RAMESH R 21PHY12/22

Module-1 : Syllabus
1.1Free Oscillations: Definition of SHM, Characteristics; Examples and Derivation of No numerical
𝒅𝟐 𝒚 𝒌 problems
+ y = 𝟎 differential equation of motion for SHM starting from Hooke’s law.
𝒅𝒕𝟐 𝒎
Mechanical simple harmonic oscillator: Mass suspended to spring (vertical vibrations) - Numerical
Description, Mention of Expression for time period/frequency, Definition problems
of force constant and its significance, Derivation of expressions for force constants for
𝒌 .𝒌
series (𝒌𝑺 = 𝟏 𝟐 ) and parallel combination of springs (𝒌𝑷 = 𝒌𝟏 + 𝒌𝟐 )
𝒌𝟏 + 𝒌𝟐
Definition of free oscillations with examples, mention the equation of motion, Natural Numerical
frequency of vibration - Qualitative discussion. problems
1:2 Damped oscillations: Definition with examples. Derivation of decaying amplitude, Numerical
Discussion of 3 .cases viz, over damping, critical damping ,under damping. problems
Quality factor-Definition, equation and its significance,
1.3 Forced oscillations: Definition with examples. Derivation of expressions for Numerical
amplitude and phase of forced vibrations. problems
Discussion of 3 cases (i) p≪w, (ii) p= w and iii) p» w
Resonance: Definition, Examples, Condition for resonance and expression for maximum
amplitude (just mention) and Sharpness of Resonance: Definition and significance,I
I mention the effect of damping on sharpness of resonance

Qualitative discussion of Examples of Resonance: Helmholtz Resonator- Description and No numerical

mention of expression for resonant frequency problems
1.4 SHOCK WAVES: Definition of Mach number, classification of objects based on Mach Numerical
number Mach number (subsonic, supersonic, Transonic and hypersonic) Definition and problems
properties of shock waves
Definition of control volume, Laws of conservation of mass, energy and momentum No numerical
[Statement and equations) problems
Construction and working of Reddy shock tube Applications No numerical
of shock waves: Qualitative (minimum 5 applications)
Tutorial classes , ~ Involvement of students in respect of their doubts about the
module and numerical problems

Module-1
𝒅𝟐 𝒚 𝒌
1. Derivation of differential equation of motion for SHM from Hook’s law 𝟐 + 𝒚 = 𝟎
𝒅𝒕 𝒎
2. Derivation of expressions for force constants for series and parallel combination of springs.
𝒌 𝒌
𝒌𝑺 = 𝟏 𝟐 and 𝒌𝑷 = 𝒌𝟏 + 𝒌𝟐
𝒌𝟏 +𝒌𝟐
3. Definition of control volume and Law of conservation of mass, energy and momentum (Statements
with equations)
4. Reddy shock tube- construction ,Working and its applications
5. Derivation of expression for decaying amplitude and phase of forced vibrations and discussion
following 3 cases :
i) p≪ 𝝎 ii) p= 𝝎 iii) p≫ 𝝎
6. Definition of Mach number and classification of Subsonic, Supersonic, Transonic and Hypersonic
waves based on Mach number.
7. Definition of Shock waves and their properties and uses.
8. Derivation of decaying amplitude and discussion of 3 cases namely Over damping, Critical damping
and Under damping.

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OSCILLATIONS

Oscillations are periodic motions. If the oscillations occur without the action of an external
periodic force then such oscillations are called free oscillations. The motion of an object is
said to be SHM, if the restoring force (or acceleration) is directly proportional to the
displacement and acts in the direction opposite to that of motion.

Simple Harmonic Motion(SHM) is the periodic motion about an equilibrium position.

or
SHM is the oscillatory motion in which the force acting on the body is directly proportional
to the negative of the displacement.
Ex: Oscillations of a simple pendulum, Motion of the bob of an oscillating pendulum and
motion of the weight attached to the oscillating spring.
If ‘F’ is the restoring force and ‘x’ is the displacement, then
F α –x
F = - kx, where ‘k’ is the proportionality constant called the force constant.
Characteristics of SHM:

O
C• • • •D
A x
A

Equilibrium position

1. It is a particular type of periodic motion.

2. There is a constant restoring force continuously acting on the body/system.
3. The acceleration developed in the motion due to the restoring force is directly
proportional to the displacement.
4. The direction of acceleration is opposite to that of the displacement. F α –x.
5. It can be represented by a sine or cosine function such as x = a sin wt, where x-
displacement at the instant t, a is the amplitude, w- angular frequency.

Examples of SHM :

1. A mass suspended to a spring when pulled down and left free executes SHM
vertically.
2. A pendulum set for oscillations.

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3. Excited tuning fork.
4. A plucked string in a veena or a Guitar.
5. Swings with which the children play.

Harmonic Oscillations: Any motion, which repeats itself at regular intervals is called
Harmonic Oscillations. The oscillatory motion in which the force acting on the body is
directly proportional to the negative of the displacement is called SHM.
𝒅𝟐 𝒚 𝒌
Differential equation of motion for SHM + 𝒎 𝒚 = 𝟎 from Hook’s law and mention of its
𝒅𝒕𝟐
solution .

F = −𝑘 𝑦 F = −𝑘 𝑦
F=0
F
m
Type equation here.
y
m Equilibrium position
y

Let a mass ‘m’ suspended by a spring of spring constant ‘ k ’ rests about its equilibrium
position as shown in the diagram.
Pull the mass through a distance ‘ y ‘ and release. The mass execute SHM about the
equilibrium position. Then the restoring force acting on the body due to elongation
/contraction is given by Hook’s law as
F = − k y …(1)
𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 − 𝑣𝑒 𝑠𝑖𝑔𝑛 indicate that force and displacement are opposite to each other.
According to Newton’s 2nd law the restoring force (inertial force) produce an
acceleration ‘ a ‘ given by F = 𝒎𝒂 ….(2)
𝑑2 𝑦
∴ from eqns 1 & 2 ,we get 𝑚𝑎 = − k y , but a = 𝑑𝑡 2

𝑑2 𝑦
∴ 𝑚 𝑑𝑡 2 = − k x
𝑑2 𝑦 𝑘
= −𝑚 y
𝑑𝑡 2
𝒅𝟐 𝒚 𝒌
+ 𝒎 y = 𝟎 ….(3)
𝒅𝒕𝟐
this eqn is called differential equation of Simple Harmonic Motion.
The solution of equation 3 is y = a sin(𝝎𝒕) …..(4), where A is amplitude , 𝜔𝑡 is
phase at time t. 𝝎 is also called the natural frequency of vibration.
Differentiate equation (4) w.r.t ‘t’
𝑑𝑦
= a 𝜔 cos 𝜔𝑡
𝑑𝑥

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𝒅𝟐 𝒚
= −𝑎 𝜔 𝟐 sinwt
𝒅𝒕𝟐
𝒅𝟐 𝒚
+ 𝜔 𝟐 𝒚 = 𝟎 … … (𝟓) since from equation(3)
𝒅𝒕𝟐
Compare eqn 5 & 3,
𝑘
= 𝜔2
𝑚

𝑲
𝝎= √
𝒎

2𝜋 𝑚
Note: 1. The time period of oscillation is given by T = = 2𝜋√ 𝑘
𝜔
Mechanical SHM: (Mass suspended to a spring):

Rigid support Consider a spring whose one end is fixed to rigid support.
Let a mass m be attached to its lower end due to which a
Load mg acts on the spring vertically downwards. The
Equilibrium level of the spring with the load is at O.
Any displacement upwards from O taken positive and below
is considered as negative. Suppose the mass m is pulled down
m B within the elastic limit by a distance –y. Let the force required to
do it be –F. Then the upwards restoring generated within the
-y O spring will be +F. since by Hooke’s law,
restoring force α - displacement
A -ve sign indicates that the restoring force acts in a direction
m
Opposite to the displacement.
W = mg F α –y
F = - ky Where K- force constant/ stiffness factor.
|−𝑭| 𝑭
k= ≈ for y=1,K=F thus , the force constant is defined as “ It is the magnitude of the
𝒚 𝑿
applied force that produces unit extension(or compression) in the spring while it is loaded
within the elastic limit”.
Significance:
1. K is a measure of stiffness.
2. In the case of springs, It represents how much force it takes to stretch the spring
over a unit length. Thus, springs with larger values for force constant will be stiffer,
It is also called Spring constant.

1. Time Period(T) is the time taken for one complete oscillation.

2𝜋 𝑚
T= = 2𝜋√ 𝐾 where m = 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠, 𝐾 = elastic constant. T is independent of
𝜔

amplitude.

2. Frequency (ν) is the number of oscillations per second and is the reciprocal of
period.

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𝟏 1 𝐾 2𝜋
𝝂 = 𝑻 or 𝝂 = 2𝜋 √𝑚 ……………..Hz and angular frequency is given by,𝜔 = 𝑇

𝑲
∴ 𝝎 = √ …………..radian/second
𝒎

3. Phase(𝝎𝒕 + 𝝋) is the state of oscillation of the particle specifying position and

direction. 𝜑 is called the phase constant.

Effective spring constant of a system of two springs in parallel:

𝐹1 𝐹2 F

𝑘1 𝑘2 𝑘𝑝

m
y y

m m

Consider two springs of constants 𝒌𝟏 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒌𝟐 are suspended in parallel with a load ‘m’
Let the mass is pulled through a distance ‘x’ and released. The mass execute Up And Down
motions. Let 𝑭𝟏 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝑭𝟐 be the restoring forces that act in the springs of constants
𝒌𝟏 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒌𝟐 respectively. Then 𝑭𝟏 = −𝒌𝟏 𝒚 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝑭𝟐 = −𝒌𝟐 𝒚
and net restoring force acting on mass, F = 𝑭𝟏 + 𝑭𝟐 = −(𝒌𝟏 + 𝒌𝟐 )𝒚 ….(1)

also if 𝒌𝑷 be the spring constant of the system of springs in parallel ,then F = = −𝒌𝒚 …(2)

𝑚
From Eqns 1&2 ,we get , 𝒌𝑷 = 𝒌𝟏 + 𝒌𝟐 and T = 2𝜋√𝐾
𝑝

Note:

1. If a system of ‘n’ springs of spring constants 𝒌𝟏 , 𝒌𝟐 , 𝒌𝟑………….. 𝒌𝒏 are connected in

parallel,
then their effective spring constant 𝒌𝑷 = 𝒌𝟏 + 𝒌𝟐 + 𝒌𝟑 + ⋯ + 𝒌𝒏
2. If 𝒌𝟏 = 𝒌𝟐 = 𝒌𝟑 = ⋯ = 𝒌𝒏 = k , then 𝒌𝑷 = 𝒏𝒌

Effective spring constant of a system of two springs in series:

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Consider two springs of constants 𝒌𝟏 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒌𝟐 are suspended in series with a load ‘m’
Let the mass is pulled through a distance ‘x’ and released. The mass execute Up And Down
motions. 𝒚𝟏 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒚𝟐 be the extensions of the springs of constants 𝒌𝟏 & 𝒌𝟐
Then , y = 𝒚𝟏 + 𝒚𝟐 ….(1)

Let 𝑭𝟏 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝑭𝟐 be the restoring forces that act in the springs of constants 𝒌𝟏 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒌𝟐
𝑭
respectively. Then 𝑭𝟏 = −𝒌𝟏 𝒚𝟏 or 𝒚𝟏 = − 𝒌𝟏 ……(2)
𝟏

𝑭
𝑭2 = −𝒌2 𝒚𝟐 or 𝒚2 = − 𝒌2 …….(3)
𝟐

𝐹1

𝒌𝟏 F

𝐹2 𝑦1 𝑘𝑆
𝑘2

𝑦2 m

m
y
y
m

Also if 𝒌𝑺 be the spring constant of series combination and F the net restoring force acting
𝑭
on the mass ,then F= −𝒌𝑺 𝒚 or 𝒚 = − 𝒌 …. (4)
𝑺

𝑭 𝑭 𝑭
∴ From eqns 1,2,3&4,we get, = 𝒌𝟏 + 𝒌2
𝒌𝑺 𝟏 𝟐

For light springs , 𝑭𝟏 = 𝑭𝟐 = 𝐹

𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝒌𝟏 .𝒌𝟐 𝑚
Then = + or 𝒌𝑺 = and T = 2𝜋√
𝒌𝑺 𝒌𝟏 𝒌𝟐 𝒌𝟏 + 𝒌𝟐 𝐾𝑠

Note: 1. If a system of ‘n’ springs of spring constants 𝒌𝟏 , 𝒌𝟐 , 𝒌𝟑………….. 𝒌𝒏 are connected

𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
in series, then their effective spring constant 𝒌 = 𝒌 + 𝒌 + 𝒌 + ⋯ + 𝒌
𝑺 𝟏 𝟐 𝟑 𝒏
𝟏 𝒏 𝒌
2 . If 𝒌𝟏 = 𝒌𝟐 = 𝒌𝟑 = ⋯ = 𝒌𝒏 = k , then 𝒌 = 𝒌 or 𝒌𝑺 = 𝒏 or k = 𝒏𝒌𝑺
𝑺

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Types of oscillations(Vibrations):
There are three types of oscillations ,namely Free oscillations ,Damped oscillations and
Forced oscillations.
Free oscillations are the oscillations of a body or system with its own natural frequency and
under no external influence other than the impulse that initiated the motion is called Free
oscillations. Or If the oscillating system is isolated (i.e, if no energy is being added to or
taken away from the system ) the oscillations are called free oscillations.
When a pendulum is displaced from its equilibrium position and let go, with no resistance,
1 𝑔
it execute free oscillations with frequency 𝜈 = √ ,where g is acceleration due to
2𝜋 𝐿
gravity, L is the length.
Free oscillations(Vibrations) are the oscillations of the body which remains unaffected by
external forces.
The frequency of free oscillations is called natural frequency.
Ex: Oscillations of simple pendulum in vacuum, Vibrations of excited tuning fork in vacuum,
Vibrations of stringed instruments in vacuum, Vibrations of Bridges etc
Equation of motion for free oscillations:
𝑑2 𝑦 𝑘
The equation of motion for free oscillations is given by 𝑑𝑡 2 + 𝑚 𝑦 = 0
Where ‘m’ is the mass ,’k’ is force constant and ’ 𝑦 ’ is displacement at any instant ‘t’ of
oscillating body.
Natural frequency is the frequency with which the pendulum oscillates freely on its own
when no external resistive forces acts on it.
1 𝑔
𝜈= √ ,where g is acceleration due to gravity, L is the length.
2𝜋 𝐿
Damped oscillations(Vibrations) are the oscillations, whose amplitude goes on decreasing
due to the frictional forces of the medium acting on the body.
Or
The oscillations in which the amplitude decreases continuously with the passage of time.
Any oscillation in which the amplitude of the oscillating quantity decreases with time
known as damped oscillations.
Ex: Mechanical Oscillations of simple pendulum in air, Vibrations of prongs of tunig fork,
A swing left free to oscillate after being pushed once.
Theory of damped vibrations:
Consider a body of mass m executing vibrations in a resistive medium.
𝑑𝑥
Then the resistive force acting on the body due to medium = −𝑟 𝑑𝑡 ,
𝑑𝑥
where r is damping constant and 𝑑𝑡 is the velocity of the body.
Also restoring force acting on the body = −𝑘𝑥 ,
where k is force constant and x is displacement.
𝑑𝑥
∴ The net resultant restoring force acting on the body = −𝑟 𝑑𝑡 – 𝑘𝑥 ……(1)

