Rajgriha and Pataliputra. Rajgriha was
● He conquered Anga and strengthened his position surrounded by a group of five hills rendering it
by marriage alliances, keeping three wives - first impregnable. Pataliputra was a water fort
from Kosala (sister of Prasenajit), second from (Jaladurga). Besides, it occupied a pivotal position
 Objective + Subjective General Studies
13

commanding river communications from all sides ● Chandragupta was brought to limelight in the
for movement of the army. Mauryan empire by Chanakya who had a grudge
● Closeness to the source of natural resources like against Dhanananda, became he had insulted him
iron ores enabled the Magadha princes to equip in the court.
themselves with effective weapons. Agricultural ● The Nanda dynasty had lost all its capability owing
tools of iron, which increased production and to the extravagant life led by the rulers.
added to royal taxation. ● According to Mudra Rakshasa, Buddhist and
● The alluvium soil of the Gangetic plains and puranic accounts, Chandragupta defeated the
sufficient rainfall was very conducive for Nanda army after invoking a revolution against the
agricultural practices. Nanda rulers in Patliaputra.
● Use of elephants on a large scale in its war, ● He acceded to the throne in 322 BC. His empire
supplied by the eastern part of the country, added included Magadha and Punjab.
to the military power. ● The Junagarh rock inscription of Rudradaman
proves the inclusion of Saurashtra in his empire.
The Mauryan Empire (322 BC-185 BC) ● The Jain tradition also establishes Chandraguta 's
● The period of the Mauryan Empire marks a new connection with North Mysore. It also said to
epoch in the history of India. include the Hindukush in the west.
● It was a period when politics, art, trade and ● The four satrapies also became part of the Mauryan
commerce elevated India to a glorious height. A empire during Chandragupta Maurya.
period of unification of the territories which lay as ● In course of 18 years, Chandragupta consolidated
fragmented kingdoms. Moreover, Indian contact his empire. After which he is said to have abdicated
with the outside world was established effectively the throne and became disciple of the Jain Saint
during this period. Bhadrabahu, and settled in Shravanabelagola
● Arthashastra by Chanakya or Kautilya is a treatise (Mysore).
on statecraft. It gives us a picture of administration, ● After a reign of 24 years he died in about 298 BC.
society and the economy of the country.
● Mudra Rakshasa is a sanskrit play by Visakha Bindusara (298 BC-273 BC)
Dutta. It is said to be a political literature revealing ● Bindusara, also called Amitraghata meaning slayer
the struggle unleashed by Chandragupta Maurya of enemies, by the Greeks, succeeded the throne of
with the help of Chanakya to overthrow the the Mauryan empire after Chandragupta's
Nandas. It is also an insight into Chandragupta's abdication.
life. ● He also had the opportunity of having the guidance
● The Jatakas by Buddhists give us an idea about that of Chanakya who continued as a minister.
period. Indica written by Megasthenes gives an ● The period of his accession to the Mauryan throne
account of the Mauryan capital, administrative witnessed a series of revolt by the people of Taxila.
system and social life. ● The first revolt broke out owing to the improper
● The Ceylonese Chronicles, the Dipavamsa and administration of prince Susima.
Mahavamsa gives the accounts of the conversion of
Ceylon. They also have helped in reconstructing Ashoka (273 BC-232 BC)
the history of Ashoka. ● Ashoka had served as governor of Taxila and
Ujjain previously.
Chandragupta Maurya (322 BC-298 BC) ● He fought the Kalinga war in 261 BC. The 8th year
● The Mudra Rakshasa describes Chandragupta as of his reign, proved to be a turning point in his life
Vrishal. as he became a Buddhist upasaka and undertook
● According to the Jain tradition, Chandragupta was Dharmayatras.
the son of the daughter of the chief of a village of ● He inaugurated his Dharma yatras from the 10th
peacock -tamers (Mayur Posakh). year of his reign by visiting Bodhgaya.
● The peacock figures that appear in the emblem of ● In the 14th year of his reign, he started the
the Mauryas in some punch marked coins and institution of 'Dhamma Mahamatra' (the officer of
sculptures testify this. righteousness) to spread the message of Dhamma.
 Objective + Subjective General Studies
14

● During his reign, the policy of Bherighosa ● He was killed by his commander-in-chief
(physical conquest) was replaced by that of Pushyamitra, who ascended the throne in 187 BC.
Dhammaghosa (cultural conquest). The royal dynasty founded by him is known as
● In the course of his second tour in the 20 th year of Sunga dynasty.
his reign, he visited Lumbini, the birth place of
Buddha and exempted the village from Bali Administration
(tribute) and Bhaga (the royal share of the ● Kautilya called the king 'Dharmapravartaka' or
produce), which were reduced to one eighth. promulgator of social order.
● Ashoka's Hellenistic contemporaries were ● The highest functionaries at the centre were called
Antiochus II of Suria, Ptolemy of Egypt, Magas of tirthas. They were 18 in number: Mantri (Chief
Cyrene, Antigonus Gonatas of Macedonia and Minister), Purohita (Chief Priest), Senapati
Alexander of Epirus. These are mentioned in his (Commander-in-chief), and Yuvaraja (Crown
thirteenth Rock Edict. prince) were the highest functionaries among the
Ashoka's Dhamma: Ashoka was careful enough to tirthas.
make a distinction between his personal belief and his
support for Buddhism and sectarian conflicts and to Mantriparishad
promote a harmonious relationship between the diverse Kautilya mentions 27 superintendent (adhyakshas)
elements of the vast empire. His Dhamma was an mostly to regulate economic activities. The famous
ethical code aimed at building up an attitude of social were as follows:
responsibility among the people. It was not ● Panyadhyaksha: Commerce.
synonymous with Buddhism; it was aimed at building ● Samsthadhyaksha: Markets, checking wrong
up an attitude of mind of social responsibility based on practices.
man's dignity and humanistic approach. It was not a ● Pautavadhyaksha: Weights and measures.
sectarian faith. It emphasized truth, non-violence, ● Navadhyaksha: State Boats.
toleration, compassion; obedience etc., which were ● Shulkdhyaksha : Tolls/Customs.
common to almost all religions prevailing in India and ● Aakradhyaksha : Mines.
none could object its basic tenets. ● Sitadhyaksha : Crown lands.
Ashokan Edicts: There were 14 major rock edicts, two ● Akshapataladhyaksha : Accounts.
separate Kalinga edicts, 7 pillar edicts, and many other ● Manadhyaksha : Measurement.
inscriptions engraved separately in areas such as ● Pattanadhyaksha : Ports.
Maski, Bhabru, Samapa etc. In the northwest, the ● Ganikadhyaksha : Courtesan.
Ashokan scripts were bi-lingual i.e., Greek and ● Devatadhyaksha : Religious institutions.
Aramaic. Generally, most of the edicts within Indian ● Lakshanadhyaksha : Mint.
sub-continental boundaries have been composed in the
Brahmi script. Army
● According to Pliny, Chandragupta maintained
Kunal And Samprati (232 BC-187 BC) 600,000- foot soldiers, 30,000 cavalry and 900
● Ashoka died in 232 BC and with him departed the elephants.
glory of Mauryan empire. Vishnu Puran gives the ● According to Megasthenes, the army was
names of his seven successors but with no details, administered by six committees consisting of five
probably because the empire was divided into two members each taken from a board of 30 members.
parts of eastern and western. ● The six committees or the wings of the army were:
● The western being ruled by Kunal and later for the army, the cavalry, the elephants, the chariots,
sometime by Samprati where Indo-Greeks began to the navy and the transport.
make early inroads and until 180 BC had virtually
supplanted the later Mauryas. Provincial Administration
● The eastern part being ruled by Brihadratha from Except the capital Pataliputra, the whole empire was
Pataliputra. divided into four provinces controlled by a viceroy-
● He was the seventh king in succession from either a prince or a member of the royal family.
Ashoka.
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15