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2
𝑑 𝑥
By Newton’s 2nd law ,the resultant force acting on the body = 𝑚 … . (2)
𝑑𝑡2
𝑑2𝑥 𝑑𝑥
From eqn 1&2 ,we get , m = −𝑟 – 𝑘𝑥
𝑑𝑡 2 𝑑𝑡
2
𝑑 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
∴ m 2 +𝑟 𝑑𝑡 + 𝑘𝑥 = 0 This is eqn of damped motion
𝑑𝑡
𝑑2𝑥 𝑟 𝑑𝑥 𝑘
On re-arranging ,we get , + 𝑚 𝑑𝑡 + 𝑚 𝑥 = 0 …(3)
𝑑𝑡 2
𝑟 𝑘 𝒌
Let = 2𝑏 & WKT 𝜔2 = 𝑚 ∵ 𝝎 = √𝒎
𝑚
𝑑2𝑥 𝑑𝑥
∴ +2𝑏 𝑑𝑡 + 𝜔2 𝑥 = 0 …..(3)
𝑑𝑡 2
Let the solution of eqn 3 be x = 𝐴𝑒 𝛼𝑡 ….(4) ,where A and 𝛼 are constants.
Differentiating eqn 4 twice wrt ‘t ‘ we get,
𝑑𝑥
= 𝐴𝛼𝑒 𝛼𝑡 …(5)
𝑑𝑡
𝑑2𝑥
and = 𝐴𝛼 2 𝑒 𝛼𝑡 …(6)
𝑑𝑡 2
substituting eqns 4,5&6 in 3 ,we get
𝐴𝛼 2 𝑒 𝛼𝑡 + 2𝑏 𝐴𝛼𝑒 𝛼𝑡 + 𝜔2 𝐴𝑒 𝛼𝑡 = 0
𝐴𝑒 𝛼𝑡 (𝛼 2 + 2𝛼𝑏 + 𝜔2 ) = 0
𝑥(𝛼 2 + 2𝛼𝑏 + 𝜔2 ) = 0
Thus (𝛼 2 + 2𝛼𝑏 + 𝜔2 ) = 0 …(7) as x ≠ 0
The solution of eqn 7 is 𝛼 = −𝑏 ± √𝑏 2 − 𝜔 2 …(8)
From eqns 4 & 8 ,the general solution can be written as
2 2 2 2
x = C 𝑒 (−𝑏+√𝑏 −𝜔 )𝑡 + 𝐷 𝑒 (−𝑏−√𝑏 −𝜔 )𝑡 …(9) ,where C&D are constants.
Let the time is counted from maximum displacement x = 𝑥0 ,then t = 0
From eqn 9,we,get 𝑥0 = C+ D …(10)
𝑑𝑥
At maximum displacement the velocity = 0 , Differentiating eqn 9 and equating to zero,
𝑑𝑡
2 −𝜔2 )𝑡 2 −𝜔 2 )𝑡
We get , (−𝑏 + √𝑏 2 − 𝜔 2 )C 𝑒 (−𝑏+√𝑏 + (−𝑏 − √𝑏 2 − 𝜔 2 )𝐷 𝑒 (−𝑏−√𝑏 =0
When , t = 0 , (−𝑏 + √𝑏 2 − 𝜔 2 )C + (−𝑏 − √𝑏 2 − 𝜔 2 )𝐷 = 0
On rearranging, −𝑏(𝐶 + 𝐷) + √𝑏 2 − 𝜔 2 (𝐶 − 𝐷) = 0
−𝑏𝑥0 + √𝑏 2 − 𝜔 2 (𝐶 − 𝐷) = 0
𝑏𝑥0
= (𝐶 − 𝐷) ……..(11)
√𝑏2 −𝜔2
𝑥0 𝑏
Adding eqns 10 and 11 , we get C = [1 + √𝑏2 ]
2 −𝜔2
𝑥0 𝑏
Also subtracting eqn 11 from 10 ,we get D = [1 − √𝑏2 ]
2 −𝜔2
Substituting for C and d in eqn 9 ,we get

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𝒙𝟎 𝒃 𝟐 −𝝎𝟐 )𝒕 𝒙𝟎 𝒃 𝟐 −𝝎𝟐 )𝒕
x=
𝟐
[𝟏 + ] 𝒆(−𝒃+√𝒃 +
𝟐
[𝟏 − ] 𝒆(−𝒃−√𝒃 ….(12)
√𝒃𝟐 −𝝎𝟐 √𝒃𝟐 −𝝎𝟐
This is the general solution for damped vibrations
Discuss over damping ,Critical damping and Under damping:
Case-1. Over damping/dead beat
Oscillations are said to be over damped or heavy damped when the system attains
equilibrium state quite slowly without making oscillations.
The condition for over damping is 𝒃𝟐 > 𝝎𝟐
Case-2. Under damping.
Oscillations are said to be under damped when the amplitude of oscillations
decreases with respect to time.
The condition for under damping is 𝒃𝟐 = 𝝎𝟐
Case-3. Critical damping .
Oscillations are said to be critically damped when the system attains equilibrium state
quite quickly without making any oscillations.
The condition for critical damping is 𝒃𝟐 < 𝝎𝟐

Over damping
Displacement

Critical damping
Under damping

time

Practical applications of critical damping:

1. Many electrical instruments like pointer galvanometer, voltmeter etc exhibits

critical damping.
2. Shock absorbers are designed along with the springs to give critical damping.

Quality factor (Q- factor): “It is defined as the number of cycles required for the energy to
fall off by a factor of 𝒆𝟐𝝅 (≅ 535)”.
The energy loss rate of a weakly damped harmonic oscillator is characterizes in terms of a
parameter Q , which is known as quality factor. Or To describe the amount of damping with
a quantity called Quality factor.
𝑾
Q= it is a unit less quantity.
𝟐𝒃

𝑤
2b = sub in equation given below
𝑄

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𝑑2𝑥 𝑑𝑥
+2𝑏 𝑑𝑡 + 𝜔2 𝑥 = 0
𝑑𝑡 2

𝒅𝟐 𝒙 𝒘 𝒅𝒙
∴ + 𝑸 𝒅𝒕 + 𝝎𝟐 𝒙 = 𝟎
𝒅𝒕𝟐

Significance of Q- factor: It is defined as the number of cycles required for the energy to fall
off by a factor of 𝒆𝟐𝝅 (≅ 535). Larger number of cycles gives larger values for Q which
means, the sustenance of oscillations is more thereby overcoming the resistive forces.
Thus, Q-factor describes how much under damped is the oscillating system.

Forced oscillations(Vibrations) : These are the oscillations executed by the body with the
frequency of the external periodic force with constant amplitude, but not with its natural
frequency.

Ex: 1. Oscillations of a swing which is pushed periodically by a person.

3. The periodic variation of current in an LCR circuit driven by an AC source.
4. The vibrations of ear drum caused by sound from a sounding body (such a tuning
fork).
5. The motion of hammer in calling bell.
Theory of forced vibrations:

Consider a body of mass m displaced through a distance x at any instant of time t ,when an
external periodic force F Sin(pt) of angular frequency p acts on it opposite to its direction.
𝑑𝑥
Then the damping force acting on the body opposite to the its direction (p)is −𝑟 𝑑𝑡 ,where r
is damping constant.
Also the restoring force acting on the body is – 𝑘𝑥 , where k is force constant.
𝑑𝑥
∴ The net resultant restoring force acting on the body = −𝑟 𝑑𝑡 – 𝑘𝑥 + F Sin(pt) ……(1)
𝑑2𝑥
According to Newton’s 2nd law, the resultant force on the body = m ….(2)
𝑑𝑡 2
𝑑2𝑥 𝑑𝑥
From eqn 1&2 ,we get, m = −𝑟 𝑑𝑡 – 𝑘𝑥 + F Sin(pt)
𝑑𝑡 2
𝑑2𝑥 𝑑𝑥
∴ m +𝑟 + 𝑘𝑥 = F Sin(pt) This is eqn of forced vibration motion
𝑑𝑡 2 𝑑𝑡
𝑑2𝑥 𝑟 𝑑𝑥 𝑘 𝐹
On re-arranging ,we get , + 𝑚 𝑑𝑡 + 𝑚 𝑥 = 𝑚 Sin(pt) …(3)
𝑑𝑡 2
𝑟 𝑘 𝑘
Let = 2𝑏 & WKT 𝜔2 = 𝑚 ∵ 𝜔 = √𝑚
𝑚
𝑑2𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝐹
∴ +2𝑏 𝑑𝑡 + 𝜔2 𝑥 = 𝑚 Sin(pt)……………(A)
𝑑𝑡 2
The solution of this differential equation is x = 𝑎 𝑆𝑖𝑛(𝑝𝑡 − 𝛼) ……(4)
Where a and 𝛼 represent amplitude and phase of the vibrating body.

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Differentiating equn 4, w.r.t ‘ t ‘ twice ,we get
𝑑𝑥
= 𝑎𝑝 𝐶𝑜𝑠(𝑝𝑡 − 𝛼)………………(5)
𝑑𝑡
𝑑2 𝑥
= −𝑎𝑝2 𝑆𝑖𝑛(𝑝𝑡 − 𝛼)……………..(6)
𝑑𝑡 2
∴ substitute eqn 4,5,6 in (A), we get,
𝐹
−𝑎𝑝2 𝑆𝑖𝑛(𝑝𝑡 − 𝛼) + 2𝑏 𝑎𝑝 𝐶𝑜𝑠(𝑝𝑡 − 𝛼) + 𝜔2 𝑎 𝑆𝑖𝑛(𝑝𝑡 − 𝛼) = 𝑚 Sin(pt) …..(7)
𝐹 𝐹
But Sin(pt) = 𝑚 𝑆𝑖𝑛[(𝑝𝑡 − 𝛼) + 𝛼]
𝑚
Substituting in 5 and simplifying, we get
𝐹 𝐹
[−𝑎𝑝2 𝑆𝑖𝑛(𝑝𝑡 − 𝛼) + 𝜔2 𝑎 𝑆𝑖𝑛(𝑝𝑡 − 𝛼) + 2𝑏 𝑎𝑝 𝐶𝑜𝑠(𝑝𝑡 − 𝛼) ] = 𝑆𝑖𝑛(𝑝𝑡 − 𝛼)𝐶𝑜𝑠𝛼 + 𝑚
𝑚
𝐶𝑜𝑠(𝑝𝑡 − 𝛼)𝑆𝑖𝑛𝛼
Equating the coefficients of 𝑆𝑖𝑛(𝑝𝑡 − 𝛼) and 𝐶𝑜𝑠(𝑝𝑡 − 𝛼) on both sides separately we get
𝐹
−𝑎𝑝2 + 𝜔2 𝑎 = 𝐶𝑜𝑠𝛼 …(8)
𝑚
𝐹
2𝑏 𝑎𝑝 = 𝑆𝑖𝑛𝛼 ….(9)
𝑚
Squaring and adding eqns 8&9,we get
𝐹 2
[𝑎(𝜔2 − 𝑝2 )]2 + (2𝑏𝑎𝑝)2 = ( ) [𝐶𝑜𝑠 2 𝛼 + 𝑆𝑖𝑛2 𝛼 ]
𝑚
𝐹 2
𝑎2 [(𝜔2 − 𝑝2 )2 + 4𝑏 2 𝑝2 ] = (𝑚)
(𝑭/𝒎)
∴ 𝒂 = …(10)
√𝟒𝒃𝟐 𝒑𝟐 +(𝝎𝟐 −𝒑𝟐 )𝟐

This is the equation for amplitude of the forced vibrations.

(𝑭/𝒎)
Substitute eqn 10 in (4) ,we get x = 𝑺𝒊𝒏(𝒑𝒕 − 𝜶) ….(11)
√𝟒𝒃𝟐 𝒑𝟐 +(𝝎𝟐 −𝒑𝟐 )𝟐

The phase 𝜶 of the forced vibration is given by dividing eqn 9 by 8,

2𝑏𝑎𝑝
tan𝛼 = 2
𝑎(𝜔 −𝑝2 )
2𝑏𝑝
𝑡𝑎𝑛𝛼 = 2 2
(𝜔 −𝑝 )
𝟐𝒃𝒑
∴ 𝜶 = 𝒕𝒂𝒏−𝟏 ( 𝟐 )
(𝝎 − 𝒑𝟐 )
Dependence of amplitude(a) and phase(𝜶) on the frequency (p)of the applied
force:
(𝐹/𝑚)
WKT amplitude, 𝑎 = …(1)
√4𝑏 2 𝑝2 +(𝜔2 −𝑝2 )2
𝟐𝒃𝒑
Phase, 𝛼 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 [(𝝎𝟐 −𝒑𝟐 )] ……..(2)
2𝑏𝑝
Case(1): For p≪ 𝝎, 𝑝2 is very small, then 𝜔2 − 𝑝2 ≈ 𝜔2, 2bp= 0 & ≈0
𝜔2
𝐹/𝑚
∴ 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑒𝑞𝑛 1 , amplitude, a = 𝜔2

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Thus a is independent of p but depends on (F/m) and constant for given F.
Also from eqn 2, 𝛼 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 [𝟎] = 0,thus displacement and force will be in same phase.
Case(2): For p ≈ 𝝎, 𝜔2 − 𝑝2 = 0, 2bp= 0
𝐹/𝑚 𝐹/𝑚 𝐹
∴ 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑒𝑞𝑛 1 , amplitude, a = = 𝑟 = 𝑟𝜔 ,thus a will have highest value for a
2𝑏𝑝 2( )𝜔
2𝑚

given damping force F.

2𝑏𝑝 𝜋 𝜋
And phase , 𝛼 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 [ ] = = 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 [∞] = 2 ,thus displacement phase lags 2 with respect
0
to phase of applied force.
Case(3): For p ≫ 𝝎 is applicable for small b, (𝜔2 − 𝑝2 )2 ≈ (𝑝2 )2 = 𝑝4
(𝐹/𝑚) 2𝑏
∴ 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑒𝑞𝑛 1 , amplitude, a = but for small b, 4𝑏 2 𝑝2 ≪ 𝑝4& 𝑝 ≈ 0
√4𝑏 2 𝑝2 +𝑝4
(𝐹/𝑚) 𝐹/𝑚
= = ,thus as p increases ,a decreases
√𝑝4 𝑝2
𝟐𝒃𝒑 𝟐𝒃𝒑 𝟐𝒃 2𝑏
Also phase , 𝛼 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 [(𝝎𝟐 −𝒑𝟐 )] = 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 [−𝒑𝟐 ] = 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 [−𝒑] but for small b, 𝑝 ≈ 0
∴ 𝛼 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 [−𝟎] = 𝜋 , thus for large p ,the displacement phase lags by 𝜋 w.r.t phase of
applied force.

Resonance : Resonance is the frequency with which the body oscillates when the natural
frequency of the body is equal to the frequency of the external periodic force acting on the
body.
At resonance the energy transfer from external periodic force is maximum and the
amplitude is also maximum.
Ex:
1. Helmholtz resonator.
2. A radio receiver set tuned to the broadcast frequency of a transmitting station.
3. The vibrations caused by an excited tuning fork in an other nearby identical tuning
fork.
Conditions for resonance:
1. The frequency of the applied force (p) must be equal to the natural frequency(𝜔) of
oscillations of the body.
𝑟
2. b = must be minimum or Damping caused by the medium must be minimum.
2𝑚

𝐹/𝑚
At resonance the amplitude is given by 𝑎𝑚𝑎𝑥 = ∵ p= 𝜔
2𝑏𝜔
𝐹/𝑚
The amplitude of the body near resonance a = the state of vibration under this
2𝑏𝑝
condition is known as Resonance.
Sharpness of Resonance:
The process of varying the frequency of the applied force to match the resonance frequency
of a vibrating body is called “tuning”.
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Sharpness of resonance is the rate at which the amplitude changes corresponding
to a small change in the frequency of the applied external force, at the stage of resonance.
𝐹
𝐶ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑑𝑒 𝑎𝑚𝑎𝑥 −𝑎 ( )
𝑚
i.e, Sharpness of resonance = = =
𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦 𝑝−𝜔 2𝑏𝜔𝑝

The sharpness of resonance is the ratio of change of amplitude (∆𝑎 ) to corresponding

small change in frequency(∆𝜔 ) of the applied external periodic force ,at resonance.
∆𝑎
ie: Sharpness of resonance = ∆𝜔
Effect of damping on sharpness of resonance:

Undamped( b=1)
a

Lightly damped (b=2)

Heavily damped(b=3)

−(𝝎𝟐 − 𝒑𝟐 ) (𝝎𝟐 − 𝒑𝟐 ) = 𝟎 (𝝎𝟐 − 𝒑𝟐 )

The variation of amplitude of forced oscillations with respect to damping is as shown in the
graph .
From the graph it is clear that the maximum amplitude at resonance is a function of
damping. Higher the damping lower will be the amplitude at [Link] the
sharpness will be higher at lower damping and vice-versa is the significance.
Significance of Sharpness of resonance:
The amplitude of oscillations of an oscillating body or system rises to a maximum when
the frequency of the external periodic force matches with the natural frequency of the
oscillating system. However , the rise of the amplitude will be very sharp when the
damping is very small.