District Administration: Provinces were sub-divided ● Kautilya recommends the recruitment of Vaishyas
into districts and had three main officers: and Shudras in the army, but their actual
▪ Pradesika: Responsible for the overall enrollment is extremely doubtful.
administration of the district.
▪ Rajuka: Revenue administration and later DECLINE OF THE MAUYARAS
judiciary particularly in rural areas was under ● Brahmanical Reaction: Har Prasad Shastri holds
Pradesika. that Ashoka's pro-Buddhist policy annoyed
▪ Yukta: Probably accountant. Brahmans culminating in the killing of the last
Sub-District and Village Administration: Sub Mauryan ruler Brihadratha by his Brahman army
district consisted of a group of villages numbering 5 to general Pushyamitra Sunga.
10 and was administered by 'Gopa' (accountant) and ● Ashoka's Pacifist Policy: which resulted in the
'Sthanika' (Tax collector). The villages were emasculation of the army, but we have no evidence
administered by the village headmen who were of his disbanding the army or even reducing their
answerable to the Gopas and Sthanikas. number. (H.C. Raichoudhary).
City Administration: The administration of capital ● Economic Weakness: D.D. Koshambi draws our
Pataliputra has been described by Megasthenes, which attention to the debased coins of later Mauryans
according to him, was administered by six boards and maintains that the heavy economic pressure
consisting of five members each, being entrusted with caused due to a vast army and bureaucracy was the
matters relating to industrial arts, care of foreigners, chief cause for the downfall.
registration of births and deaths, regulation of weights ● Administrative Weakness: Romila Thapar
and measures, public sale of manufactured goods and attributes decline to the top heavily centralized
the last with collecting toll on the articles sold-this bureaucracy; no competitive requirement system,
being one tenth of the purchase price. Head of the city no means of gauging public opinion, lack of
administration was Nagarika. Nagarika was assisted by nationalism among people, but all these were
two subordinate officials namely: Sthanika and Gopa. remote possibilities in those days.
Revenue Administration: Land revenue was the main ● Ashoka's weak successors: Ashoka's weak
source of income of the state. Peasants paid sixth of the successors and division of the empire into the parts
produce as 'Bhaga' and an extra tax 'Bali' as tribute. might have adversely affected the strength and
According to the Arthashastra since the land belonged resources of the empire in resisting Indo-Greeks
to king, irrigation tax was also levied by the who were the first to invade.
government.
KINGDOM AFTER THE MAURYAN EMPIRE
Economic Condition
● Both agricultural and industrial sector made much The Sungas (187 BC-73 BC)
headway. ● After the Mauryan rule, Pushyamitra, the founder
● Industrial arts and crafts proliferated as a result of of the Sunga dynasty, established his rule.
swift communication through a network of good ● The Sungas ruled for over a hundred years. The
and long roads and incentives given by the extent of the Sunga kingdom under Pushyamitra
government. extended from Punjab to the southern regions of the
● It seems that the punch-marked silver coins, which Narmada.
carry the symbols of peacock and hill and regent, ● The Sunga dynasty had a line of ten rulers. The last
formed the imperial currency of the Mauryas. of the Sunga king was Devabhuti. The Sunga
period though is less reflected as a great role in
Social Condition Indian history, yet it is significant in the matter of
● Megasthenes divided Mauryan society into seven its administration, religion, art and literature.
castes-philosophers, farmers, soldiers, herdsman, ● The Sungas administrated the kingdom with the
artisans, magistrate and councilors, Certainly, he help of a mantriparishad. This council existed in
confused caste with profession. Again, he notices the centre and the provinces. The provinces were
the absence of slavery, but it is contradicted by governed by viceroys.
Indian sources. ● During the Sunga rule, Brahmanism revived its
vigour. The Bhagavata form of religion was
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16

prevalent. The Bharbat stupa and the ivory works Some important facts related to Kanishka are as
in its exquisite manner proves the promotion of art. following:
● Patanjali's Mahabhashya is an example of the ● It was during Kanishka’s reign that Buddhism was
flourishing literature of the Sunga. divided into Mahayana and Hinayana.
● He was the founder of the Shaka Era in 78 AD.
The Kanvas (73 BC-28 BC) ● He had invaded Patliputra and had taken the
● The Kanva dynasty was a Brahman dynasty Buddhist monk Asvaghosa to Purushpura.
founded by Vasudeva Kanva, the minister of ● Charaka and Sushruta were in the court of
Devabhuti, the last Sunga king. Kanishka.
● This period is said to have witnessed the rule of ● Kanishka was a patron of Buddhism and he called
four kings extending to a period of about 45 years. the 4th Buddhist council in the Kundalvana of
● The extent of Kanva territory was confined to the Kashmir in 78 AD.
areas of Sunga rule. ● The council was chaired by Vasumitra and during
● Susarman was the last ruler of the Kanva dynasty. this council the collection of Buddhist texts took
● The Kanvas were overthrown by the Satavahanas. place and the commentaries were engraved on
copper sheets.
Satavahanas (60 BC-225 AD) ● The scholars who resided in Kanishka’s court were
● Simuka was the founder of the Satavahana dynasty. Asvaghosa (the Buddhist poet), Nagarjuna (the
He was succeeded by his brother Kanha. Scholars philosopher), Samgharaksha (the chaplain),
are of the opinion that the original home of the Mathara (the politician), Vasumitra (the Buddhist
Andhras - Andhra bhrityas was the Bellary district. scholar), Charak (the physician) and Agisala (the
● The capital of satavahanas was located at engineer).
Dharanikota (Amaravati) and Pratishthana ● Kanishka had fought against King Han Ho-ti who
(Paithan). was the king of Han dynasty of China. Kanishka
● Satakarni was the successor after Kanha, and is a defeated the Chinese king in the second attempt.
considerable figure, known for his performance of
two asvamedha sacrifices. SANGAM AGE
● His reign was followed by the rule of Gautamiputra ● The land south of Krishna river was divided into
satakarni. He is said to have defeated the Yavanas, three kingdoms: Cheras, Cholas and Pandyas.
Sakas and Phalanas and re-established the ancient ● These three kingdoms together with Satyaputra are
glory of the Satavahanas. referred to as independent states by Ashoka in his
● Gautamiputra satkarni was succeeded by his son inscription with which he maintained friendly
Vasisthiputra Pulumavi in about 130 AD. He relations.
extended his rule towards the Andhra country.
● Yajna Sri Satakarni was the last great ruler of the Cholas
Satavahanas. After him, the weak successors ● The Chola dominion was known as
resulted in the contraction of the territory of the 'Tondaimandalam' or 'Cholamandalam'. Their chief
Satavahanas. centre of political power (capital) was at 'Uraiyur',
a place famous for cotton trade.
Kushana Dynasty (1st century AD - 3rd century ● The Cholas were the most powerful of all three
AD) kingdoms.
● Kanishka was the founder and the most powerful ● The Chola maintained an efficient navy.
ruler of the Kushana Empire. ● In the middle of the second century BC a Chola
● The capital of his empire was Purushpura king named Elara conquered Srilanka and ruled
(Peshawar). over it for nearly 50 years.
● Under his rule, Kushana Empire extended from ● Kasikala was the greatest of Chola kings. His name
Uzbekistan, Tajikistan to Mathura and Kashmir. meant 'Man with charred leg'.
● Kanishka was the successor of Vima Kadphises, as ● He fought the Battle of Venni against Pandyas and
demonstrated by an impressive genealogy of the Cheras defeating 11 kings.
Kushan kings, known as the Rabatak inscription.
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17

● He also founded the port city of Puhar ● The first Sangam, held at Madurai, was attended by
(Kaveripattinam) and constructed 160 km long gods and legendary sages but no literary work of
embankment along the Kaveri. this Sangam is available.
● The second Sangam was held at Kapadapuram but
Cheras all literary works perished except Tolkappiyam.
● The history of the Cheras was marked by ● The whole literature has been divided into two
continuous fighting with the Cholas and the groups narrative and didactic, the former is called
Pandyas. Melkannakku or Eighteen Major Works and the
● The capital of the Cheras was Vanji or Karur. latter Kilkannakku or Eighteen Minor Works.
● Nedun-jeral Adan is the first known Chera king. He
is said to have fed the armies of Kurukshetra war Important Sangam Works
and so had earned the title of 'Udiyan-jeral'. ● According to tradition, the father of Tamil
● Senguttuvan, the Red chera or Good Chera, literature is Agastaya.
according to the Chera poets, was the greatest ● Tolkappiyam by Talkappiyar is a work on Tamil
Chera king. grammar, literary tradition (poetics) and sociology.
● Senguttuvan invaded the north and crossed the It is the foundation of all literary conventions of
Ganga. He is remembered for building the temple Tamil literature.
of 'Kannagi', the goddess of chastity. ● Tirukkaral by Thiruvalluvar is sometimes called
● The worship of Kannagi known as 'Pattini cult', the 'fifth Veda or 'Bible of the Tamil land'. It is a
was established by him. compound of dharma, artha, kama and moksha.
● Silappadikaram meaning 'The Jewelled Anklet' by
Pandyas Ilango Adigal is an epic, dealing with love story of
● The Pandyan kingdom occupied the southern most Kovalan and Madhavi.
portion of Indian peninsula, with Madurai as its ● Manimekalai is one of the two greatest epics and a
capital. sequel to Silappadikaram; written by Seethalai
● Legendary and traditional accounts mention the Saathanar, considered as the 'Odyssey of Tamil
loss of many Sangam texts on the occasion of a poetry'.
deluge, which compelled the Pandyan king to shift ● Civaka Chintamani is a third epic by
their capital first from then Madurai to Tiruttakkatevar.
Kapadapuram and then back to Madurai. ● Aggatiyam, a magnum opus and grammar of letters
● Madurai seems to be the Tamil word of Mathura. and life in three parts was written by Saint
The Pandyan profited from trade with Roman Agatiyar.
Empire.
● Nedujeliyan was the most important king of the THE GUPTA PERIOD (319 BC–550 BC)
Pandyas. ● After the downfall of the Kushana empire in about
● Another king was Madaranjeral Inunporai, who the third century AD and at the beginning of the 4th
sent ambassador to Roman emperor Augustus and century AD, many independent states emerged in
performed vedic sacrifices. North India.
● One of these states was of the Lichchavis of
Sangam Literature Vaishali who dominated portions of North Bengal
● The word 'Sangam' is associated with a college or and South Bihar. This clan obtained possession of
assembly of Tamil scholars and poets who Pataliputra, the Capital of the Kushanas.
flourished under the royal patronage of the
Pandyan kings at Madurai. Sri Gupta
● The Sangam Age extends roughly between 300 BC ● Sri Gupta was the first ruler of this dominion.
- 300 AD. Three Sangams are supposed to have ● After him, his son Ghototkacha ruled under the title
been held. of Maharaja.
● The whole Sangam Age is also called Golden or
Augustan Age in Tamil literature.
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18

Chandragupta I ● Samudragupta was succeeded by his elder son

● In the fourth century AD, a Lichchavi princess got Ramagupta who was said to have been murdered
married to a king of Magadha namely by Chandragupta II, who did so owing to his
Chandragupta I. brother Ramagupta's uncouth act of surrendering
● The importance of the rule of Chandragupta I his queen Dhruvadevi to the Shaka ruler who
centres around the influence of Kumaradevi, the subdued him.
Lichchavi princess. Coins bearing the figures of the ● Thus Chandragupta II ascended the throne of
princess speaks of the extent of her influence. Patilaputra in about 380 AD. On assuming the
● Chandragupta I became the king of Pataliputra and throne of the Gupta empire, he took the title
established a kingdom along the Ganges. Vikramaditya.
● Chandragupta II was a conquerer like his father
Samudragupta Samudragupta.
● Chandragupta I was succeeded by Samudragupta in ● His diplomatic tactic was giving his daughter in
about 335 AD. marriage to Rudrasena II.
● He reigned for about fifty years. Inscriptions on a ● Chandragupta Vikramaditya's miltary conquests
pillar erected by Ashoka gives an account of includes the conquest of Malwa, Gujarat and
Samudragupta. Saurashtra which were under the Shaka rule.
● He is said to have commanded a military campaign ● He defeated Rudrasimha III, the last of the western
across the Deccan, and also subdued the forest satrap ruler and annexed his territories. This
tribes of the Vindhya region. provided exceptional wealth which added to the
● He performed the Ashvamedha sacrifice to prosperity of the Guptas.
establish and proclaim his supremacy. ● The Guptas at his period had sea trade with the
● His kingdom also included lower Bengal, upper countries of the west.
Assam and Nepal. Tributes and homage were paid ● Broach, Sopara, Cambay were ports that facilitated
by the rulers and clans including the Malwas, the trade.
Yaudheyas, the Arjunayansas, Madras, the Abhiras ● During this period, Ujjain appears to have been the
in Punjab and Rajasthan and others in Madhya inland centre upon which most of the trade routes
Pradesh. converged.
● He is also said to have intruded into Kanchipuram ● Chandragupta occupied the throne for nearly forty
the capital of the Pallavas. years.
● His friendly relation with Ceylon is proved by the ● Raja Bikram was also a patron of the nine gems
fact that King Mohendra of Ceylon sent an including Kalidsa and Varahamihira.
ambassador to Samudragupta.
● Samudragupta's personal skills were exceptional Kumaragupta I
especially in music and songs. ● Kumaragupta I was successor of Chandragupta II
● He was also well known for his poetry and had and was known as Mahendraditya Kumargupta I.
composed many works and had a reputation of a He ruled from 415 AD to 454 AD.
professional author. ● He reigned for about forty years. His empire
● He was a devotee of Vishnu and thus can be called extended from North Bengal to Kathiawar and
a Brahmanical Hindu. All these and his role as a from the Himalayas to the Narmada.
monarch qualified him to be called a 'Hero of ● To the south, his kingdom extended as far as the
hundred battles' by a court poet in the Allahabad Satara district of the Deccan.
inscriptions. ● He also performed the Ashvamedha sacrifice.
● Vincet Smith has elevated Samudragupta in Indian
history as the Napoleon of India. Skandagupta
● His rule is presumed to have been till about 380 ● During this period, the Huns from Central Asia led
AD. continuous attacks on the Guptas.
● These attacks were repulsed by Skandagupta who
Chandragupta II is considered as the last great Gupta ruler.
 Objective + Subjective General Studies
19