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Example of resonance :
1. Helmholtz resonator (HR)
Helmoltz resonator is an instrument used to detect A-neck
the presence of sound of a particular frequency in the L
mixture of sound of different frequencies.
Construction :
It consists of a hollow metallic sphere with a cylindrical Sphere
long neck(A) and a fine hole(B) opposite to A. ν = xx Hz
The air inside the sphere has a definite natural frequency
which is marked on it. V
Working :
When sound of different frequencies enter the sphere
through A, the air in resonator resonates for the frequency B-fine hole
of the sound which is equal to the natural frequency of air producing resonance ,which
can be heard as loud sound at end B. HR cannot resonate for any other frequency.
𝑽𝒔 𝒂
Resonant frequency , f = √𝑽𝑳
𝟐𝝅
where 𝑉𝑠 = velocity of sound , 𝑎 = area of cross section of neck,
V = 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑝ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒, L = 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑛𝑒𝑐𝑘

2. Tuning of radio receiver set to the broadcasting transmitting frequency.

3. Setting up of standing waves in Melde’s experiment string.
4. Exciting second identical tuning fork by excited nearby tuning fork.

SHOCK WAVES

Q:What are shock waves ? Explain.

Shock waves are the waves produced due to the sudden( release)dissipation of energy.
OR
Shock waves are the waves in which the pressure, density and temperature changes
are very very large
Ex: Shock waves are produced during the burst of crackers, Explosion of
Dynamites and bombs, volcanic eruptions, etc.
Q:Mention methods of producing shock waves.
Shock waves can be produced by the following methods ,namely By detonation
of crackers/explosives, by volcanic eruptions, supersonic objects/waves, by
Reddy shock tube in the laboratory.
Q:What are Acoustic waves? Mention the types of acoustic waves.
Acoustic waves are the longitudinal waves which travel with the speed of sound
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 RAMESH R 21PHY12/22
in a medium (Solid/liquid/gas)
Acoustic waves are classified in to THREE types namely:
1. Infrasonic waves (Infrasonics) are the Acoustic waves of frequency less than 20 Hz.
2. Audible waves are the Acoustic waves of frequency between 20 Hz and 20 kHz.
3. Ultrasonic waves (Ultrasonics) are the Acoustic waves of frequency greater
than 20 kHz. (Elephants detect Infrasonics, Human ear detect Audible waves &
Bats/Dogs detect Ultrasonics)

Q: Define Mach number, subsonic waves supersonic waves and Mach angle (Classification
of
objects based on Mach number)

1. Mach Number(M) is the ratio of the speed of an object (V) through a fluid to the speed of
𝑽
sound(a) in the fluid at that point and is given by M =
𝒂

2. Subsonic waves are the mechanical waves whose speed is less than that of sound in the
same medium. Mach number of Subsonic waves is less than 1.
Ex: Motor cycle, Bus, Train , aero planes etc produce subsonic waves.

3. Supersonic waves are the mechanical waves whose speed is greater than that of sound in
the same medium. for which the Mach number of Supersonic waves is greater than 1.
Ex: Fighter planes, Rockets, Missiles, tornado etc produce supersonic waves

4. Mach angle(𝝁) is the half the angle of cone of sound waves formed and is given by
𝟏
𝝁 = 𝑺𝒊𝒏−𝟏 ( )
𝑴
Classification of types of fluid flow

Incompressible Subsonic Transonic Supersonic Hypersonic

flow flow flow flow flow

0 < 𝑀 < 0.3 03 < 𝑀 < 0.8 0. 8 < 𝑀 < 1.2 1.2 < 𝑀 < 5 5<𝑀
0 0.3 0.8 1.2 5

Q: Control Volume.
Control volume is a model on the basis of which the shock waves are analyzed. It is an
thin envelope that surrounds the shock front within which, there is a sharp increase in the
pressure, temperature and density in the compressed medium.
Pressure, Volume, density and temperature changes within the control volume are large

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 RAMESH R 21PHY12/22
and they cannot be measured.

𝑃1 𝑃2
𝑉1 𝑉2
𝜌1 𝜌2
ℎ1 ℎ2
𝑚1 𝑚2
𝑝𝑟𝑒 𝑠ℎ𝑜𝑐𝑘 𝑤𝑎𝑣𝑒 𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒/ 𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑡 𝑠ℎ𝑜𝑐𝑘 𝑤𝑎𝑣𝑒 𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒
} {
𝑢𝑝 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑚 𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒 𝑑𝑜𝑤𝑛 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑚 𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒

Control volume
It is an one dimensional confinement in the medium with two surfaces i.e., pre- shock and
post- shock ,It is assumed that ,within this volume, the energy is constant.

Q: Explain the basic conservation laws.

Conservation means the maintenance of certain quantities unchanged during the physical
process. There are three basic conservation laws namely Conservation of mass,
Conservation of momentum and Conservation of energy.
1. Conservation of mass states that the total mass of the isolated system always remains
constant as the mass can neither be created nor destroyed.
Mathematically , 𝝆𝒗 = 𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒕 or
∴ 𝜌1 𝑣1 = 𝜌2 𝑣2 , Where 𝜌1 , 𝜌2 densities & 𝑣1 , 𝑣2 velocities.
2. Conservation of momentum states that the sum total momentum of the closed system
always remain constant.
Mathematically , 𝑷 + 𝝆𝒗𝟐 = 𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒕 𝑜𝑟 𝑃1 + 𝜌1 𝑣12 = 𝑃2 + 𝜌2 𝑣22
where 𝑃1 , 𝑃2 pressures , 𝑣1 , 𝑣2 velocities and 𝜌1 , 𝜌2 densities.
3. Conservation of energy states that the sum total energy of a closed system is always
remains constant.
𝒗𝟐 𝑣12 𝑣22
Mathematically , 𝒉 + = 𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒕 𝑜𝑟 ℎ𝟏 + = ℎ2 +
𝟐 2 2
where ℎ1 , ℎ2 enthalpies and 𝑣1 , 𝑣2 velocities.

Q:What is a (Reddy)shock tube ? Describe the construction and working of simple

Reddy shock tube .

1. Reddy Shock tube is a device used to produce and study shock waves in the laboratory.
2. Schematic labelled diagram of the original Reddy shock tube is as shown in the diagram.

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Piston Diaphragm S 𝑆1 𝑠𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑜𝑟𝑠 𝑆2

𝑃2 𝑃1 x =7 cm

Driver section/ Driven section/ 2.9cm

Driver gas Driven gas
Plunger

49 cm 51 cm

Construction :
1. RST consists of a steel tube of length 100 cm and diameter 2.9 cm.
2. A diaphragm of thickness 0.1cm divides the tube in to two compartments of length 49 cm
fitted with piston called Driver section filled with driver gas. The other compartment of
length 51 cm is called Driven section filled with driven gas.
3. Sensor S fitted to driver section measures the rupture pressure 𝑃2 ,temparature𝑇2 .
4. Two sensors 𝑆1 & 𝑆2 separated by a distance ∆𝑋 fitted to driven section measures the
pressures 𝑃4, 𝑃5 and temperatures 𝑇4 , 𝑇5 respectively.
Working :
1. Driver section is filled with gas at high pressure ( 𝑃2 )and Driven section is filled with gas
of low pressure( 𝑃1 ) .
2. Diaphragm is ruptured to produce shock waves by pushing the piston and the rupture
pressure 𝑃2 & temperature is measured using sensor S.
3. The time’𝒕′ taken by the shock wave to travel the distance ‘ x ’ is measured using sensors
𝑆1 , 𝑆2 and CRO(Cathode Ray Oscilloscope). The speed of the shock waves is calculated
𝒙
using V = .
𝒕
4. Then if a is the speed of sound at laboratory temperature, the match number of the shock
𝑽
waves is calculated using M =
𝒂
5. The Mach number increases with the increase of the thickness of the diaphragm.

Q: Characteristics/Properties of Shock waves.

1. Shock waves(SWS) carry energy and propagate through a
medium(solid/liquid/gas/plasma) and vaccum.
2. Across the shock waves there is always rapid changes in pressure, temperature,
density of the flow.
3. SWS travels through most media at higher speed than other waves.
4. SWS dissipate energy relatively quickly with distance.
5. SWS are not conventional sound waves.

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 RAMESH R 21PHY12/22
6. In SWS properties of the fluid(density, temperature, volume, pressure, mach
number) change almost instantaneously.
7. SWS can be normal, oblique and stationary waves.
8. SWS can change from nonlinear to linear over long distance.
9. SWS creates additional drag force on aircrafts with shocks.

Weak shock waves are produced by burst of crakers / balloons, & Motor vehicles
Strong shock waves are produced by , Supersonic jets ,Rockets, Fighter planes
Q: Uses of Shock waves.
1. Shock waves (SW)are used in the treatment of kidney stones.
2. SW are used in the pencil industry for softening of pencil wood and dry painting.
3. Sw are used in the extraction of sandal wood.
4. Sw are used to rejunevate/activate dried bore wells.
5. Sw are used for needleless drug delivery.
6. Sw are used to push DNA in to the cell.
7. SW are used for the treatment of orthopedic diseases.
8. SW are used to heal broken bones quickly.

*****
PROBLEMS ON OSCILLATIONS

1) Find the frequency of oscillations of a free particle executing simple harmonic

motion of amplitude 0.35 m if the maximum velocity it can attain is 220 m/s.
Given: a = 0.35 𝑚 , 𝑣𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 220m/s, ν= ?
𝑣𝑚𝑎𝑥
Using 𝜔 = and 𝜔 = 2𝜋𝜈
𝑎
𝑣𝑚𝑎𝑥 220
We get , ν= = 2𝜋 𝑥0.35 = 100.04Hz = 100 𝐻𝑧
2𝜋𝑎

2) Find the displacement at the end of 3 seconds and also the amplitude of oscillations
of a body executing simple harmonic motion in a straight line, if its period is 10
seconds and if its velocity is 1 m/s, at the time 2 seconds after crossing the
equilibrium position. Assume that there are no resistive forces.

Given: T= 10 𝑠, 𝑣 = 1 𝑚/𝑠, 𝑡 = 𝑡1 = 2 𝑠, a = ? , ‘ x ’ 𝑎𝑡 𝑡 = 3 𝑠
2𝜋
Using 𝑣 = a𝜔𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜔𝑡 and 𝜔 = 𝑇
𝑣𝑇 1𝑥10
We get a = 2𝜋𝑡 = 2𝑥180𝑥2 = 5.150 m
2𝜋𝑐𝑜𝑠 ( ) 2𝜋𝑐𝑜𝑠 ( )
𝑇 10
2𝜋𝑡 2𝑥180𝑥3
Also x = 𝑎𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜔𝑡 = 𝑎𝑠𝑖𝑛 ( ) = 5.15𝑠𝑖𝑛 ( ) = 4.898 m
𝑇 10

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3) Find the frequency of vibration of a sonometer wire which reaches a maximum
velocity of 6.28 m/s, when its amplitude of vibration is 1 cm.(Assume the vibration
to be free)
Given: 𝑣𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 6.28m/s, a = 1 𝑐𝑚 = 10−2 𝑚 , ν= ?
𝑣𝑚𝑎𝑥
Using 𝜔 = and 𝜔 = 2𝜋𝜈
𝑎
𝑣𝑚𝑎𝑥 6.28
We get , ν= = 2𝜋 𝑥10−2 = 99.95 Hz = 100 𝐻𝑧
2𝜋𝑎

4) Evaluate the resonance frequency of a spring of force constant 2467 N/m, carrying
a mass of 100 gm.
Given: k = 2467 𝑁/𝑚, m = 100 𝑔𝑚 = 100 𝑥10−3 kg , ν= ?
𝑘
Using 𝜔 = √𝑚 and 𝜔 = 2𝜋𝜈,

1 𝑘 1 2467
We get , ν= 2𝜋 √𝑚 = 2𝜋 √100 𝑥10−3 =24.998 Hz = 25 Hz

5) Given the force constant as 9.8 N/m for a spring ,estimate the number of
oscillations it would complete in 1 minute, if it is set for oscillations with a load of
89.37 gm. Assume there are no external forces acting on it.
Given: k = 9.8 𝑁/𝑚, m = 89.37 𝑔𝑚 = 89.37 𝑥10−3 kg,
t = 1 𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑢𝑡𝑒 = 60 𝑠 , n = ?
𝑘
Using 𝜔 = √𝑚 , 𝜔 = 2𝜋𝜈

1 𝑘 1 9.8
We get , ν= 2𝜋 √𝑚 = 2𝜋 √89.37 𝑥10−3 = 1.67 Hz
∴ n = 𝜈𝑡 = 1.667 𝑥 60 = 100 oscillations

6) A mass of 4.3 gm is attached to a spring of force constant 17 N/m. This mass spring
system is executing simple harmonic oscillations. Find out the frequency of the
external force which excites resonance in the system. Ignore the mass of the spring.
Given: k = 17 𝑁/𝑚, m = 4.3 𝑔𝑚 = 4.3 𝑥10−3 kg, ν = ?
𝑘
Using 𝜔 = √𝑚 , 𝜔 = 2𝜋𝜈

1 𝑘 1 17
We get , ν= 2𝜋 √𝑚 = 2𝜋 √4.3 𝑥10−3 = 10.03 Hz= 10 𝐻𝑧
7) A mass of 200 gm is attached to a spring of negligible mass and the system is set for
vibrations. If the damping constant for the system is 0.16 kg/s. then what will be
the time required for the vibration amplitude to decay to 1/e of its starting
amplitude. Estimate the number of vibrations the body executes meanwhile, it the
force constant is 126 N/m.(Assume the damping to be small)

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 RAMESH R 21PHY12/22
−3
Given: m = 200 𝑔𝑚 = 200 𝑥10 kg, r = 0.16 𝑘𝑔/s ,k = 126 𝑁/𝑠,
𝐴
a= , t’ = ? , 𝜔 = ?
𝑒
𝑟
In damped vibration , amplitude = 𝑎𝑒 −(2𝑚)𝑡
If A be the amplitude at t = 0 ,
𝑟 𝑟
then A = 𝑎𝑒 −(2𝑚)𝑡 = 𝑎𝑒 −(2𝑚)0 = 𝑎𝑒 −0 = 𝑎
1
if t’ be the time taken for the amplitude to decay to 𝑒 𝐴,then
𝑟
1
𝐴 = 𝐴𝑒 −(2𝑚)𝑡′ ,
𝑒
𝑟
then 𝑒 −(2𝑚)𝑡′ = 𝑒 −1
𝑟
∴ −( )𝑡′ = −1
2𝑚
2𝑚 2𝑥200 𝑥10−3
t’= = = 2.5 s
𝑟 0.16
𝑘 126
also using ,𝜔 = √𝑚 = √200 𝑥10−3 =25.1 Hz = 25 𝐻𝑧

8) A tuning fork has a natural frequency of 512 Hz. A periodic force per unit mass
5x10−2 N/kg acts on it. Calculate the maximum amplitude attained by the fork if the
damping per unit mass is 2x10−2 rad/s

𝑟
Given: F/𝑚 = 5𝑥10−2 𝑁/𝑘𝑔, 𝜈 = 512 𝐻𝑧,2b = = 2x10−2 rad/s, 𝑎𝑚𝑎𝑥 = ?
𝑚
𝐹/𝑚 𝐹/𝑚 5𝑥10−2
Using , 𝑎𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 2𝑏𝜔 = 2𝑏2𝜋𝜈 = (2𝑥10−2 )2𝜋512 = 7.77 x10−4m= 0.777𝑚𝑚

9) A vibrating system of natural frequency 640 cycles/sec is forced to vibrate with a

periodic force/unit mass of amplitude is 4x10−2 N/kg in the presence of damping
/unit mass of [Link] the maximum amplitude of vibration of the system.