● During his campaign against the Huns, period are the best examples of metal
Skandagupta had to meet great expenses which workmanships.
resulted in the reduction in the issue of gold coins.
● The Gupta dynasty continued its existence after the Art And Architecture
death of Skandagupta. ● The manuals on the construction of stone temples
● Kumaragupta II was succeeded by Budhagupta. were written during this period.
● His territory extended from Bengal to central India. ● Caves continued to be excavated during the Gupta
● The Gupta period in Indian history is termed as the and the post-Gupta period.
Golden Age of India. ● There are nine caves at Udaygiri near Vidisha.
● This period extends from 320 to 480 AD. These are partly rock-cut and partly stone built.
● It extends through the reigns of Chandragupta I, ● The famous Mehrauli iron pillar at Delhi near
Samudragupta, Chandragupta II Vikramaditya, Qutub Minar is a marvel in metallurgical skill and
Kumaragupta and Skandagupta. technology.
● The art of casting copper statues, coins and copper
Language And Literature seals etc. on a large scale shows the handling of
● Music, architecture, sculpture and painting was at metal work at its best.
its best during the period of Gupta rule. ● A copper image of Buddha about 80 feet high was
● The compilation of the two great epics, Ramayana erected at Nalanda in Bihar and a fine Sultangunj
and Mahabharata was completed in the fourth Buddha, 71 feet high can still be seen in
century AD. Birmingham Museum in Britain.
● In the field of Kavya or poetical works, the name ● The best examples of paintings in India are Ajanta
of Kalidasa stands foremost in the history of Indian and Bagh caves that were done between the first
literature. His kavyas such as Meghaduta, and seventh centuries AD. At Ajanta, of the 29
Raghuvamsa and Kumarasambhavam and dramas caves, traces of paintings can be seen in sixteen
such as Abhijnana Shakuntalam are considered to caves.
be among the best literary works in the world and
have been translated into many languages. Astronomy
● Kalidas graced the court of Vikramaditya, the king ● Varahamihira, who flourished in the court of
of Ujjaini who has been identified as Chandragupta Chandragupta II, has preserved in his
II. Panchasiddhantika written in 505 AD, the accounts
● The Allahabad pillar inscription by Harisena, of five astronomical works which were evidently
Mandsor inscription composed by Vatsabhatti, regarded as authority in his own time.
Junagarh rock inscription, Mehraulli pillar ● Aryabhata was the first to utilize sign functions in
inscription, Aihole inscription by Ravikriti etc. are astronomy.
fine examples of literary expression. In the field of ● He discovered an accurate formula to measure the
drama, Bhasa, Sudraka, Kalidas and Bhavabhuti decrease or increase in the duration of two
are the most noteworthy. Sudraka is the author of consecutive days.
Mricchakatika - 'Little clay cart'.
● Three great Chinese pilgrims Fa-Hien, Hiuen POST GUPTA PERIOD
Tsang and I-tsing visited India in search of During the end of 5th century AD the Gupta Empire
knowledge, manuscripts and relics between the began to disintegrate. Along with this breakdown
fifth and seventh centuries AD. Imperial Guptas, Magadha and its capital Patliputra
● Fa-Hien with four other monks came to India also lost their importance. Therefore, Post Gupta Period
during the reign of Chandragupta. was very turbulent in nature. Five major powers
● Hiuen-Tsang visited India during Harsha's reign. emerged in North India after the fall of the Guptas.
● According to Hiuen-Tsang's testimony, brass, gold These powers were as following:-
and silver were produced in abundance.
● The Gupta period's gold and silver coins, seals, the The Hunas
Mehrauli iron pillar, a few statues belonging to this
● The Hunas were a rare race of Central Asia who
came to India.
 Objective + Subjective General Studies
20

● During the reign of Kumargupta, Hunas invaded ● He was a Hindu who later embraced Mahayana
India for the first time. They could not succeed in Buddhism.
India under the dynasty of Kumargupta and ● He was married to Durgavati.
Skandagupta, though they could penetrate into ● He had a daughter and two sons. His daughter
India. married a king of Vallabhi whereas his sons were
● Hunas occupied India for a very short period of killed by his own minister.
thirty years. Hunas’ supremacy was established in
North India. Rise to the throne
● Toramana was their best ruler and Mihirakula the ● After Prabhakaravardhana died, his elder son
most powerful and cultured one. Rajyavardhana ascended the throne of Thaneswar.
● Harsha had a sister, Rajyashri who was married to
The Maukharis king Grahavarman of Kannauj. Shashanka, the
● The region of Western Uttar Pradesh around Gauda king killed Grahavarman and kept Rajyashri
Kanauj was held by the Maukharis. prisoner. This prompted Rajyavardhana to fight
● They also conquered some part of Magadha. against Shashanka. But Shashanka killed
● Gradually they overthrew the later Guptas and Rajyavardhana.
made them move to Malwa. ● This led the 16-year old Harshavardhana to ascend
the throne of Thaneswar in 606 AD.
The Maitrakas ● He vowed to avenge his brother’s murder and also
● Most probably the Maitrakas were Iranian in origin rescue his sister.
and ruled in Saurashtra region of Gujarat with ● For this, he forged an alliance with
Valabhi as its capital. Bhaskaravarman, the Kamarupa king. Harsha and
● Valabhi became the centre for learning, culture and Bhaskaravarman marched against Shashanka.
trade and commerce under the guidance of Ultimately, Shashanka left for Bengal and Harsha
Bhatarka. It survived the longest Arab attacks. became the king of Kannauj also.

The Gaudas Empire of Harsha

● They ruled over a territory in Bengal and were ● On acquiring Kannauj, Harsha united the two
lesser-known of the four kingdoms. Its most kingdoms of Thaneswar and Kannauj.
powerful and ambitious ruler was Shashanka. ● He moved his capital to Kannauj.
● He invaded Makhauris, killed Grahavarman and ● After the fall of the Guptas, North India was
detained Rajyashri. divided into many small kingdoms.
● Harsha was able to unite many of them under his
The Pushyabhutis command. He had, under his control, Punjab and
central India. After Shashanka’s death, he annexed
● Thaneswar (north of Delhi) was the capital of Bengal, Bihar and Odisha.
Pushyabhutis. Prabhakarvardhan was the most ● He also defeated the Vallabhi king in Gujarat. (The
important ruler of the dynasty who assumed the Vallabhi king and Harsha came to a truce by
title of Parambhattaraka and Maharajadhiraja. marriage between Harsha’s daughter and the
● They had a marriage alliance with the Maukharis. Vallabhi king Dhruvsena II.)
The marriage alliance strengthened the two However, Harsha’s plans to conquer lands of the
●
empires. south were hampered when the Chalukya king,
● Harshavardhana belonged to this clan. Pulakeshin II defeated Harsha in 618-619 AD. This
sealed Harsha’s southern territorial limit till the
HARSHAVARDHANA’S DYNASTY (606 AD - Narmada River.
647AD) ● There were two types of territories under Harsha.
● Harshavardhana was born in 591 AD to King One was directly under him and the other type were
Prabhakaravardhana of Sthaneshvara (Thaneswar, under feudatories.
Haryana). Direct territories: Central Provinces, Bengal,
●
Kalinga, Rajputana, Gujarat
 Objective + Subjective General Studies
21

● Feudatories: Jalandhar, Kashmir, Kamarupa, Sind, ● Hiuen Tsang visited his kingdom. He has praised
Nepal Pulakesin II as a good and authoritative king.
● Even the feudatories were under the tight command ● Though a Hindu, he was tolerant of Buddhism and
of Harsha. Harsha’s reign marked the beginning of Jainism.
feudalism in India. ● He conquered almost entire south-central India.
● Hiuen Tsang visited India during Harsha’s reign. ● He is famous for stopping Northern king Harsha in
He has given a very favourable account of king his tracks while he was trying to conquer southern
Harsha and his empire. He praises his generosity parts of the country.
and justice. ● He had defeated the Pallava king Mahendravarman
● Harsha was a great patron of arts. He himself was I but he was defeated and killed by
an accomplished writer. He is credited with the Mahendravarman’s son and successor
Sanskrit works Ratnavali, Priyadarshika and Narasimhavarman I in a series of battles he had
Nagananda. with the Pallavas.
● Banabhatta was his court poet and he composed ● For the next 13 years, Badami remained under
'Harshacharita' which gives an account of Harsha’s Pallava control.
life and deeds. ● Pulakesin II received a Persian mission as depicted
● Harsha generously supported the Nalanda in an Ajanta cave painting. He maintained
University. diplomatic relations with the King of Persia Khusru
● He had a good tax structure. 1/4th of all the taxes II.
collected were used for charity and for cultural ● His death saw a lapse in Chalukya power.
purposes.
● Harsha was the last king to rule over a vast empire The Pallavas
in India before the invasions by the Muslims. ● Capital of this kingdom was Kanchipuram and
● Harsha died in 647 AD after ruling for 41 years which was spread around Kaveri delta.
● Since he died without any heirs, his empire ● The Pallavas established a powerful kingdom in
disintegrated very soon after his death. South India after the fall of Satvahanas and ruled
from sixth century to late eighth century.
The Chalukyas ● They moved into Andhra and then to Kanchi where
● Pulakesin I was the first ruler of the Chalukyas. they established the mighty Pallava Empire.
● The Chalukya dynasty reached its peak during the
reign of Pulakesin II. Origin of Pallavas
● His grandfather Pulakeshin I had created an empire ● There are controversies with regard to the origin of
around Vatapi and performed Ashvamedha. the Pallavas. Important among them are as follows
● Pulakeshin II subjugated the Kadambas, the ▪ Possibly they were the descendents of the
Ganges of Mysore, the Mauravas of North Konkan, Greek Parthians who came to India after
the Latas of Gujarat, the Malavas and the Gurjars. Alexander's invasion.
● He also succeeded in getting submission from the ▪ They might have belonged to a local tribal clan
Chola, Chera and Pandya kings. who established their authority in
● He had also defeated King Harsha of Kannauj and 'Tondainnadu' or the land of creepers.
the Pallava king Mahendravarman. ▪ They originated from Chola –Naga’s marriage.
▪ They were orthodox Brahmans of the North
Pulakesin II (610 AD-642 AD) and their capital was Kanchi.
● The greatest of the Chalukya kings.
● Extended the Chalukya rule to most parts of the IMPORTANT RULERS OF PALLAVA
Deccan. DYNASTY
● His birth name was Eraya. Information about him Simhavishnu: was the first important ruler of this
is obtained from the Aihole citation dated 634 AD. dynasty. Simhavishnu captured the territory of the
This poetic inscription was written by his court Cholas and later humiliated other southern regions
poet Ravikirti in Sanskrit language using the including Ceylon.
Kannada script.
 Objective + Subjective General Studies
22

Mahendravarman I: Pulakeshin II defeated him. Saint he died in 1014 AD, he was beyond dispute the
Appar and scholar Bharavi were patronised by him. Lord Paramount of Southern India.
Mahendravarman I composed ‘Mattavilasa Prahasana’ a ● The Rajrajeshwaram temple at Thanjavur, which is
satirical play. now a UNESCO World Heritage Site was built by
Narasimhavarman I: He was famous for his victory Rajraja Chola I.
over Pulakeshin II and capturing his empire. He assumed ● It is also known as Brihadisvara Temple or
the title of Vatapikond (the conquerer of Vatapi). Later Peruvudaiyar Koyil , devoted to lord Shiva.
Cholas, Cheras and Pandyas were defeated by
Narasimhavarman I. Hiuen Tsang visited Kanchipuram THE TURKISH INVASION IN INDIA
during his rule. Narasimhavarman I established the city ● In the 8th and 9th centuries, the Turks dominated
of Mahabalipuram (Mamallapuram) famous monolithic the Caliphs of Baghdad.
tomb (made up of single stone) and rock-cut temples. ● They extended their dominion beyond Sind and
Two naval expeditions were sent to Ceylon. Multan into India and finished the work begun by
Mahendravarman II: He was killed by Vikramaditya the Arabs.
I.
Other Pallava kings included Paramesvarvarman I, Mahmud Ghazni (971 AD-1030 AD)
Narasimhavarman II, Paramesvaravarman II and ● Mahmud Ghazni was the king of Ghazni who ruled
Nandivarman II. from 971 to 1030 AD.
● He was the son of Sabuktigin.
MEDIEVAL CHOLAS ● Attracted by India’s wealth Ghazni attacked India
Vijayalaya Chola 17 times. The main objective of his attacks was to
● The first medieval Chola ruler was Vijayalaya plunder the wealth of Ghaznavi.
Chola who in 850 AD re-established the Chola
rule. His capital was Thanjavur. The invasions of Mahmud Ghazni in 1000 AD
● Vijayalaya was a Pallava feudatory. Because of this ● Mahmud Ghazni attacked modern Afghanistan and
victory, the Cholas became powerful and Pakistan in 1000 AD.
Vijayalaya wiped out both the Pandyas and ● He defeated Hindu ruler Jaipal, who committed
Pallavas from the Thanjavur area. suicide later and was succeeded by his son
● Vijayalaya renovated Thanjavur and built Anandpal.
solesvara temple at Pudukkottai. ● Ghazni invaded Bhatia in 1005 AD.
● Ghazni invaded Multan in 1006 AD. During this
Aditya Chola I time, Anandpal attacked him.
● Aditya Chola I was son of Vijayalaya and he ● Mahmud Ghazni attacked and crushed Sukhpal,
succeeded him after his death. ruler of Bhatinda in 1007 AD.
● He was a great Shiva devotee and built a number of ● Ghazni attacked Nagarkot in the Punjab hills in
Shiva Temples on the banks of river Kaveri. 1011 AD.
● Mahmud attacked the Hindushahi kingdom under
Parantaka Chola I Anandapal and defeated him in the Battle of
● His reign was from 907 AD to 953 AD. Waihind, the Hind shahi capital near Peshawar in
● Just after three years of ascending the throne, he 1013 AD.
attacked the Pandyas and captured Madurai, and ● Mahmud of Ghazni captured Thanesar in 1014 AD.
assumed the title Madurai Kond. ● Mahmud of Ghazni attacked Kashmir in 1015 AD.
● He attacked Mathura in 1018 AD and defeated a
Rajaraj Chola I coalition of rulers, including a ruler called
Chandrapal.
● The birth name of Rajaraja Chola-I was Arilmoli
● Mahmud conquered Kannauj in 1021 AD by
varman.
defeating Kannauj King Chandella Gauda.
● He was such an able King that for the period of next
● Gwalior was invaded and conquered by Mahmud
20 years, he achieved so many victories that when
Ghazni in 1023 AD.
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23

● Mahmud Ghazni attacked the Somnath temple in Death of Muhammad Ghori

1027 AD to loot the wealth amassed inside the ● He was assassinated on 25th March 1206 AD in
temple. Central Asia by some Shia rebels and Khokhars.
● Mahmud Ghaznavi died in 1030 AD due to Malaria ● He is considered to be the real founder of the
during his last invasion. Turkish Empire in India because of his various
invasions and subjugations of the Rajput territories
Muhammad Ghori (1149 AD-1206 AD) in North India.
● He was the third Muslim ruler who invaded India. DELHI SULTANATE
● He became the ruler of Ghori. ● The Delhi Sultanate refers to five Muslim
● He first invaded India in 1175 AD. kingdoms or dynasties that ruled over the territory
of Delhi between the years 1206 to 1526 AD.
First Battle of Tarain (1191 AD) The five dynasties of the Delhi Sultanate include:
● He seized the fortress of Bhatinda in 1189 AD and ▪ The Mamluk Dynasty/Slave Dynasty (1206-
then progressed into the kingdom of Prithviraj 1290 AD)
Chauhan. ▪ The Khilji Dynasty (1290-1320 AD)
● Muhammad Ghori was defeated by Prithviraj in the ▪ The Tughlaq Dynasty (1320-1413 AD)
first Battle of Tarain in 1191 AD and had to ▪ The Sayyid Dynasty (1414-1451 AD)
surrender in Bhatinda. ▪ The Lodi Dynasty (1451-1526 AD)