Given : 𝜈 = 640 cps, F/m = 4x10−2 N/kg, 2b =r/m = 0.001 , 𝑎𝑚𝑎𝑥 = ?

𝐹/𝑚 𝐹/𝑚 5𝑥10−2
Using , 𝑎𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 2𝑏𝜔 = 2𝑏2𝜋𝜈 = (0.001)2𝜋512 = 0.0124m= 0.01𝑚
10) A free particle is executing simplr harmonic motion in a straight line with a
period of 25 seconds after it has crossed the equilibrium point, the velocity is found
to be 0.7 m/[Link] the displacement at the end of 10 seconds, and also the
amplitude of oscillation.
Given : T= 25 ′𝑆 , 𝑣1 = 0.7 m/s , 𝑡1 = 5 ′𝑆 , a =? and x=? at 𝑡2 = 10 ′𝑆
2𝜋
Using v = a𝜔𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜔𝑡 and 𝜔 = 𝑇
𝑉𝑇 2𝜋 0.7𝑥25 1
We get a = cos( 𝑇 𝑥 𝑡) = 2𝜋 = 9.013 m
2𝜋 2𝜋 𝑐𝑜𝑠( 𝑥5)
25

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 RAMESH R 21PHY12/22
2𝜋
Also using , x = 𝑎 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜔𝑡 = 10 𝑠𝑖𝑛( 𝑥10) = 5.2978 m = 5.3 𝑚
25
11) A spring undergoes an extension of 5 cm for a load of 50 g. Find its force
constant, angular frequency and frequency of oscillation, if it is set for vertical
oscillations with load of 200 g attached to its bottom. Ignore the mass of the spring.
Given: x = 5 cm = 5𝑥10−2 m, m = 50𝑥10−3 𝑘𝑔 , F = 50𝑥10−3 𝑥 9.8 N,
k = ?, 𝜔200 𝑔𝑚 = ? 𝑎𝑛𝑑 ν =?
𝐹 50𝑥10−3 𝑥 9.8
𝑈𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔 , k = = = 9.8 N/m
𝑥 5𝑥10−2
𝑘 9.8
𝜔 =√ =√ = 7 rad/s
𝑚 200𝑥10−3
𝜔 7
ν= = = 1.114 Hz
2𝜋 2𝜋
12) A 20 gm oscillator with a natural frequency 10 rad/s is vibrating in damping
medium. The damping force is proportional to the velocity of the vibrator. If the
damping coefficient is 0.17 ,how does the oscillator decays ?
Given: m = 20 𝑔𝑚 = 20𝑥10−3 𝑘𝑔 , 𝜔 = 10 𝑟𝑎𝑑/𝑠, r = 0.17, Type of damping = ?
𝑟 0.17
Using , b = 2𝑚 = 2𝑥20𝑥10−3 = 4.25
∴ 𝑏 2 = 18.06
𝐴𝑙𝑠𝑜 𝜔2 = 102 = 100
Thus , 𝒃𝟐 < 𝝎𝟐 , which satisfy the condition for under damping. As a result the
oscillations amplitude decreases with time.
13) A mass of 4.3 gm is attached to a spring of constant 17 N/m. This mass spring
system is executing SHM. Find the frequency of the external force which excites
resonance in the system. Ignore the mass of the spring.
Given: m = 4.3 𝑔𝑚 = 4.3𝑥10−3 𝑘𝑔 , k = 17 N/m ,
𝑘
Using 𝜔 = √ and 𝜔 = 2𝜋𝜈
𝑚

1 𝑘 1 17
Se get, ν = √ = √ = 10.007 Hz
2𝜋 𝑚 2𝜋 4.3𝑥10−3

PROBLEMS ON SHOCK WAVES

𝑋 𝑉 ℎ 1.228 𝑋10−9
Formulae needed: V = ; M= ;λ = or ( For an electron)
𝑡 𝑎 √2𝑚𝑒𝑉 √𝑉

1. The distance between the two pressure sensors in a shock tube is 100 [Link] time taken
by a shock wave to travel this distance is 200 [Link] the velocity of sound under
the same conditions is 340 m/s. find the Mach number of the shock wave.
Given: x =100 mm=100x10−3 m,t =200μS=200𝑥10−6 S,a=340 m/s ,M=?
𝑋 𝑉
Using, ,V= and M =
𝑡 𝑎

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 RAMESH R 21PHY12/22
𝑋 100𝑥10−3
We get, M= =
𝑎𝑡 340𝑥200𝑥10−6
=1.471
2. In a Reddy shock tube,it was found that, the time taken to travel between the two sensors
is 195 μs. If the distance between the two sensors is 100mm,find the Match number.

Given: x=100 mm=100x10−3 m,t =195μS=195𝑥10−6 S,a=?(Not given) ,M=?

𝑋
Using, ,𝑉𝑆 =
𝑡
100𝑥1 0−3
=
195𝑥10−6
= 512.8 m/s and
𝑉𝑆
Also, M =
𝑎
512.8 1.228 𝑋10−9
= =
𝑎 √(100)

M = 1.228 x 10−10 m
3. The distance between two pressure sensors in a shock tube is 150 mm. The
Time taken by a shock wave to travel this distance is 0.3 [Link] the velocity
of sound under the same condition is 340m/s. Find the Mach number of the
shock wave.

Given: x =150 mm=150x10−3 m,t = 0.3mS= 0.3𝑥10−3 S, a=340 m/s ,M=?

𝑋 𝑉
Using, ,V = and M =
𝑡 𝑎
𝑋
We get, M=
𝑎𝑡
150𝑥10−3
= = 1.471
340𝑥0.3𝑥10−3

4. The distance between the two pressure sensors in a shock tube is 100 mm. The time
taken by a shock wave to travel this distance is 100 microsecond. If the velocity of sound
under the same conditions is 340 m𝑠 −1 , find the Mach number of the shock wave.
(4Marks)

Given: x=100 mm=100x10−3 m, t =100μS=100𝑥10−6 S, a=340 m𝑠 −1 ,M=?

𝑋
Using, 𝑉𝑆 =
𝑡
100𝑥1 0−3
=
100𝑥10−6
= 1000 m/s
𝑉𝑆 1000
Also, M = = = 2.941
𝑎 340

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 RAMESH R 21PHY12/22

Module- 2 : Syllabus
4.1 Quantum Mechanics: Introduction to black body radiation spectrum, Wien’s, R-J law, No numerical problems
Stefan-boltsman law, Planck’s law.
Deduce Wiens law and R-J law from Planck’s law. No numerical problems
Wave nature of particles-De Broglie hypothesis followed by wavelength equations, extended to Numerical
accelerated electron problems
Heisenberg's uncertainty principle-Statement and mention the three uncertainty relations. Numerical
Applications of uncertainty principle- to show the non confinement of electrons in the nucleus problems
(by considering diameter of nucleus). Energy relativistic equation shall not be considered.
Schrodinger's time independent wave equation -Setting up of Schrodinger's time independent No numerical problems
wave equation using 𝚿 = A𝑒 𝑖(𝑘𝑥−𝜔𝑡)
Significance of Wave function -qualitative statement regarding wave function, Probability No numerical problems
density, Max born interpretation, Normalization, and Properties of wave
Function
Application Schrodinger's wave equation to particle in 1D potential well of infinite height and Numerical
obtain the energy Eigen values and Eigen functions. Probability densities problems
Tutorial classes , ~ Involvement of students in respect of their doubts about the
module and numerical problems

Module-2
1. Explain Black body radiation spectrum.
2. Deduce Wien’s law and R-J law from Planck’s law.
3. What are de-Broglie waves? Deduce the expression for de- Broglie wavelength of an electron.
4. State and explain HUP and hence (using HUP) show that electrons are non-exist in the nucleus.
5. Set up 1D Schrodinger time independent wave equation using Ψ = 𝑨𝒆𝒊(𝒌𝒙−𝝎𝒕)
6. Application of Schrodinger time independent wave equation for a particle in 1D potential well
of infinite depth.
7. Wave function and its properties.

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 RAMESH R 21PHY12/22

MODULE-2
QUANTUM MECHANICS
Quantum mechanics is an important tool to study atomic and subatomic states. In contrast
to classical mechanics, Quantum mechanics deals with the physics of atomic and nuclear
systems. The atomic phenomenon cannot be explained in terms of classical notations,
hence Quantum mechanics put forward to explain atomic systems.
Q:What is meant by Black Body radiation spectra ? explain it briefly.
Black body: A black body is one which absorbs all the radiation incident on it
irrespective of wavelength and on heating it emits all the radiation.

Rayleigh-Jean’s law

𝑬𝒎 Experimental B.B.R spectra

Wein’s law

𝟎 𝝀𝒎 𝝺

1. If we plot intensity of the thermal radiations emitted by a Black Body against the
corresponding wave lengths at different temperatures, we get Black body radiation
(BBR)spectra as shown in the graph.
2. From the graph it is clear that the wavelength (𝜆𝑚 ) corresponding to the maximum
intensity 𝑬𝒎 varies inversely as the absolute temperature(T ) of the black body. This is
𝟏
called Wein’s displacement law , 𝒊𝒆: 𝝀𝒎 ∝ 𝑻 or 𝝀𝒎 𝑻 = 𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒕 According to this law
′𝜆𝑚 ′ shifts towards shorter wavelength side with the increase of ‘ T ’ of the body.
3. Wein’s law states that the energy density in the wave length interval λ & λ +dλ
is 𝑼𝝀 dλ = 𝑪𝟏 𝝀−𝟓 𝒆−𝑪𝟐 /𝝀𝑻 dλ where 𝐶1 & 𝐶2 are constants. Wein’s law explained
only the shorter wavelength region of BBR spectra below 𝜆𝑚 and it failed to
explain the longer wavelength region of the BBR spectra beyond 𝜆𝑚 .
4. Rayleigh-Jean’s law states that the energy density in the wave length interval λ &
𝟖𝝅𝒌𝑻
λ +dλ is 𝑼𝝀 dλ = dλ, where k = Boltzmann’s constant. Rayleigh-Jean’s law
𝝀𝟒
explained the longer wavelength region of BBR spectra beyond 𝜆𝑚 and it failed
explain the shorter wavelength region of BBR spectra below 𝜆𝑚 .
5. Stefan- Boltzmann radiation law states that total energy density E of radiation emitted
from a black body is directly proportional to the fourth power of its absolute

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 RAMESH R 21PHY12/22

temperature T. Energy density E is defined as the total energy emitted at all wavelengths
per unit area of the emitted surface.
i.e., E ∝ T4
E = σ T4 where σ = 5.67 X 10-8 Jm-2s-1k-4
This law agrees well with the experimental results.
6. Planck’s law states that, “ the emission or absorption of radiation by matter takes place not
as a continuous process but discrete units of energy called ‘quanta’. If ν is the frequency of
radiation, E=hν, the particle which has this quanta of energy is called Photon.
Assumptions :
1. The BB chamber is filled with simple harmonic oscillators or resonators which can
vibrate with all possible frequencies.
2. An oscillator can have a discrete set of energies which are integral multiples of a finite
quantum of energy, E=hν, where n is quantum number.
3. An oscillator radiates or absorbs energy only when it changes quantum states. If it
remains in one quantum state, no energy is absorbed or emitted.
Using above assumptions ,Planck’s derived a relation given by,
the energy density in the wavelength interval λ & λ +dλ is
𝟖𝝅𝒉𝒄 𝟏
𝑬𝝀 dλ = 𝒉𝒄 dλ .
𝝀𝟓 ( )
𝒆 𝝀𝒌𝑻 −𝟏
Planck’s law explained the BBR spectra completely ie: both shorter and longer
wavelength sides of the spectra.

Q:Deduce/derive Wein’s law & Rayleigh-Jeans law from planck’s law of radiation or
Reduce Planck’s law to Wein’s law and Rayleigh-Jeans law
8𝜋ℎ𝑐 1
Planck’s law of radiation is given by 𝑈𝜆 dλ = ℎ𝑐 dλ ……………(1)
𝜆5 ( )
𝑒 𝜆𝑘𝑇 −1

a) Wein’s law:
ℎ𝑐
( )
For shorter wave lengths, ‘λ ‘is very small ,hence 𝑈𝜆 & 𝑒 𝜆𝑘𝑇 are

ℎ𝑐 ℎ𝑐 ℎ𝑐
( )
Large i.e: 𝑒 𝜆𝑘𝑇 ≫ 1 so that 𝑒 (𝜆𝑘𝑇) − 1 = 𝑒 (𝜆𝑘𝑇) ……….(2)

8𝜋ℎ𝑐 1
∴ from eqn 1 &2,we get 𝑈𝜆 dλ = ℎ𝑐 dλ
𝜆5 ( )
𝑒 𝜆𝑘𝑇
𝑪𝟐 ℎ𝑐
∴ 𝑼𝝀 dλ = 𝑪𝟏 𝝀−𝟓 𝒆−𝝀𝑻 dλ 𝑇ℎ𝑖𝑠 𝑖𝑠 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑛’𝑠 𝑙𝑎𝑤 .where 𝐶1 = 8𝜋ℎ𝑐 & 𝐶2 =
𝑘

b) Rayleigh-Jeans law:

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 RAMESH R 21PHY12/22

For longer wave lengths, ‘λ ‘is very large,

ℎ𝑐 ℎ𝑐
( ) ( )
hence 𝑒 𝜆𝑘𝑇 𝑖𝑠 𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑦 𝑠𝑚𝑎𝑙𝑙 ,Expanding 𝑒 𝜆𝑘𝑇 as power series ,
ℎ𝑐
( ) ℎ𝑐 ℎ𝑐
we get , 𝑒 𝜆𝑘𝑇 = 1+ (
𝜆𝑘𝑇
) + (𝜆𝑘𝑇 )2 +……….
ℎ𝑐 ℎ𝑐
=1+( ) , 𝑛𝑒𝑔𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 ℎ𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑒𝑟 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟𝑠 𝑜𝑓 (𝜆𝑘𝑇 )
𝜆𝑘𝑇
ℎ𝑐
( ) ℎ𝑐
𝑖𝑒: 𝑒 𝜆𝑘𝑇 −1= ………(3)
𝜆𝑘𝑇

8𝜋ℎ𝑐 1
∴ from eqn 1 &3,we get 𝑈𝜆 dλ = ℎ𝑐 dλ
𝜆5
𝜆𝑘𝑇
𝟖𝝅𝒌𝑻
𝒊𝒆: 𝑼𝝀 dλ = dλ , 𝑇ℎ𝑖𝑠 is Rayleigh-Jeans law
𝝀𝟒

Q: What is meant by “ultraviolet catastrophe” or failures of Rayleigh-Jeans law ?

1. As per Rayleigh-Jeans law, 𝑈𝜆 → ∞ 𝑎𝑠 𝜆 → 0

2. 𝐵𝑢𝑡 experimentally observed that 𝑈𝜆 → 0 𝑎𝑠 𝜆 → 0.

3. This failure of R-J’s law beyond ultra-violet region is called “ultraviolet catastrophe”.

Q: What is meant by Dual nature of matter ?

Matter is made up of particles like electrons, protons, neutrons, atoms etc ,also
waves are associated with these matter particles under suitable conditions.
Thus matter exhibiting both particle & wave nature is called dual nature of matter.
Q: What are de-Broglie (matter) waves ?
de-Broglie(matter) waves are the waves associated with material particles in
𝒉 𝒉
motion. De-Broglie wavelength, λ = or λ =
𝒎𝓥 𝑷

Q: De-Broglie’s wavelength of an electron accelerated in a potential difference ’V’ volt/

𝟏𝟐.𝟐𝟖
Show that λ= Å for an electron accelerated in a potential difference ’V’ volt
√𝑽

The K.E of an electron of mass ‘m’, charge ‘e’ accelerated in a potential ‘V’ volt is given
1
by 𝑚𝑣 2 = 𝑒𝑉 , multiplying both Nr. and Dr. of LHS by ‘m’
2
𝑚2 𝑣 2
we get, = 𝑒𝑉
2𝑚

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 RAMESH R 21PHY12/22

𝑖𝑒; 𝑚2 𝑣 2 = 2𝑚𝑒𝑉
𝑃2 = 2𝑚𝑒𝑉 ∵ 𝑚𝑣 = 𝑃
𝑷 = √𝟐𝒎𝒆𝑽
𝒉 𝒉
But λ = ∴ 𝝀=
𝑷 √𝟐𝒎𝒆𝑽
𝟔.𝟔𝟐𝟓𝒙10−34
=
√𝟐𝒙 𝟗.𝟏𝒙𝟏𝟎−𝟑𝟏 𝒙𝟏.𝟔𝒙𝟏𝟎−𝟏𝟗 𝑽
𝟏.𝟐𝟐𝟖𝒙𝟏𝟎−𝟗
= m
√𝑽
1.228 𝟏𝟐.𝟐𝟖
= 𝑛𝑚 = Å
√𝑽 √𝑽
Properties of Matter waves :
1. Matter waves cannot be observed.
2. Waves associated with microscopic particles such as electrons can be measured.
3. Matter waves are not electromagnetic waves in nature.
4. They propagate as group of waves.

Q: State & explain Heisenberg’s Uncertainty Principle (HUP). Mention its significance.
HUP states that “It is impossible to determine simultaneously both the position and
momentum of a particle with accuracy”. The product of the uncertainties in the
simultaneous measurement of the position (Δ𝑥) in the position and momentum(ΔP𝑥) of a
particle is equal to or greater than ( h/4𝛑) “
𝒉
i.e.: Δ𝑥 ΔP𝑥 ≥ ,Where h is Planck’s constant.
𝟒𝝅

The significance of HUP is that, it is impossible to determine simultaneously both the position and
momentum of the particle accurately at the same instant.
𝒉
NOTE : Other HUP relations are ∆𝑬.∆𝒕 ≥ , 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 ∆𝐸 = 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦, ∆𝑡= time,
𝟒𝝅
𝒉
& ∆𝑳.∆𝜽 ≥
𝟒𝝅
where , ∆𝐿 = 𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑖𝑛 𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑚𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑢𝑚 & ∆𝜃 =
𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑖𝑛 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡.
Physical significance of HUP:
1. It introduces the concept of probability.
2. It can be used to find life time of electrons in an excited states.
3. It can be used to show that electrons do not exist inside the nucleus.
Q: Show that electrons do not present in the nucleus using Heisenberg’s Uncertainty Principle.

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 RAMESH R 21PHY12/22

In radioactivity three kinds of particles are emitted α,β,γ- rays. β-particles are electrons, hence
it was thought that electrons may reside inside the nucleus. If Electron to be present in the
nucleus, maximum uncertainty in position Δ𝑥=10-14 m (diameter)
According to HUP,
ℎ
The minimum uncertainty in momentum ΔP𝑥 ≥
4𝜋 𝛥𝑥
6.625 𝑥 10−34
≥
4 𝑥 3.14 𝑥 10−14
ΔP𝑥 ≥ 0.5 x 10-20 kg m/s = P(say)
The minimum energy of the electron in the nucleus is given by
𝑃2
∴ E ≥ 2𝑚
(0.5𝑥 10−20 )2
≥ 2𝑥9.11𝑥10−31
≥ 1.372 x10−11 J
𝟏.𝟑𝟕𝟐𝒙𝟏𝟎−𝟏𝟏
≥ MeV
1.6 𝑥 10−13
≥ 𝟖𝟓 𝑴𝒆𝑽
But the maximum kinetic energy of the electrons(𝛃-particle) emitted from the nucleus
does not exceed 4MeV, hence electrons do not present in the nucleus.

Q: What is a wave function and mention it’s properties/limitations

The variable quantity that characterizes the de-broglie wave(matter waves) of the
particle is called a ‘Wave function’ denoted by the symbol ‘𝚿’(Psi)
Mathematically wave function ‘𝚿’ describes the motion of a particle.
𝚿 is called probability amplitude which is space and time dependent.

Properties of the wave functions are:-

1. Wave function (𝚿) is single valued everywhere.
2. 𝚿 is finite everywhere.
3. 𝚿 is continuous everywhere.
4. First derivatives of are continuous and single valued everywhere.
5. 𝐼𝛹𝐼2 or 𝛹𝛹 * is called probability density.
+∞
6. 𝑃𝑟𝑜𝑏𝑎𝑏𝑖𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑙𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑠𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑒 𝑖𝑠 𝑔𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝑏𝑦 ∫−∞ 𝐼𝛹𝐼2 𝑑𝑉 = 1
+∞
7. Probability , P = ∫−∞ 𝐼𝛹𝐼2 𝑑𝑥
8. 𝛹 𝑚𝑢𝑠𝑡 vanishes at infinity.

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Max Born’s interpretation of wave function.

A satisfactory interpretation of the wave function 𝛹 associated with a moving particle was
given by Max Born in [Link] Born postulated that the square of the magnitude of the wave
function |𝛹|2 ( or 𝛹𝛹 ∗ If 𝛹 is complex)
Evaluated at a particular point represents the probability of finding the particle at that point.
|𝛹|2 is called probability density and 𝛹 is called the probability amplitude.
According to Max Born interpretation the probability of finding the particle in space is given by
+∞
∫−∞ |𝛹|2 𝑑𝑣 = 1
Any wave function that obeys this equation is said to be’normalised’. Every acceptable wave
function must be normalisable.
The normalized function must be Finite, Single valued and continuous everywhere.
Q: Set up 1D time independent Schrodinger wave equation for a free particle.
One dimensional wave function 𝚿 for the de-Broglie wave of a particle moving
along the positive direction of 𝑥-axis is given by 𝚿 = A𝑒 𝑖(𝑘𝑥−𝜔𝑡)
= A𝑒 𝑖𝑘𝑥 𝑒 −𝜔𝑡 ,
Where A𝑒 𝑖𝑘𝑥 represent the time independent part of the wave function and is
represented by 𝜓 = A𝑒 𝑖𝑘𝑥 …… (1) differentiating eqn (1) w.r.t ‘𝑥 ‘ twice we get
𝑑𝜓
= 𝐴(𝑖𝑘) 𝑒 𝑖𝑘𝑥 and
𝑑𝑥
𝑑2𝜓
=A(𝑖𝑘) (𝑖𝜔) 𝑒 𝑖𝑘𝑥
𝑑𝑥 2
= 𝑖 2 𝑘 2 A𝑒 𝑖𝑘𝑥 …….(2)
From eqns 1 & 2 we get
𝑑2𝜓 4𝜋2 𝟐𝝅
=− 𝜓 ……..(3) ∵ 𝒊𝟐 = −1 & 𝒌 =
𝑑𝑥 2 𝜆2 𝝀
ℎ
But, de-Broglie wave length λ = 𝑚𝑣
1 𝑚2 𝑣 2
∴ =
𝜆2 ℎ2
2𝑚(½𝑚𝑣 2 )
=
ℎ2
also,the kinetic energy in terms of the total energy (E) & the potential energy( V) is given
by (½𝑚𝑣 2 =(E−𝑽)
1 2𝑚(𝐸−𝑽)
∴ = ……(4)
𝜆2 ℎ2
𝑑2 𝜓 4𝜋2 2𝑚(𝐸−𝑽)
From eqns 3 & 4 ,we get =− 𝜓
𝑑𝑥 2 ℎ2

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𝒅𝟐 𝝍 𝟖𝝅𝟐 𝒎(𝑬−𝑽)
+ 𝝍 = 𝟎 ……(5)
𝒅𝒙𝟐 𝒉𝟐
This is Schrodinger time independent equation for a particle
For a free particle ,V=0
𝑑2𝜓 8𝜋2 𝑚𝐸
∴ + 𝜓=0
𝑑𝑥 2 ℎ2
This is Schrodinger time independent equation for free particle.
Q: Obtain normalized wave function for a free particle in a infinite walled potential
Box/Well using Schrodinger 1D time independent equation.

∞ ∞
V=∞ V=0
Box/Well ●

particle
𝑥=0 𝑥=a
Consider a particle of mass ‘m’ moving by reflection at infinitely high walls of a Box/well
of width ‘a’ moving between 𝑥=0 & 𝑥=a Potential V=0 inside the Box/well and V=∞
outside the Box/well .one dimensional Schrodinger equation for particle is given by
𝑑2𝜓 8𝜋2 𝑚(𝐸−𝑽)
+ 𝜓 = 0 ……(1).
𝑑𝑥 2 ℎ2
For a particle inside the Box/well V=0
𝑑2𝜓 8𝜋2 𝑚𝐸
∴ + 𝜓 = 0 ….(2)
𝑑𝑥 2 ℎ2
8𝜋2 𝑚𝐸
Putting = 𝐾 2 …..(3) in equation (2) ,
ℎ2
2
𝑑 𝜓
we get + 𝐾 2 𝜓 = 0 ……(4)
𝑑𝑥 2
The general solution of the quadratic equation (4) is of the form ψ (𝑥)=C Cos(K𝑥) +D sin(K𝑥)
……(5)
where A & B are constants determined from boundary conditions as follows :
ψ (𝑥)=0 at 𝑥=0 from eqn (5), 0= C x 1 + D x 0
∴ C=0
also, ψ (𝑥)=0 at 𝑥=a ∴ from eqn(4) 0=C Cos(Ka)+D Sin(Ka)
0= D Sin(Ka)
Sin(Ka) = 0 as D≠ 0
∴ Sin(Ka) =0= Sin(n𝜋)

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𝑛𝜋
ie: Ka=n𝜋 or K= 𝑎 …..(6)
8𝜋2 𝑚𝐸 𝑛2 𝜋 2
From eqns 3 & 6 ,we get =
ℎ2 𝑎2
𝑛2 ℎ 2
∴ E = 8𝑎2 𝑚 or
𝒏𝟐 𝒉𝟐
In general En= …(7)
𝟖𝒂𝟐 𝒎
where n=1,2,3..called quantum number.
The values of En are called Eigen energy values which satisfy Schrodinger wave equation.

𝑛𝜋
Substituting the values of C=0 & K= in eqn 5, we get
𝑎
𝜓𝑛 (𝑥) = A Sin( 𝑛𝜋𝑥
𝑎
) …….(8)
To find ’D’ by normalization:
+∞
Applying the normalization condition ∫−∞ 𝐼𝛹𝐼 2 𝑑𝑥 = 1 to eqn 8 for x=0 & x=a, we get
𝑎
∫0 𝐷2 𝑆𝑖𝑛2 ( 𝑛𝜋𝑥
𝑎
)𝑑𝑥 = 1
𝑎
𝐷2 ∫0 ½[1 − 𝐶𝑜𝑠 ( 2 𝑛𝜋𝑥
𝑎
)]𝑑𝑥 = 1 ∵ 𝑆𝑖𝑛2 (𝜃)=½[1-Cos(2𝜃)]
𝑎 𝑎
½𝐷2 [∫0 1𝑑𝑥 − ∫0 𝐶𝑜𝑠( 2 𝑛𝜋𝑥
𝑎
)𝑑𝑥 ] = 1
𝑎 2𝑛𝜋𝑥 𝑆𝑖𝑛(𝑚𝑥)
½𝐷2 { [𝑥]𝑎0 − [2𝑛𝜋 Sin( )]𝑎0 } = 1 ∵ ∫ 𝐶𝑜𝑠(𝑚𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 =
𝑎 𝑚
2 𝑎 𝑎
½𝐷 { [𝑎 − 0] − [2𝑛𝜋 Sin(2n𝜋) − Sin(0)] }=1
2𝑛𝜋
½𝐷2 { [𝑎 − 0] − [0 − 0] }=1
𝐷2 𝑎 = 2 ⇨ 𝐷2 = 2/𝑎 or D =√𝟐/𝒂 …(9)
From eqns 8 &9, the normalized Eigen functions are 𝑔𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝑏𝑦 𝝍𝒏 (𝑥)= √𝟐/𝒂 Sin( 𝒏𝝅𝒙
𝒂
) …..(10)
Eigen energy values and Eigen wave functions :
Any wave function 𝚿 which satisfies Schrodinger’s equation and having properties that they are
single valued, finite everywhere, continuous every where and also their first order derivatives
should posses above properties are called Eigen wave functions or Eigen functions
Eigen value is the energy of a particle in corresponding to its Eigen functions.

Eigen energy values are the energy values which satisfy Schrodinger wave equation and
𝑛2 ℎ 2
are given by En=
8𝑎2 𝑚
ℎ2
For n=1 gives E1 = 8𝑎2𝑚 = Eo called end point /ground state energy .
4ℎ2
n=2 gives E2 = 8𝑎2𝑚 = 4 Eo called 1st excited state energy
9ℎ2
n=3 gives E3 = 8𝑎2𝑚 =9 Eo ,called 2nd excited state energy & so on

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Eigen wave functions are the wave functions which have single finite value and continuous
Everywhere and is given by 𝜓𝑛 (𝑥)= √2/𝑎 Sin( 𝑛𝜋𝑥
𝑎
)

𝑛 = 3 𝝍3 𝐼𝝍3 𝐼 2
.
𝑛 = 2 𝝍2 𝐼𝝍2 𝐼 2

𝑛 = 1 𝝍1 𝐼𝝍1 𝐼 2
𝑥=0 𝑥=a 𝑥=0 𝑥=a

2 2 2
𝐸𝑖𝑔𝑒𝑛 𝑓𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠 𝝍1 , 𝝍2 , 𝝍3 , … . 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑖𝑟 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑏𝑎𝑏𝑖𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑒𝑠 𝐼𝝍1 𝐼 , 𝐼𝝍2 𝐼 , 𝐼𝝍3 𝐼 …
are represented as shown in the [Link] probability of finding the particle at the
anti-nodes is maximum and at nodes is zero.(The particle never found at nodes)

PROBLEMS ON QUANTUM MECHANICS

ℎ
Formulae needed : λ = where P = mv = √2𝑚𝐸 =√2𝑚𝑒𝑉 ,
𝑃
1 𝑃2 ℎ𝐶 ℎ
E = 𝑚𝑉 2 = ;Photon energy E = hν = ; ∆𝑥. ∆𝑃𝑥 ≥ and
2 2𝑚 𝜆 4𝜋
ℎ ℎ𝐶∆𝜆
∆𝑝 = 𝑚. ∆𝑣 ; ∆𝐸. ∆𝑡 ≥ 𝑎𝑛𝑑 ∆𝐸 = ; also ∆𝐸 = ℎ ∆𝜈 ;
4𝜋 𝜆2
𝑥 𝑛2 ℎ 2
P = ∫𝑥 2 𝐼𝛹𝐼 2 dx ; 𝐸𝑛 =
1 8𝑚𝑎2

1. Compare the energy of a photon with that of an electron when both are associated with
wavelength 0.2 nm.
Given: 𝜆𝑃 = 𝜆𝑒 = 0.2 𝑛𝑚 = 0.2𝑥10−9 𝑚 , h=6.63x10−34 Js, m=9.1x10−31 kg ; C=3x108 m/s,
𝐸𝑃
=?
𝐸𝑒
ℎ𝐶 ℎ2
Using 𝐸𝑃 = and 𝐸𝑒 =
𝜆𝑃 2𝑚𝜆𝑒 2
𝐸𝑃 𝐶2𝑚𝜆𝑒 2
We get , =
𝐸𝑒 ℎ𝜆𝑃
3𝑥108 𝑥2𝑥9.1𝑥10−31 ( 0.2𝑥10−9 )2
=
6.63𝑥10−34 𝑥 0.2𝑥10−9
= 1.647x 102
2. Calculate the kinetic energy of an electron of wavelength 18 nm.
Given: 𝜆 = 18 𝑛𝑚 = 18𝑥10−9 𝑚 , h=6.63x10−34 Js, m=9.1x10−31kg ; E= ?