Second Battle of Tarain (1192 AD) The Slave Dynasty (1206-1290 AD)
● In the second battle of Tarain, the joint forces of the Qutb-ud-din Aibak (1206-1210 AD)
Rajput rulers under Prithviraj were defeated by Aram Shah (1210-1211 AD)
Muhammad Ghori. Shams-ud-din Iltutmish (1211-1236 AD)
● Prithviraj was held as a prisoner and later put to Rukn-ud-din Firuz (Apr. 1236-Nov. 1236)
death. Razia-ud-din Sultana (1236-1240 AD)
● The Muslim rule began for the first time in Indian Muiz-ud-din Bahram (1240-1242 AD)
history with the end of Second Battle of Tarain. Ala-ud-din Masud (1242-1245 AD)
Nasir-ud-din Mahmud (1245-1266 AD)
● Qutb-ud-din Aibak was appointed as the
Ghiyas-ud-din Balban (1266-1287 AD)
commander by Muhammad Ghori.
Muiz-ud-din Qaiqabad (1287-1290 AD)
Shams-ud-din Kayumars (1290 AD)
Rajput Uprisings
● Slave Dynasty was also called Ilbari Dynasty,
● There were many Rajput mutinies between 1193 Yamini Dynasty or Mamluk Dynasty.
and 1198 AD. ● Qutb-ud-din Aibak was a slave of Muhammad
● Qutb-ud-din-Aibak defeated them all and brought Ghori and he founded the Slave Dynasty in 1206
many regions under his control. AD.
● Muhammad Ghori made Delhi as his capital. ● Aibak was the first Muslim ruler of India.
● The capital city of Qutb-ud-din Aibak was Lahore.
Battle of Chandawar (1194 AD) ● He was known as ‘Lakh Baksh’ or ‘giver of lakhs’
● Muhammad Ghori defeated Jaichand, the greatest or ‘giver of favours’ for his magnanimity.
Rajput ruler of Kanauj and killed him in the battle. ● Hasan Nizami was a famous historian in the court
of the Aibak.
Conquest of Bengal and Bihar ● Qutb-ud-din Aibak started the construction of
● Muhammad-bin-Bakhtiyar Khilji, one of the Qutub Minar in 1199 in Delhi in memory of the
commanders of Muhammad Ghori, destroyed Sufi saint Khwaja Qutb-ud-din Bakhtiyar Kaki.
Vikramasila in 1202 and Nalanda University in ● Its construction was completed by Iltutmish. It is a
1203 AD. five storied building.
● Qutb-ud-din Aibak died in 1210 by falling from
horseback while playing Polo.
 Objective + Subjective General Studies
24

● After the death of Qutb-ud-din, Aram Shah ● Balban’s Tomb is situated in Delhi. It was
ascended the throne but he was deposed by constructed by Balban himself.
Iltutmish who crowned himself the Sultan. ● Qaiqabad was the last slave Sultan. (Kayumars
● During the period of Iltutmish (1210-1236 AD) who ruled for a term of three months was actually
Chengiz Khan, the Mongol conqueror attacked the last slave Sultan. He was killed by Jalal-ud-din
India (1221). Khilji) who founded the Khilji Dynasty.
● Iltutmish is considered to be the real founder of
Delhi Sultanate. Khilji Dynasty (1290-1320 AD)
● He was the first Sultan of Delhi to get recognition Jalal-ud-din Firuz Khilji (1290-1296 AD)
from the Khalifa of Bagdad. Ala-ud-din Khilji (1296-1316 AD)
● He was also the first Sultan to make Delhi his ● Khilji dynasty was founded by Malik Firoz in 1290
capital. who assumed the title Jalal-ud-din Khilji.
● He issued a purely Arabic coinage of Silver and ● In 1292, the Mongols under Abdulla, accepted
was the first to do so. defeat from Jalal-ud-din Khilji.
● Coins introduced by him, ‘Silver Tanka’ and ● Ala-ud-din Khilji, the nephew of Jalal-ud-din
‘Copper Jittal’ were the two basic coins of the Khilji, killed him after his victory over Devagiri in
Sultanate period. 1296.
● He organised the Turkan-i-chahalgani or ‘Chalisa’ ● Ala-ud-din Khilji’s early name was Ali Gurshasp.
or the famous Turkish forty to help him in the ● He became the Sultan in 1296 AD and ruled till
administration. 1316 AD.
● The revenue system of the Sultanate ‘Iqta System’, ● In 1303 Ala-ud-din Khilji attacked Chittor, the
was introduced by him. capital of Mewar, to marry Padmini the wife of
● He was succeeded by his son Rukn-ud-din Firuz. Chittor king Ratna Singh.
But he was later executed and Razia became the ● But Padmini and other Rajput women committed
sultan (daughter of Iltutmish). Juhar (Juhar is a mass suicide by jumping into fire,
● Sultana Razia, the only woman ruler of the committed by Rajput women to escape from being
Sultanate came to power in 1236 AD and reigned polluted by others)
till 1240 AD. Sultana Razia rejected the Pardah, ● Padmavat is a historical kavya about Padmini
she adorned the male dress and held open courts. episode written by Malik Muhammad Jayasi.
● On October 14, 1240 both Razia and Altunia, who ● Malik Muhammed Jayasi was the court poet of
earlier raised arms against Razia but later joined Sher shah suri.
with her were, beheaded at Kaithal. ● Ala-ud-din Khilji was the first Muslim ruler to at -
● Ghiyas-ud-din Balban ‘a slave water carrier, tack South India.
huntsman, noble, statesman' became the Sultan of ● He was the most famous ruler of the Khilji
Delhi in 1266 AD and continued in power till 1286 Dynasty.
AD. ● He was the Sultan of Delhi who banned the use of
● Balban is considered to be the founder of Second liquor.
Ilbari Dynasty. ● Ala-ud-din had a dream of World Conquest so he
● Balban described himself as ‘shadow of God’ or assumed the title ‘Sikandar-i-sani’ or Second
the ‘vice-regent of God on Earth’ (Zil-i-illahi). Alexander.
● The Chalisa or forty established by Iltutmish was ● Ala-ud-din abolished the Zamindari System and
abolished by Balban. imposed tax on cattle.
● He started the Iranian system of Sijda and Paibos. ● He was the first Muslim ruler of Delhi to introduce
● He showed special favour to the poet Amir measurement of land for tax assessment.
Khusrau. ● His market regulations were to provide goods at
● After Balban’s death in 1286 AD, Qaiqabad (1287 controlled prices to the people of Delhi.
-90) became the Sulthan. ● Ala-ud-din Khilji was the first Sultan of Delhi who
● Madhavacharya of the Dwaita Philosophy got help separated religion from politics.
from Balban. ● He constructed Alai Darwaza the gate way to
Qutub Minar.
 Objective + Subjective General Studies
25