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ℎ
Using λ =
√2𝑚𝐸
ℎ2
We get ,𝐸 =
2𝑚𝜆2
( 6.63𝑥10−34 )2
=
2𝑥9.1𝑥10−31 𝑥( 18𝑥10−9 )2
= 7.454x10−22 J
7.454𝑥10−22
=
1.6𝑥10−19
= 4.66x10−3 eV

3. An excited atom has an average life time of 10−8 seconds. During this period. it emits
photon and returns to the ground state. What is the minimum uncertainty in the frequency
of this photon ?

Given: ∆𝑡 = 10−8 S, ℎ = 6.63𝑥10−34 𝐽𝑠 ; ∆𝜈 = ?

ℎ
Using ∆𝐸 = ℎ. ∆𝜈 and ∆𝐸. ∆𝑡 ≥ 4𝜋
1
We get , ∆𝜈 ≥
4𝜋.∆𝑡
1
≥
4𝑥𝜋𝑥10−8
= 7.96 x 106 Hz
4. Calculate the wavelength associated with electrons whose speed is 0.01 part
of the speed of light. (Dec 2013/Jan2014)
Given: v =0.01 C = 0.01x 3x108 m/s ; h=6.63x10−34 Js; 𝑚 = 9.1𝑥10−31 𝑘𝑔 ; 𝜆 = ?

ℎ
Using λ =
𝑚𝑣
6.63𝑥10−34
=
9.1𝑥10−31 𝑥0.01𝑥 3𝑥108

= 2.43 x10−10 m
5. An electron is bound in one dimensional infinite well of width [Link] the
energy value and de-Broglie wavelength in the first excited state.
Given: a = 0.12nm = 0.12x10−9 m ; n = 2 ; h=6.63x10−34 Js; 𝑚 = 9.1𝑥10−31 𝑘𝑔 ;
𝐸2 = ? & λ =?
𝑛2 ℎ 2
Using 𝐸𝑛 =
8𝑚𝑎2
22 (6.63𝑥10−34 )2
𝐸2 =
8𝑥9.1𝑥10−31 𝑥(0.12𝑥10−9 )2
= 1.68x10−17 J

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ℎ
Also , λ =
√2𝑚𝐸2
6.63𝑥10−34
=
2𝑥9.1𝑥10−31 𝑥1.68𝑥10−17

= 1.19 x10−10 m
6. Calculate the de-Broglie wavelength associated with an electron of energy 1.5eV.

Given: E=1.5 eV=1.5x1.6x10−19 𝐽 , h=6.63x10−34 Js; m=9.1x10−31kg; e=1.6x10−19 C; λ =

ℎ
Using λ =
√2𝑚𝐸
6.63𝑥10−34
=
√(2𝑥9.1𝑥10−31 𝑥1.5𝑥1.6𝑥10−19 )
= 1.003 x 10−9 m

7. A spectral line of wavelength 5461Å has a width of 10−4Å. Evaluate the minimum time
spent by the electrons in the upper energy state.

Given:, ℎ = 6.63𝑥10−34 𝐽𝑠 ; 𝜆 = 5461Å = 5461𝑥10−10 𝑚 ; ∆𝑡 = ?

ℎ𝐶 ℎ
Using ∆𝐸 = and ∆𝐸. ∆𝑡 ≥
𝜆 4𝜋
𝜆
We get , ∆𝑡 ≥
4𝜋.𝐶
5461𝑥10−10
≥
4𝑥𝜋𝑥3𝑥108
= 1.45 x 10−16 S

8. Find the de-Broglie wavelength of an electron accelerated through a potential difference

of 182 volts and object of mass 1 kg moving with a speed of 1 m/s. Compare the results
and comment.

Given:V=182V ; 𝑚0 =1 kg, 𝑉0 = 1 m/s , h=6.63x10−34 Js; m=9.1x10−31kg; e=1.6x10−19 C ,

𝜆𝑒 = ? 𝜆0 = ?
ℎ
Using 𝜆𝑒 =
√2𝑚𝑒𝑉
6.63𝑥10−34
=
√2𝑥9.1𝑥10−31 𝑥1.6𝑥10−19 𝑥182
= 9.11 x10−11 m
ℎ
Also,using 𝜆0 =
𝑚0 𝑉0

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6.63𝑥10−34
=
1𝑥1
= 6.63x10−34 𝑚
Comment : Wavelength is inversely proportional to the mass ,as 𝜆𝑒 ≫ 𝜆0

9. A quantum particle confined to one-dimensional box of width ‘a’ is in its first excited
𝑎
state. What is the probability of finding the particle over an interval of ( 2 ) marked
symmetrically at the centre of box.

𝑎 3𝑎
Given: 1st excited state , n=2 ;the interval ( , )
4 4
2
𝑥2 3𝑎/4 2
Using P = ∫𝑥1 𝐼𝛹𝐼2 dx = ∫𝑎/4 [√𝑎 𝑆𝑖𝑛 ( 2𝜋𝑥
𝑎
)] 𝑑𝑥 𝑎/2
3𝑎
𝟐
= ∫𝑎4 𝒂 𝑆𝑖𝑛2 ( 2𝜋𝑥
𝑎
)𝑑𝑥 0 a/4 a/2 3a/4 a
4
3𝑎
𝟐
= 𝒂
∫𝑎4 ½[1 − 𝐶𝑜𝑠 ( 4 𝑎𝜋𝑥 )]𝑑𝑥 ∵ 𝑆𝑖𝑛2 (𝜃)=½[1-Cos(2𝜃)]
4
3𝑎 3𝑎
𝟐
= ½ 𝒂 ∫𝑎4 1𝑑𝑥 − ∫𝑎4 𝐶𝑜𝑠( 4 𝑎𝜋𝑥 )𝑑𝑥
4 4
3𝑎 3𝑎
𝑎 4𝜋𝑥
= 𝑎 { [𝑥] 𝑎
4
− [4𝜋 Sin( 𝑎
)]𝑎
4
}
4 4
3𝑎 𝑎
4𝜋 𝑎 4𝜋
= 𝑎 { [3𝑎
4
− 𝑎4] − [4𝜋
𝑎
Sin( 4
𝑎
)− 2𝜋 Sin( 𝑎
4
)] }
𝑎
= 𝑎 { [3𝑎
4
− 𝑎4] − [4𝜋
𝑎
Sin(3𝜋)− 2𝜋 Sin(𝜋)] }
𝑎
= 𝑎 { [2] − [0 − 0 } = ½ = 0.5 or 50%

10. A particle moving in one dimension box is described by the wave function 𝛹 = 𝑥[√3] 𝑓𝑜𝑟
0<𝑥<1 and Ψ =0 elsewhere. Find the probability of finding the particle within the
interval (0,½).

1
Given : 𝛹 = 𝑥[√3] ; (𝑥1 , 𝑥2 )( 0, 2 ) ; P = ?

𝑥
Using Probability, P = ∫𝑥 2 𝐼𝛹𝐼 2 dx
1
1
1
𝑥3 1 1
= ∫0 3𝑥 2 2
dx = [3. ]20 = ( )3 – (0)3 = = 0.125 or 12.5 %
3 2 8

11. Find the energy of the neutron in eV whose de-Broglie wavelength is 1Å.

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Given; λ = 1Å = 1x 10−10 𝑚 ;h=6.63x10−34 Js, m=1.678x10−27kg ; e=1.6x10−19 C ;E = ?

ℎ
Using , λ =
√2𝑚𝐸
ℎ2
We get , E = joules
2𝑚𝜆2
ℎ2
= eV
2𝑚𝑒𝜆2
(6.63𝑥10−34 )2
=
2𝑥1.678𝑥10−27 𝑥1.6𝑥10−19 𝑥(1𝑥 10−10 )2
= 0.082 eV
12. An electron is confined to a box of length 10−9 m, calculate the minimum uncertainty in it’s
velocity.

Given: ∆𝑥 = 10−9 m ; h=6.63x10−34 Js, m=9.1x10−31kg ;∆𝑣 = ?

ℎ
Using ∆𝑥. ∆𝑝 ≥ and ∆𝑝 = 𝑚. ∆𝑣
4𝜋
ℎ
We get , ∆𝑣 ≥
4𝜋𝑚∆𝑥

6.63𝑥10−34
≥
4𝜋 𝑥9.1𝑥10−31 𝑥10−9

= 58 x103 m/S

13. Compute the de-Broglie wavelength for a neutron moving with one tenth part of the
velocity of light.

𝐶 3 𝑋 108
Given; V = = = 0.3 𝑥 108 𝑚/𝑠;h=6.63x10−34 Js, m=1.678x10−27kg ;
10 10
C = 3 X 108 m/s ; λ = ?
ℎ
Using λ =
𝑚𝑉
6.63𝑥10−34
= = 1.317x 10−14 m.
1.678𝑥10−27 𝑥0.3 𝑥 108

14. An electron has a de-Broglie wavelength 3 nm and rest mass 511keV. Determine its group
velocity and kinetic energy.

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Given: λ = 3nm = 3x 10−9 m ; h=6.63x10−34 Js ; 𝑉𝑔 = V = ? and 𝐸𝐾 = ?

m =E/ 𝐶 2 =511x103 x1.6x 10−19/(3𝑥108 )2 kg = 9.08x10−31 kg

ℎ ℎ
Using λ = ,we get 𝑉𝑔 = V =
𝑚𝑣 𝑚𝜆
6.63𝑥10−34
=
9.08𝑥10−31 𝑥3𝑥 10−9
= 2.43x 106 m/s

1 1
𝑎𝑙𝑠𝑜, 𝐸𝐾 = 2 𝑚𝑉 2 = 2 𝑥 9.08𝑥10−31 𝑥 (2.43𝑥 106 )2
= 2.681x 10−18 J

15. A spectral line of wavelength 546.1 nm has a width 10−5 nm. Estimate the minimum time
spent by electrons in the excited state during transitions.

Given:, ℎ = 6.63𝑥10−34 𝐽𝑠 ; 𝜆 = 546.1 𝑛𝑚 = 546.1𝑥10−9 𝑚 ; ∆𝑡 = ?

ℎ𝐶 ℎ
Using ∆𝐸 = and ∆𝐸. ∆𝑡 ≥
𝜆 4𝜋
𝜆
𝑤𝑒 𝑔𝑒𝑡 , ∆𝑡 ≥
4𝜋.𝐶
546.1𝑥10−9
≥ = 1.45x 10−16 S
4𝜋𝑥3𝑥108

16. Calculate the momentum of the particle and de-Broglie wavelength associated with an
electron with a kinetic energy of 1.5KeV.

Given: E =1.5 Kev =1.5 x 103 x 1.6x10−19 J ; h = 6.625𝑥10−34 𝐽𝑆 ;e = 1.6x10−19 J ;

m = 9.1𝑥10−31 𝑘𝑔 P =? & λ = ?

Ans: Using P = √2𝑚𝐸

= √2𝑥9.1𝑥10−31 𝑥1.5 𝑥 103 𝑥 1.6𝑥10−19 = 2.09 x 10−23 kg.m/s
ℎ
Also, λ=
𝑃
6.625𝑥10−34
= = 3.17x10−11 𝑚
2.09 𝑥 10−23

17. An electron is bound in one dimensional potential well of width 0.18 nm. Find the energy
value in eV of the second excited state.

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Given: n=3(For 2nd excited state), a=0.18 nm =0.18x10−9m,h=6.63x10−34 Js;

m=9.11x10−31kg & e=1.6x10−19 C; 𝐸2 = ?

𝑛2 ℎ 2 𝑛2 ℎ 2
Using 𝐸𝑛 = J OR 𝐸𝑛 = eV
8𝑚𝑎2 8𝑚𝑎2 𝑒
32 (6.63𝑥10−34 )2 32 (6.63𝑥10−34 )2
𝐸2 = 𝐸2 = −19
8𝑥9.11𝑥10−31 𝑥(0.18 𝑥10−9 )2 8𝑥9.11𝑥10−31 𝑥(0.18 𝑥10−9 )2 𝑥1.6𝑥10
= 1.675 x10−17 J = 104.7 eV
1.675 𝑥10−17
= =104.7 eV
1.6𝑥10−19

18. Calculate the energy in eV, for the first excited state of an electron in an infinite potential
well of width 2 Å .

Given: n=2(For 1st excited state), a=2Å=2x10−10m,h=6.63x10−34 Js; m=9.1x10−31kg &

e=1.6x10−19 C;

𝑛2 ℎ 2 𝑛2 ℎ 2
Using 𝐸𝑛 = J OR 𝐸𝑛 = eV
8𝑚𝑎2 8𝑚𝑎2 𝑒
22 (6.63𝑥10−34 )2 22 (6.63𝑥10−34 )2
= = −19
8𝑥9.1𝑥10−31 𝑥(2𝑥10−10 )2 8𝑥9.1𝑥10−31 𝑥(2𝑥10−10 )2 𝑥1.6𝑥10
= 6.038x10−18 J = 37.74 eV
6.038𝑥10−18
= =37.74 eV
1.6𝑥10−19

19. Calculate the de-Broglie wavelength associated with neutron of mass 1.674 X 10−27 kg
with one tenth part of the velocity of light .

1 1
Given : v = 10 C = 10 x 3x108 m/s = 3x107 m/s; h=6.63x10−34 Js; 𝑚 = 9.11𝑥10−31 𝑘𝑔 ; 𝜆 = ?

ℎ
Using λ =
𝑚𝑣
6.63𝑥10−34
=
9.11𝑥10−31 𝑥 3𝑥107

= 2.43 x10−11 m

20. Calculate the de-Broglie wavelength of an electron moving with K.E of 50KeV.

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Given: E= 50keV= 5x103 𝑥 1.6x10−19 𝐽 , h=6.63x10−34 Js; m=9.1x10−31kg;

e=1.6x10−19 C; λ =?
ℎ
Using λ =
√2𝑚𝐸
6.63𝑥10−34
=
√(2𝑥9.1𝑥10−31 𝑥 50𝑥103 𝑥 1.6𝑥10−19 )

= 5.495 x 10−12 m

221. A particle of mass 940 MeV/𝐶 2 has kinetic energy 0.5 KeV. Find its de-
Broglie wavelength , C is velocity of light.

940 𝑥 106 𝑒𝑉 940 𝑥 106 𝑥1.6𝑥10−19 𝐽

Given: m = 940 MeV/𝐶 2 = = = 1.671x10−27 𝑘𝑔
(3𝑥108 )2 (3𝑥108 )2
E = 0.5 keV = 0.5 𝑥103 eV = 0.5 𝑥103 𝑥1.6𝑥10−19 𝐽 ; 𝜆 = ?

ℎ
Using; 𝝺 =
√(2𝑚𝐸)
6.63𝑥10−34
=
√(2𝑥1.671𝑥10−27 𝑥0.5 𝑥103 𝑥1.6𝑥10−19 )

= 1.282x10−12 m

22. The first excited state energy of an electron in an infinite well is 240 eV.
what will be its ground state energy when the width of the potential
Well is doubled.

Given: 𝐸2 = 240 eV ; 𝐸1 = ?
𝑛2 ℎ 2
Using 𝐸𝑛 =
8𝑚𝑎2
22 ℎ2
𝐸2 =
8𝑚𝑎2
4ℎ2
240 =
8𝑚𝑎2
4ℎ2
𝑎2 =
8𝑚𝑥240
ℎ2
∴ a = √(480𝑚 )

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12 ℎ2 480𝑚𝑥ℎ2
𝑎𝑙𝑠𝑜 , 𝐸1 = = = 15 eV
ℎ2 8𝑚𝑥4𝑥ℎ2
8𝑚(2√( ) )2
480𝑚
𝑂𝑅

𝑛2 ℎ 2 𝐸2 𝑎22 𝐸1 𝑎12 ℎ2
Using ; 𝐸𝑛 = ,we can show that = =
8𝑚𝑎2 22 12 8𝑚

Given; 𝐸2 = 240𝑒𝑉 , 𝑎1 = 2𝑎2

𝐸2 𝑎22 240𝑎22
∴ 𝐸1 = = = 15 eV
𝑎12 22 4𝑎22 𝑥4

23. Calculate the de-Broglie wavelength associated with neutron of mass 1.674
x10−27kg with one tenth part of the velocity of light .

𝐶 3 𝑋 108
Given; V = = = 0.3 𝑥 108 𝑚/𝑠;h=6.63x10−34 Js,
10 10
m=1.674x10−27kg ; C = 3 X 108 m/s ; λ = ?

ℎ 6.63𝑥10−34
Using λ = =
𝑚𝑉 1.674𝑥10−27 𝑥0.3 𝑥 108

= 1.320x 10−14 m.

24. An electron is bound in one dimensional potential well of width

0.18 nm. Find the energy value in eV of the second excited state.

Given: n=3(For 2rd excited state), a=0.18 nm =0.18 x10−9m,h=6.63x10−34 Js;

m=9.1x10−31kg & e=1.6x10−19
𝑛2 ℎ 2 𝑛2 ℎ 2
Using 𝐸𝑛 = J OR 𝐸𝑛 = 8𝑚𝑎2 𝑒 eV
8𝑚𝑎2
32 (6.63𝑥10−34 )2
= =
8𝑥9.1𝑥10−31 𝑥(0.18 𝑥10−9 )2
32 (6.63𝑥10−34 )2
8𝑥9.1𝑥10−31 𝑥1.6𝑥10−19 𝑥(0.18 𝑥10−9 )2

= 1.677x10−17 J = 104.83 eV

6.038𝑥10−18
=
1.6𝑥10−19

= 104.81 eV

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25. Find deBroglie wavelength of a particle of mass 0.58 MeV/𝑪𝟐 has a kinetic
energy 90 eV , where C is the velocity of light.
0.58 𝑥 106 𝑒𝑉
Given: m = 0.58 MeV/𝐶 2 =
(3𝑥108 )2
0.58 𝑥 106 𝑥1.6𝑥10−19 𝐽
= = 1.0324x10−30 𝑘𝑔
(3𝑥108 )2
E = 90eV = 90𝑥1.6𝑥10−19 𝐽 ; 𝜆 = ?
ℎ
Using; 𝝺 =
√(2𝑚𝐸)
6.63𝑥10−34
=
√(2𝑥1.0324𝑥10−30 𝑥 90𝑥1.6𝑥10−19 )
= 1.2142𝑥10−10 m

26. The inherent uncertainty in the measurement of time spent by Iridium- 19

nuclei in the excited state is found to be 1.4 x 𝟏𝟎−𝟏𝟎 S. Estimate the
uncertainty that results in its energy in eV in the excited State.
Given:, ℎ = 6.625𝑥10−34 𝐽𝑠 ; ∆𝑡 = 1.4 x 𝟏𝟎−𝟏𝟎 S: ∆𝐸 =?
ℎ ℎ
Using ∆𝐸. ∆𝑡 ≥ 𝑤𝑒 𝑔𝑒𝑡 , ∆𝐸 ≥
4𝜋 4𝜋.∆𝑡
6.625𝑥10−34
≥ J
4𝜋𝑥𝟏.𝟒 𝒙 𝟏𝟎−𝟏𝟎
6.625𝑥10−34
≥ eV
4𝜋𝑥𝟏.𝟒 𝒙 𝟏𝟎−𝟏𝟎 𝒙𝟏.𝟔𝟎𝟐𝒙𝟏𝟎−𝟏𝟗
≥ 2.351𝑥 10−6 eV
27. A spectral line of wavelength 5896 Å has a width of 𝟏𝟎−𝟓 Å. Evaluate the minimum
time spent by the electrons in the upper energy state between the excitation and
de-excitation processes.
Given: 𝝀=5896 Å = 5896 x10−10 m ,∆𝜆 = 10−5 Å = 10−5 x10−10m ,
h = 6.625 x 10−34 JS , C = 3 x 108 𝑚𝑠 −1 , ∆𝑡 = ?

ℎ ℎ𝑣 ∆𝜆 ℎ𝑐
Using ∆𝐸. ∆𝑡 ≥ and ∆𝐸 = ∵E=
4𝜋 𝜆2 𝜆
𝜆2
We get , ∆𝑡 =
4𝜋𝑐∆𝜆
(5896 𝑥10−10 )2
∴ ∆𝑡 =
4𝜋𝑥3 𝑥 108 𝑥10−5 𝑥10−10
= 9.221 x 𝟏𝟎−𝟖 S
28. Compare the energy of a photon with that of a neutron when both are associate
with a wavelength 0.25 nm,mass of neutron is 1.675 X 𝟏𝟎−𝟐𝟕 kg.
Given : 𝜆𝑝 = 𝜆𝑛 = 0.25 𝑛𝑚 = 0.25 x 10−9 m , 𝑚𝑛 = 1.675 X 10−27 kg

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 RAMESH R 21PHY12/22

𝜆𝑝
h = 6.625 x 10−34 JS , C = 3 x 108 𝑚𝑠 −1 , 𝜆 = ?
𝑛
ℎ𝑐 6.625 𝑥 10−34 𝑥3 𝑥 108
Using , 𝐸𝑝 = = = 7.95 x 10−16 J
𝜆 0.25 𝑥 10−9

ℎ2 (6.625 𝑥 10−34 )2
Also , 𝐸𝑛 = 2
= 2 = 2.096 x10−21 J
2𝑚𝜆 2𝑥1.675 𝑋 10−27 𝑥 (0.25 𝑥 10−9 )
𝑬𝒑 𝟕.𝟗𝟓 𝒙 𝟏𝟎−𝟏𝟔
∴ = = 3.793 x 𝟏𝟎𝟓
𝑬𝒏 𝟐.𝟎𝟗𝟔 𝒙𝟏𝟎−𝟐𝟏
29. An electron is bound in an one dimensional potential well of width 1 Å , but of
infinite wall height. Find its energy values in the ground state and also in the
first excited states.
Given: a = 1Å = 1x10−10 m ; h=6.63x10−34 Js; 𝑚 = 9.1𝑥10−31 𝑘𝑔 ;
𝐸1 & 𝐸2 = ?
𝑛2 ℎ 2
Using 𝐸𝑛 = 8𝑚𝑎2
For ground state, n = 1
12 (6.63𝑥10−34 )2
∴ 𝐸1 = 8𝑥9.1𝑥10−31 𝑥(1𝑥10−10 )2
= 6.038x10−18 J
For 1st excited state, n = 2
22 (6.63𝑥10−34 )2
∴ 𝐸2 =
8𝑥9.1𝑥10−31 𝑥(1𝑥10−10 )2
−17
= 2.415x10 J

*****

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Module- 3 : Syllabus
3.1 Laser: Brief discussion of spontaneous and stimulated processes - Explanation of the I No numerical problems
process of induced absorption, spontaneous and stimulated emission.
Einstein's coefficients (expression for energy density) -derivation of energy density in terms of Numerical
Einstein's coefficients problems
Requisites of a Laser system - a brief explanation about active medium, resonant cavity and No numerical problems
exciting system.
Conditions for laser action-To explain population inversion and meta stable state Numerical
problems
Principle: mention different modes of vibrations of CO2 explain construction and working of No numerical problems
CO 2 laser with energy level diagram experimental setup.
Principle, Construction and working of semiconductor Lasers - Explain principle, construction Numerical
and working of homo junction semiconductor laser with energy level problems
diagram and experimental setup.
Application of Lasers in Defense (Laser range finder) - qualitative explanation about application No numerical problems
of laser as laser range finder.
No numerical problems
Medical Application of Lasers in Eye surgery and Skin treatment- qualitative explanation
3.2 Optical fiber: Description of propagation mechanism of light through an optical fiber. Numerical
Angle of acceptance and numerical aperture(NA)Theory with condition for propagation problems
Modes of propagation and V- number and types of optical fibers( qualitative) Numerical
problems
Attenuation: Definition of attenuation, name the three types of attenuation, Causes of Numerical
attenuation: Explain absorption, scattering and radiation losses. Mention the expression for problems
attenuation coefficient
Application of optical fiber: Point to point communication: Explain with the help of block No numerical
diagram. Merits and de merits of optical fiber communication. problems
Optical fiber sensors: intensity based displacement sensor and Temperature sensor based No numerical
on phase modulation problems
Tutorial classes , ~ Involvement of students in respect of their doubts about the
module and numerical problems

Module-3
1. Derivation of expression for energy density in terms of Einstein’s coefficients.
2. C𝒐𝟐 laser- Principle, construction and working.
3. Semiconductor laser- Principle, construction and working.
4. Applications of laser in defense and Medical field.
5. Theory of optical fiber/Derivation of Expressions for acceptance angle and Numerical Aperture
of optical fiber.
6. Attenuation and causes for attenuation.
7. Types of optical fibers.
8. Explanation of Point to Point communication using optical fibers.
9. Explain Optical fiber sensors.

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 RAMESH R 21PHY12/22

LASERS
Q: Explain Einstein’s explanation of interaction of radiation with matter (or)
Explain Induced absorption , Spontaneous emission &Stimulated emission.

Consider a system of energy density 𝑈𝜈 𝑎𝑛𝑑 Let N1 & N2 be the population of the
energy states E1 & E2 respectively so that (E2 −E1) = hν & E2 >E1
According to Einstein, radiation interacts with matter in 3 ways namely:

1) Induced absorption:

𝐸2 𝑁2 𝑨∗ •

hν ⇝ ⇒

𝐸1 •𝑨 𝑁2

Induced absorption is the phenomenon in which an atom(A) in the lower energy state E 1
absorb the incident photon of energy ‘hν’ & excite to the higher energy state E2
if (E2 −E1) = hν .
Mathematically it(induced absorption) is represented as
hν +A → 𝑨∗ or photon +atom→ 𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑚∗

Also, Rate of induced absorption = 𝐵12 𝑁1 𝑈𝜈 ,where 𝑈𝜈 = 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 &

𝐵12 = 𝐸𝑖𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑖𝑛′ 𝑠 𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑒𝑑 𝑎𝑏𝑠𝑜𝑟𝑝𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑐𝑜𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡.

[Link] emission:
𝐸2 𝑨∗ • 𝑁2

⇒ hν ⇝
𝐸1 𝑁1 𝑨•

Spontaneous emission is the phenomenon in which an atom (A) in the excited state of
energy E2 de-excite to the lower energy state E1 without any external influence by
emitting a photon of energy hν =(E2 −E1).
Mathematically, it is represented as 𝑨∗ → A + hν
Also, Rate of Spontaneous emission = 𝐴21 𝑁2

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𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝐴21 = 𝐸𝑖𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑖𝑛′ 𝑠 𝑠𝑝𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑒𝑜𝑢𝑠 𝑒𝑚𝑖𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑐𝑜𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡.

[Link] emission:
𝐸2 𝑨∗ • 𝑁2

hν ⇝ ⇨ hν ⇝+ hν ⇝

𝐸1 𝑁1 •A

𝐸2 𝑁2 •
Stimulated emission is the phenomenon in which an atom (𝑨∗ ) in the excited state of
energy E2 de-excite to the lower energy state E1 under the influence of an external photon
(hν) by emitting an identical photon of energy hν =(E2 −E1).
Mathematically,𝑖𝑡 𝑖𝑠 𝑟𝑒𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑎𝑠 𝒉𝝂 + 𝑨∗ → A +2 hν
Also, Rate of Stimulated emission= 𝐵21 𝑁2 𝑈𝜈 ,where 𝑈𝜈 = 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 &
𝐵21 = 𝐸𝑖𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑖𝑛′ 𝑠 𝑆𝑝𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑒𝑜𝑢𝑠 𝑒𝑚𝑖𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑐𝑜𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡.

Q: Explain the terms : Active medium ; Population Inversion ; Pumping ; Meta stable state
and Laser Cavity( Optical resonator) Or Explain the requisites of a laser system.

Active medium is a Solid/Liquid/Gas medium in which stimulated emission and

amplification of the radiations can be achieved.
Laser Cavity( Optical resonator) is a pair of parallel/con-focal/concentric mirrors
between which active medium is placed so that stimulated emitting photons are used to
cause further Stimulated emissions and to amplify the beam.
One mirror is highly silvered and the other partially silvered. The distance between the
𝑛𝜆
mirrors is given by L = ,where λ = wavelength and n = number of stationary waves
2
produced.

The requisites of a laser system are :

1. There must be at least a pair of energy levels (E2 >E1 ) separated by the radiation
which is to be stimulated. It requires an energy source.
2. There must be Population Inversion
3. All lasers requires an active medium which can retain the photon of energy hν =(E 2
−E1).
4. The laser system requires an optical resonant cavity.
Conditions for laser action:
[Link] is the supply of energy to the atoms in the lower states in order to excite them
to higher states. The methods of pumping are Optical pumping, Electrical pumping,
Forward bias pumping ,Chemical pumping, Elastic one-one collisions.

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[Link] Inversion is condition of system in which the population of higher energy

states exceed the population of lower states.
[Link] stable state is an intermediate state in which the average life of the atoms is of the
order of 10−3s ie: their life is 105 times more than that of normal states.(or)Metastable
state is a lower excited energy state in which atom stays more time than the excited state.
𝑸:Derive an expression for energy density in terms of Einstein’s coefficients (or)
Derive the relation between Einstein’s coefficients
Consider a system of energy density 𝑈𝜈 in thermal equilibrium. Let N1 & N2 be the
population of the energy states E1 & E2 respectively, where (E2 >E1 )
WKT, Rate of induced absorption = 𝐵12 𝑁1 𝑈𝜈 ,
where 𝐵12 = 𝐸𝑖𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑖𝑛′ 𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑒𝑑 𝑎𝑏𝑠𝑜𝑟𝑝𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 .

Induced absorption Stimulated emission

𝐸2 𝑁2 • •
. hν ⇝ ⇨ ⇨ hν ⇝ hν ⇝ ⇨ 2hν ⇝ ⇝

𝐸1 • 𝑁1 • •
Spontaneous emission

Rate of Spontaneous emission = 𝐴21 𝑁2 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝐴21 =

𝐸𝑖𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑖𝑛′ 𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑝𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑒𝑜𝑢𝑠 𝑒𝑚𝑖𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑎𝑛𝑑
Rate of Stimulated emission= 𝐵21 𝑁2 𝑈𝜈 ,
where 𝐵21 = 𝐸𝑖𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑖𝑛′ 𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑆𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑒𝑚𝑖𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 .
At thermal equilibrium,
𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑆𝑝𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑒𝑜𝑢𝑠 𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑆𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑
Rate of induced absorption = { }+ { }
𝑒𝑚𝑖𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑒𝑚𝑖𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛
ie: 𝐵12 𝑁1 𝑈𝜈 = 𝐴21 𝑁2 + 𝐵21 𝑁2 𝑈𝜈
∴ 𝑈𝜈 ( 𝐵12 𝑁1 − 𝐵21 𝑁2 ) = 𝐴21 𝑁2
𝐴21 𝑁2
𝑖𝑒: 𝑈𝜈 = ( 𝐵 dividing both Nr & Dr by 𝐵21 𝑁2 ,we get
12 𝑁1 − 𝐵21 𝑁2 )
𝐴 1
= 𝐵 21 𝐵 𝑁 ……….(1)
21 [ 12 1 −1]
𝐵21 𝑁2
𝑁1
According to Boltzmann’s law, = 𝑒 (𝐸2 −𝐸1)/𝐾𝑇 = 𝑒 ℎ𝜈/𝐾𝑇 …….(2)
𝑁2
𝐴21 1
From eqns 1 &2 , we get. 𝑈𝜈 = 𝐵 ……..(3)
𝐵21
[ 𝐵12 𝑒 ℎ𝜈/𝐾𝑇 −1]
21

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8𝜋ℎ𝜈3 1
But .the energy density given by Planck’s law is 𝑈𝜈 = 3
……(4)
𝐶 ( 𝑒 ℎ𝜈/𝐾𝑇 −1)
Comparing eqns 3 & 4 ,we get 𝑩𝟏𝟐 = 𝑩𝟐𝟏
Thus coefficient of Induced absorption = coefficient of stimulated emission.
𝟖𝝅𝒉𝝂𝟑 𝑨𝟐𝟏 ℎ𝜈
and = = 𝑈𝜈 ( 𝑒 𝐾𝑇 − 1)
𝑪𝟑 𝑩𝟐𝟏
𝑨𝟐𝟏 𝟏
Thus, energy density 𝑼𝝂 =
𝑩𝟐𝟏 –𝟏] [𝒆 𝒉𝝂/𝑲𝑻

This is the expression for energy density in terms of Einstein’s coefficients or relation
between Einstein’s coefficients.
Q:Explain the fundamental mode of vibration in CO2 molecule.
In CO2 molecule there are three fundamental modes of vibrations, namely
1. Symmetric mode :

Molecular axis

O C O

Symmetric mode is the mode in which both the oxygen atoms oscillate simultaneously to
& fro about the stationary carbon atom along the molecular axis.