● He built the city of Siri, the second of the seven ● Edward Thanas described him as ‘prince of
cities of Delhi, near Qutub Minar. moneyers’.
● The first marriage between a Muslim ruler and a ● Muhammad Bin Tughlaq was succeeded by his
Hindu princess was between Ala-ud-din and elderly cousin, Firoz Shah Tughlaq.
Kamala Devi, the widow of the ruler of Gujarat. ● Firoz Shah Tughlaq was the first Sultan of Delhi to
● Ala-ud-din Khilji was killed by his commander impose Jizya. It was a religious tax for the freedom
Malik Kafur by poisoning. of worship. He imposed it only upon Brahmins.
● Amir Khusrau was the court poet of Ala-ud-din. ● He built the city of Firozabad in Delhi. Firoz Shah
● Amir Khusrau is known as the ‘Parrot of India’. Kotla was also built by him. The gate way of
● He is considered as the Father of Urdu language Firozshah Kotla is known as Khooni Darwaza, or
and the inventor of Sitar. blood stained gate. It was constructed by Sher Shah
● Laila Majnu and Tughlaq Nama are the famous Suri.
works of Amir Khusrau. ● He transplanted two Ashokan Pillars to Firozabad.
● Ala-ud-din khilji was the first Sultan to maintain a ● He is the author of Futuhat-i-Firoz Shahi
permanent standing army. ● After Firozshah Tughlaq, Muhammad Shah
● He was responsible for the introduction of postal Tughlaq or Nasir-ud-din Muhammad came to the
system in medieval India. throne.
● It was during the period of his reign that Timur, the
Tughlaq Dynasty (1320-1412 AD) Lame or Tanerlane a Turkish conqueror of Tartar
Ghiyath-al-din Tughlaq (1320–1325 AD) tribe from Samarkhand attacked India in 1398 AD.
Muhammad bin Tughlaq (1325–1351 AD) ● Timur appointed Khizr Khan as the governor of
Firoz Shah Tughlaq (1351–1388 AD) Multan.
Ghiyas-ud-in Tughlaq II (1388–1389 AD)
Abu Bakr Shah (1389–1390 AD) Sayyid Dynasty (1414-1450 AD)
Nasir ud din Muhammad Shah III (1390–1393 AD) Khizar Khan (1414–1421 AD)
Ala-ud-Din Sikandar Shah I (1393 AD) Mubarak Shah (1421–1434 AD)
● Tughlaq Dynasty was founded by Ghiyas-ud-din Muhammad Shah (1434–1445 AD)
Tughlaq. His real name was Ghazi Malik. Ala-ud-din Alam Shah (1445–1451 AD)
● He founded the dynasty after killing Khusrau Khan ● Sayyid Dynasty was founded by Khizr Khan in
in 1320 and died during collapse of a pavilion. 1414.
● He built the Tughlaqabad Fort in Delhi, the third ● Last Sayyid Sultan was Ala-ud-din Alamshah or
city of Delhi to the east of Qutub complex. Shah Alam I. He was killed by Bahlol Lodi in 1451.
● He was the first Sultan to start irrigation works.
● He was succeeded by his son Jauna Khan, Lodi Dynasty (1451-1526 AD)
popularly known as Muhammad Bin Tughlaq. Bahlol Lodi (1451-1489 AD)
● Muhammed Bin Tughlaq is considered as the Sikandar Lodi (1489-1517 AD)
single most responsible person for the decline of Ibrahim Lodi (1517-1526 AD)
Delhi Sultanate. Bahlol Lodi (1451-1489 AD)
● Muhammad Bin Tughlaq was known as a mixture ● Bahlol Lodi founded the Lodi dynasty by usurping
of opposites, wisest fool, Pagal Badshah, the throne from the last of the Sayyid rulers.
unfortunate idealogue and the predecessor of ● Bahlol belonged to the Shahu Khel clan of the Lodi
Akbar in intellectual and religious matters. Pashtun tribe.
● He shifted his capital from Delhi to Devagiri Sikandar Lodhi (1489-1517 AD)
(Daulatabad) in 1327 AD. ● He was the son of Bahlol Lodi.
● In 1330, he introduced token currency of bronze ● In 1504, he founded the city of Agra and made it
and copper. his capital.
● Moroccan Traveller Ibn Batuta visited India during ● He introduced the Gaz-i-Sikandari
his period. (Sikandar’s yard) of 32 digits for measuring cultivated
● Ibn Batuta called him an "illstared idealist". fields.
Ibrahim Lodhi (1517-1526 AD)
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● He was the last king of Lodi dynasty and the last Guru Ram Das (1574-1581 AD)
Sultan of Delhi. ● Guru Ram Das, fourth of the ten gurus, founded the
● He was the son of Sikandar Lodi. city of Amritsar.
● He was defeated and killed by Babur in the first ● He started the construction of the famous Golden
Battle of panipat in 1526 AD. Temple at Amritsar, the holy city of the Sikhs.
BHAKTI MOVEMENTS
Guru Arjan Dev (1581-1606 AD)
Sikh Gurus
● He compiled the Adi Granth, the scriptures of the
● The era of the ten gurus of Sikhism spans from the Sikhs.
birth of Nanak Dev in 1469 AD to the life of Guru ● He requested the Muslim Sufi, Mian Mir to lay the
Gobind Singh. cornerstone of the Harmandir Sahib.
● At the time of Guru Gobind Singh’s death in 1708 ● He completed construction of Sri Darbar Sahib also
AD, he passed the title of Guru to the Sikh known as Golden Temple in Amritsar.
scripture, Guru Granth. ● He founded the town of Tarn Taran Sahib near
Goindwal Sahib.
Guru Nanak Dev (1469-1539 AD) ● He became the first great martyr in Sikh history
● Guru Nanak Dev, first of the ten gurus, founded the when Emperor Jahangir ordered his execution.
Sikh faith, introducing the concept of one God. Thus, he was hailed as Shaheedan-de-Sartaj (The
● He started the institution of Guru Ka Langar. crown of martyrs).
Langar is the term in the Sikh religion that refers to
the common kitchen where food is served to Guru Har Gobind Sahib (1606-1644 AD)
everyone without any discrimination. ● He was the son of Guru Arjan Dev and was known
● He emphasized on the equality of women and as a "soldier saint”.
rejected the path of renunciation and the authority ● He organised a small army and became the first
of the Vedas. Guru to take up arms to defend the faith.
● He was the contemporary of Mughal emperor - ● He waged wars against Mughal rulers Jahangir and
Babur. Shah Jahan.
● He assumed the title 'Sachcha Padshah'.
Guru Angad Dev (1539-1552 AD)
● Guru Angad Dev, second of the ten gurus, invented Guru Har Rai Sahib (1644-1661 AD)
and introduced the Gurmukhi (written form of ● Though he was a man of peace, he never disbanded
Punjabi) script. the armed sikh warriors who were earlier
● He compiled the writings of Nanak Dev in Guru maintained by Guru Har Gobind.
Granth Sahib in Gurmukhi Script. ● He gave shelter to Dara Shikoh, the eldest son of
● Popularized and expanded the institution of Guru Mughal Ruler Shah Jahan, who was later
ka Langar which was started by Guru Nanak Dev. persecuted by Aurangzeb.
● He cautiously avoided conflict with Emperor
Guru Amardas Sahib (1552-1574 AD) Aurangzeb and devoted his efforts to missionary
● Guru Amardas introduced the Anand Karaj work.
marriage ceremony for the Sikhs, replacing the
Hindu form. Guru Har Krishan Sahib (1661-1664 AD)
● He established Manji and Piri system of religious ● Guru Har Krishan was the youngest of the Gurus.
missions for men and women respectively. He was installed as Guru at the age of five.
● He strengthened the tradition of Guru Ka Langar. ● He was contemporary of Aurangzeb and was
● He also completely abolished amongst the Sikhs, summoned to Delhi by him under framed charges
the custom of Sati and purdah system. of anti-Islamic blasphemy.
● He was the contemporary of Mughal emperor -
Akbar. Guru Tegh Bahadur Sahib (1665-1675 AD)
● He established the town of Anandpur.
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27

● He opposed the forced conversion of the Hindu ● Later he founded his own sect and preached his
Kashmiri Pandits by Mughal ruler Aurangzeb and principles in Hindi at Banaras and Agra.
was consequently persecuted for this. ● Ramananda was the first to employ the vernacular
medium to spread his ideas.
Guru Gobind Singh Sahib (1675-1708 AD) ● He opposed the caste system and chose his
● He became Guru after the martyrdom of his father disciples from all sections of society irrespective of
Guru Tegh Bahadur. caste.
● He created 'Khalsa' in 1699, changing the Sikhs Ramananda’s disciples were:
into a saint-soldier order for protecting themselves. ● Kabir
● He was the last Sikh Guru in human form as he ● Ravidas, he was a cobbler
passed the Guruship of the Sikhs to the Guru ● Sena, he was a barber
Granth Sahib. ● Sursurananda
● Sursuri
Guru Granth Sahib ● Padyawati
● Anantananda
● Guru Granth Sahib (also known as the Adi Granth)
● Sukhanand
is the scripture of the Sikhs.
● Bhavanand
● The Granth was written in Gurmukhi script and it
● Dhanna, he was a Jat farmer
contains the actual words and verses as uttered by
● Naraharai, he was a goldsmith
the Sikh Gurus.
● Pipa, he was a Rajput prince
SOME OTHER SAINTS/GURUS
Kabir
Ramanuja
● Kabir was the most famous disciple of Ramananda.
● He was born in Sriperumbudur near modern
● He was brought up by a Muslim couple who were
Chennai.
weavers by profession.
● He preached Visishtadvaita in the 12th century.
● He had a curious mind in learning new things and
● According to him God is Saguna Brahman.
he learnt much about Hinduism in Banaras.
● He encouraged Prapatti marga or path of self-
● Kabir’s aim was to reunite Hindus and Muslims
surrender to God.
and establish harmony between them.
● He invited the downtrodden to Vaishnavism
● He is regarded as the greatest of the mystic saints.
● His followers are called Kabirpanthis.
Surdas
● He was the disciple of Vallabhacharya Chaitanya
● He popularized Krishna cult in the Northern part of
● Chaitanya was another renowned saint and
India
reformer of Bengal who popularised the Krishna
cult.
Mirabai
● He believed that a devotee can feel the presence of
● She was a great devotee of Krishna. God through song, dance, love and devotion.
● She became popular in Rajasthan for her bhajans.
Jnanadeva
Tulsidas
● He was the founder of the Bhakti Movement in
● He was a worshipper of Rama. Maharashtra in the 13th century.
● He composed the famous Ramcharitmanas, the ● It was called Maharashtra dharma.
Hindi version of Ramayana. ● He wrote Jnanesvari, a commentary of Bhagvad
Gita.
Ramananda
● He was born in Allahabad. Namdeva
● Initially he was a follower of Ramanuja. ● In the 16th Century, Namdeva preached the gospel
of love.
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● He opposed idol worship and dominance of priests. ● He was buried at Arambagh in Agra for sometime
● He criticized the caste system. and later shifted to Kabul according to his wish.
● He wrote his own biography 'Tuzuk-i-Baburi' in
Eknath Turkish. It was translated into Persian by Abdur
● He was a prominent Marathi Saint, a scholar and Rahim Khan-i-Khanan and is known as
religious poet of the Varkari Sampradaya. Baburnama.
● He opposed caste differences and was kind towards
the lower castes. Humayun (1530-1540 AD)
● He is known as a bridge between his predecessors ● Humayun was the eldest son of Babur.
Dnyaneshwar and Namdev and the later Tukaram ● Humayun had to march against the fort of Kalinjar
and Ramdas. in Bundelkhand just after six months of his
coronation in 1531 AD.
Tukaram ● In 1532, at a place called Dadhra, he defeated the
● Tukaram was another Bhakti saint of Maharashtra Afghan forces.
and was a contemporary of Sivaji. ● On 26th June 1539, 'Battle of Chausa' was fought
● Tukaram is also referred to as Saint Tukaram, between Sher Shah and Humayun's army.
Bhakta Tukaram, Tukaram Maharaj, Tukoba and ● Humayun was defeated badly. He barely escaped
Tukobaraya. his life from the battle field, swimming, across the
● He was a 17th century poet-saint of the Bhakti Karamnasa river with the help of a water carrier.
movement. ● Humayun reached Agra to negotiate with his
● Tukaram is best known for his Abhanga- brothers. But as they were not cooperative,
devotional poetry and kirtans – community- Humayun was forced to fight with Sher Shah alone
oriented worship with spiritual songs. in the Battle of Bilgram in 1540.
● His poetry was devoted to Vitthala or Vithoba, an ● This battle was also known as 'Battle of Kanauj'.
avatar of Hindu god Vishnu. Humayun was thoroughly defeated by Sher Shah.
● Responsible for creating a background for Maratha ● After losing his kingdom, Humayun went to exile
nationalism. for the next fifteen years.
THE MUGHAL EMPIRE
Sher Shah Suri (1540-1545 AD)
Babur (1526-1530 AD) ● The founder of the Suri dynasty was Sher Shah,
● Babur was the founder of Mughal Empire in India. whose original name was Farid. He was the son of
His real name was Zahir-ud-din Muhammad Hasan Khan, a jagirdar of Sasaram in Bihar
Babur. ● Sher Shah waged extensive wars with the Rajputs
● Babur's first invasion of India was directed against and expanded his empire.
the Yusufzai tribe in 1519 AD. He captured Bhira ● His empire consisted of the whole of North India
during this expedition and used gun-powder for the except Assam, Nepal, Kashmir and Gujarat.
first time. ● The king was assisted by four important people
● On 21st April 1526, the first Battle of Panipat took ▪ Diwan-i-Wizarat – Department of Revenue
place between Babur and Ibrahim Lodi, who was and Finance.
killed in the battle. ▪ Diwan-i-Ariz – Department of Army.
● In 1527, he also defeated Rana Sanga, who ▪ Diwan-i-Rasalat – Department of Foreign
considered Babur as a foreign invader, in the Battle affairs.
of Khanwa. ▪ Diwan-i-Insha – Royal secretariat.
● In 1528, Babur followed up his successes at ● Sher Shah’s empire was divided into forty seven
Khanwa and led a campaign against Medini Rai of sarkars. Chief Shiqdar (law and order) and Chief
Chanderi in Malwa. Munsif (judge) were the two officers in charge of
● In May 1529 AD Battle of Ghagra took place the administration in each sarkar.
between Babur and the Afghans. ● Each sarkar was divided into several parganas.
● Babur died on 26 December 1530 at the age of 48. Shiqdar (military officer), Amin (land revenue),
Fotedar (treasurer) and Karkuns (accountants)
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were in charge of the administration of each ● In the second Battle of Panipat in 1556, Hemu was
pargana. almost at the point of victory. But an arrow pierced
● There were also many administrative units called his eye and he became unconscious.
iqtas. ● His army fled and the fortune favoured Akbar. The
● The land revenue administration was well Mughal victory was decisive.
organized under Sher Shah. Land survey was ● During the first five years of Akbar’s reign, Bairam
carefully done. All cultivable lands were classified Khan acted as his regent. He consolidated the
into three classes – good, middle and bad. Mughals.
● The state’s share was one third of the average ● After five years he was removed by Akbar due to
produce and it was paid in cash or crop. court intrigues and sent to Mecca. But on his way,
● Sher Shah introduced new silver coins called Bairam was killed by an Afghan.
“Dam” and they were in circulation till 1835. ● He conquered northern India from Agra to Gujarat
● He had also improved the communications by and then from Agra to Bengal. He strengthened the
laying four important highways. northwest frontier. Later, he went to the Deccan.
● Generally tolerant towards other religions, he ● He married the Rajput princess, the daughter of
employed Hindus in important offices. Raja Bharmal. It was a turning point in the history
● Malik Muhammad Jayasi wrote the famous Hindi of Mughals. Rajputs served the Mughals for four
work Padmavat during his reign. generations.
● After Sher Shah’s death in 1545, his successors ● Raja Bhagwan Das and Raja Man Singh were given
ruled till 1555 when Humayun reconquered India. senior positions in the administration by Akbar.
● He abolished the pilgrim tax and later the Jizya in
Humayun (1555-1556 AD) 1562.
● Humayun considered that the time was ripe to ● In the Battle of Haldighati, Rana Pratap Singh was
make a come back to India. severely defeated by the Mughal army led by Man
● He reached Peshawar in December 1554 where Singh in 1576.
Bairam Khan met him after crossing the Indus ● Akbar rose to fame in the pages of history due to
river. his religious policy. Various factors were
● On 15th May, 1555, the Mughals fought a responsible for his religious ideas.
successive battle against the Afghans at ● He allowed his Hindu wives to worship their own
Machhiwara. gods.
● One more battle was fought at Sirhind against ● In 1575, he ordered the construction of Ibadat
Sikandar Suri. Khana (House of worship) at his new capital
● On 23rd July, his coronation was organized for the Fatepur Sikri.
second time. ● Akbar invited learned scholars from all religions
● On 27th January, 1556, he fell from the stairs of like Hinduism, Jainism, Christianity and
Sher Mandal, a Library at Dinpanah and died. Zoroastrianism.
● His wife, Haji Begum, constructed a beautiful tomb ● In 1579, he issued the “Infallibility Decree” by
near the fort of Dinpanah. which he asserted his religious powers
● Architect of this tomb was Mirak Mirza Ghiyath. ● In 1582, he promulgated a new religion called Din-
● He constructed two mosques, one at Agra and the i-Ilahi or Divine Faith. It believes in one God. It
other at Fatehabad in Hissar. contained good points of all religions. Its basis was
rational. It upholds no dogma. It was aimed at
Akbar (1556-1605 AD) bridging the gulf that separated different religions.
● The land revenue system of Akbar was called Zabti
● Akbar was one of the greatest monarchs of India. or Bandobast system
He succeeded the throne after his father ● It was known as Dahsala System which was
Humayun’s death. But his position was dangerous completed in 1580. By this system, Todar Mal
because Delhi was seized by the Afghans. introduced a uniform system of land measurement.
● Their commander-in-Chief, Hemu, was in charge
of it.