2. Asymmetric mode:
Molecular axis

O C O

Asymmetric mode is the mode in which both the oxygen atoms move in one direction and
the carbon atom move in the opposite direction along the molecular axis.
3. Bending mode:
Molecular axis

Bending mode is theOmode in which both

O
oxygen atoms and carbon atom move in opposite
directions perpendicular to the molecular axis.
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The internal vibrations of CO2 molecule are the combination of the above three modes.
Q:Explain the principal, construction and working of C𝑶𝟐 laser.

Principle : CO2 laser works on the principle of stimulated emission.

Construction:
1) The schematic diagram CO2 Laser is as shown in the diagram invented by CKN Patel an
Indian engineer
2) It consists of a (glass)discharge tube of length 5 m & diameter 2.5 cm filled with a
mixture of gases CO2 ,N2 ,He in the ratio [Link]
3) High DC voltage can be applied to the gas between the electrodes A&C .
4) Ends of the tube is fitted with ( NaCl ) Brewster windows to get polarized laser beam
5) Two con-focal silicon mirrors coated with aluminum are provided at the ends of the tube
which act as optical resonators.
6) Cold water is circulated through a tube surrounding the discharge tube.

𝑪𝑶𝟐 laser diagram

C𝑂2 𝑁2 𝐻𝑒 gases outlet

Water outlet

𝑀1 -optical cavity(oc) 𝑀2 (oc)

5m

A electrodes C 2.5 cm Laser

BW BW=Brewster window

Q:Explain the inlet

Water construction & working
Ba of CO2 Laser.

Energy level diagram

𝑁2 Resonant transfer of energy C𝑂2

𝜈=1 𝐶5 (meta stable state)

𝐶4 10.6 𝜇𝑚 laser

Excitations by collission 𝐶3 9.6 𝜇𝑚 laser

Working: 𝐶2

𝜈=0 Ground state 𝐶1

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1) CO2 Laser is a four level molecular gas laser which produce continuous or pulsed laser
beam.
2) It works on the principle of stimulated emission between the rotational sublevels of an
upper & lower vibrational levels of CO2 molecules.
3) Ionisation takes place due to electric discharge when high DC voltage is applied between
electrodes producing electrons.
4) The accelerated electrons excite both N2& CO2 atoms to their higher energy levels ‘ 𝓥 =1 &
C5 from their ground states 0 & C1 due to collision as follows:
e+𝑵𝟐 → 𝑵∗𝟐 +e’ and e+𝑪𝑶𝟐 → 𝑪𝑶∗𝟐 +e’
where e& e ’are the energies of electron before and after collision.
∗
5) 𝑵𝟐 molecule in excited level collide with CO2 molecules in their ground state C1 &
excite it to metastable state C5 by resonant energy transfer as level C5 of CO2 is same as
level 𝓥=1 of 𝑁2 given by 𝑵∗𝟐 +𝑪𝑶𝟐 → 𝑪𝑶∗𝟐 +𝑵𝟐
6) As this process continues due to electric discharge pumping , population inversion takes
place betweenC5 &C4 and C5 & C3.
7) The transitions/de-excitations takes place as follows:
C5 → C4 producing laser 10.6𝜇𝑚 (IR region)
C5 → C3 producing laser 9.6𝜇𝑚 (IR region)
C4 → C2
C3 → C2 Radiation less transitions
C2 → C1
8) Due to high thermal conductivity of He, it removes heat from mixture and de-populate the
lower states C3 &C2 quickly .
9) Laser beam is amplified by using optical resonators.
10) The laser output is 100kW for continuous mode and 10 kW in pulsed mode.
Q: Explain the Principle,construction and working of Semi-conductor laser.

Principle: SC laser works on the principle of stimulated emission.

Construction:
1. The schematic diagram of GaAs semi-conductor device is as shown in the diagram.
2. It consists of heavily doped n-region of GaAs doped with tellurium and p-region of GaAs
doped with zinc.
3. The upper and lower surfaces are metalized so that pn-junction is forward biased .
4. Two surfaces perpendicular to the Jn are polished so that they act as optical resonators
and the other two surfaces roughened to prevent lasing in that direction.

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Working:
1. Semi-conductor laser are made up of highly de-generate semi-conductors having direct
band gap like Gallium Arsenide (GaAs).
2. When GaAS diode is forward biased with voltage nearly equal to the energy gap voltage,
electrons from n-region & holes from p-region flow across the junction creating
population inversion in the active jn region.
3. As the voltage is gradually increased due to forward biasing population inversion is
achieved between the valence band and conduction band which in turn result in
stimulated emission.
4. Photons produced are amplified between polished optical resonator surfaces producing
laser beam.
5. GaAs laser produce laser beam of wavelength 8870Å in IR region , GaAsP produce laser
beam of 6500Å in visible region etc.
Semiconductor laser Energy level giagram

Metalic coated(MC) surface P-type pn-Jn n-type

RS

𝐸𝐹𝑒
PS CB
P-type
Ba p P Laser
Pn-jn 𝐸𝐹𝑝 h+e
n-type VB
n-type
Polished surfac(PS)
Laser

Roughened surface(RS)
MC

Q:Mention the characteristics of laser beam.

The laser beam characteristics are:
1. They are highly monochromatic.
2. They are highly coherent.
3. They are highly directional.
4. They are highly focusable.
5. They are least divergent.
Q:Mention the uses of laser beam.
Application of laser in Defence as range finder
High intensity, High coherence and High directionality of laser is made use of in Defence
range finder.

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Transmitted laser
TARGET
Antenna

S Reflected laser
Laser
Transmitter/Receiver

TV Monitor

Target Image

The schematic diagram of range finder is as shown in the diagram.

Range finder works on the principle that, Distance = Velocity X time. Laser beam is transmitted towards the
target and the reflected laser beam from the target is received. The time (t)elapsed between the transmitting
laser and receiving the beam is measured. If ‘S’ be the distance of the target, then the range of the target is
given by S = 𝑉𝑥 𝑡2.
In practice computer aided calibrated devices are used to display the distance and direction on the monitor
screen directly and accurately.
Tankers, Fighter planes, Guided missiles are equipped with range finders to destroy the enemy targets
without bringing to the pre-notice of enemy.

OPTICAL FIBRES

Q:What is an Optical Fiber?

Optical Fiber is a transparent di-electric material (like glass/plastic) which guides/ carry)
light along it based on the principle of total reflection of light.

Optical fiber consists of a cylindrical transparent di-electric material of high refractive

index called core. It is surrounded by another di-electric transparent material of low
refractive index called cladding Cladding in turn is surrounded by cylindrical insulator
called Sheath, which gives mechanical strength & protect the fiber from absorption,
scattering etc

Q:What is an acceptance angle of an optical fiber ? Find the expression for

acceptance angle or Numerical aperture.

acceptance angle or Numerical aperture.

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Acceptance angle is the maximum angle submitted by the ray with the axis of the fiber so
that light can be accepted and guided along the fiber.

Consider the special case of a ray which suffers critical incidence at the core cladding
interface. The ray to begin with travels along AO entering into the core at an angle 𝜃𝑜 to
the fiber axis. Then it is refracted along OB at an angle 𝜃1 in the core and further proceeds
to fall at critical angle of incidence( equal to 90- 𝜃1 ), 𝑖𝑡 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑧𝑒𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒.

It is clear from the fig that, any ray that enters into the core at an angle of incidence less
than 𝜃𝑜 , will have refractive angle less than 𝜃1 because of which its angle of
incidence(=90- 𝜃1 ) at the interface, will become greater than the critical angle of
incidence and undergoes TIR. The NA represents the light gathering capability of the
optical fiber.

Condition for propagation: Let 𝑛1 , 𝑛2 & 𝑛𝑜 be the RI of core, cladding and launch medium
respectively. Now , for refraction at the point of entry of the ray AO into the core, By snell’s
𝑛1
law at A, 𝑛𝑜 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃0 = 𝑛1 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃1 ⇨ 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃0 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃1 ……(1)
𝑛𝑜

At the point B on the interface, the angle of incidence = 90- 𝜃1 ,

By snell’s law at B, 𝑛1 𝑠𝑖𝑛(90 − 𝜃1 ) = 𝑛2 𝑠𝑖𝑛 90

𝑛1 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃1 = 𝑛2
𝑛
𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃1 = 𝑛2 ……….(2)
1

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𝑛1
Rewriting equation (1), 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃0 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛 √(1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜃1 ) ….(3)
𝑛𝑜

𝑛1 2 √𝑛12 −𝑛22
Sub eqn (2) in (1) we get, 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃0 = √(1 − ( 𝑛2 ) ) =
𝑛𝑜 𝑛 1 𝑛0

If the medium surrounding the fiber is air, then 𝑛𝑜 = 1

√𝒏𝟐𝟏 −𝒏𝟐𝟐 √𝒏𝟐𝟏 −𝒏𝟐𝟐

𝑵𝑨 = 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝜽𝒐 = or 𝜽𝒐 = 𝒔𝒊𝒏−𝟏
𝒏𝒐 𝒏𝒐

Numerical aperture is the ability of the optical fiber to accept the light and guide

along the fiber and is numerically equal to sine of the acceptance angle.

√𝑛12 −𝑛22
ie: NA = 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃𝑜 = 𝑛𝑜

if 𝜃𝑖 is the angle of incidence of an incident ray, then the ray will be able to propagate if

𝜽𝒊 < 𝜃𝟎 and sin𝜽𝒊 < NA this is the condition for propagation.

𝑨𝒄𝒄𝒆𝒑𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆 𝒂𝒏𝒈𝒍𝒆 :The maximum angle 𝜽𝒐 is called the acceptance angle , it is defined as
the maximum angle that a light ray can have relative to the axis of the fiber and propagate
through the fiber.

√𝑛12 −𝑛22
ie: NA = 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃𝑜 = 𝑛𝑜

Q: What is meant by numerical aperture(NA) and mention the expression for it.
Numerical aperture is the ability of the optical fiber to accept the light and guide
along the fiber and is numerically equal to sine of the acceptance angle.
√𝑛12 −𝑛22
ie: NA = 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃𝑜 = 𝑛𝑜

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Q:What is meant by fractional refractive index change(∆).

The ratio of the difference between refractive indices of core and cladding to that
(𝑛1 −𝑛2 )
of core is called fractional refractive index change. ie: ∆ = 𝑛1
Q:What is attenuation and explain types of attenuation in optical fibres.
Loss of power of light signal as it is guided along the fiber is called attenuation.
Attenuation is measured in terms of dB/km.
There are three types of attenuations in the fiber namely:
1. Absorption losses are the losses due to impurities & material itself and they are two
types namely
a) Impurity losses are the losses due to the impurities(Cu, Fe, etc) present in the fiber,
which can be minimised by taking care during manufacture of the fiber.
b) Intrinsic losses are the losses due to the material itself, these losses decreases with the
increase of wavelength.
2. Scattering losses are the losses due to imperfections of the fiber called Rayleigh
scattering losses which varies inversely as the 𝜆4.
3. Radiation losses are the losses are two types namely:-
a) Microscopic losses are the losses due to non-linearity of the fiber axis ,which can be
minimized by providing compressible jacket & taking care during manufacture of the fiber.
a) Macroscopic losses are the losses due to large curvature/bending of the fiber when it is
wound over a spool/bent at corners. These losses increase exponentially up to
threshold radius and there afterwards losses becomes large.

Expression for attenuation coefficient(𝜶)

Consider an optical fiber of length’L’ and 𝑃𝑖 & 𝑃𝑜 be the input and output powers
respectively.
𝑑𝑃
The according to Lambert’s law ,the rate of decrease of intensity (− 𝑑𝐿 )with distance
varies directly as Intensity (P)
𝑑𝑃
ie; − 𝑑𝐿 𝛼 𝑃 ,where – sign signifies that intensity decreases with distance.

= 𝛼 P ,where 𝛼 is constant called attenuation coefficient.

𝑑𝑃
On rearranging we get, = −𝛼𝑑𝐿
𝑃

Integrating on both sides ,between limits (𝑃𝑖 , 𝑃𝑜 ) and (0,L)we have,

𝑃𝑜 𝑑𝑃 𝐿
∫𝑃 = −𝛼 ∫0 𝑑𝐿
𝑖 𝑃

[𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑃]𝑃𝑃𝑜𝑖 = −𝛼[𝐿]𝐿0

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∴ log 𝑃𝑜 − log 𝑃𝑖 = −𝛼𝐿

𝑃 1 𝑃
log( 𝑃𝑜 ) = −𝛼𝐿 or 𝛼 = − 𝐿 log( 𝑃𝑜 ) Bel/km
𝑖 𝑖

𝟏𝟎 𝑷
∴ 𝜶 =− log( 𝑷𝒐 ) dB/km
𝑳 𝒊

𝜶𝑳
𝑷𝒐
Note: = 𝟏𝟎−𝟏𝟎
𝑷𝒊

Q: What is V-Parameter/number ?
V-Parameter/number is the quantity which represent the number of modes of the fibre
𝜋𝑑 𝜋𝑑 √𝑛1 2 −𝑛2 2
given by V = . NA = .
𝜆 𝜆 𝑛0
where d = diameter , λ = wavelength,
𝑛1 , 𝑛2 &𝑛0 RI’s of Core, Cladding & medium
Q:What is meant by modes of propagation.
The paths along which the light is guided in the fiber are called modes of
𝑉2
propagation and the number of modes of the fiber is given by N = 2

Q: Explain the construction and working of Types of optical Fibers.

There are three types of optical fibers namely:-
1) Single mode step index fiber(SMF

Cladding

Core

Index profile Cross section profile Modes profile

1. SMF core diameter = 8 − 10𝜇𝑚 and cladding diameter = 60-70𝜇𝑚 .

2. The refractive index, cross section and modes profiles are as shown in the diagram.
3. The V-number is < 2.4.
4. Numerical aperture is < 0.12 .

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5. Attenuation is in the range 0.25-0.5 dB/km.

6. Information carrying capacity is very large. They are long haul carriers.
7. Laser source is used. Connectors are costly

2) Multimode step index fiber(MMF)

Cladding

Core

Input output
Index profile Cross section profile Modes profile

1) MMF has a core diameter 50 − 200𝜇𝑚 of uniform RI and cladding diameter

100-250𝜇𝑚 has 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚 𝑅𝐼.
2) The refractive index, cross section and modes profiles are as shown in the diagram.
3) MMF guides light in multi-modes as shown .
4) The V-number is > 2.4.
5) Numerical aperture is 0.2 𝑡𝑜 0.3 .
6) Attenuation is in the range 0.5- 4 dB/km.
7) Information carrying capacity is small to medium and short haul carriers.
8) LED source is used & Connectors are cheap.

3) Graded index multimode fiber(GRIN)

Cladding

Core

Index profile Cross section profile Modes profile

1) GRIN core diameter = 50 − 200𝜇𝑚 of variable RI and cladding diameter = 100-250𝜇𝑚

2) The refractive index, cross section and modes profiles are as shown in the diagram
3) The V-number is > 2.4.
4) Numerical aperture is 0.2 𝑡𝑜 0.3 .

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5) Attenuation is in the range 0.5- 4 dB/km.

6) Information carrying capacity is large and efficient and are short haul carriers.
7) Laser/LED source is used. Connectors are cheap.
8) Easy to splice and interconnect but expensive.
Q:Explain point to point communication system using optical fiber.
The schematic block diagram of point to point communication system using optical fiber is
as shown in the diagram.

Input
Information Coder Optical
Audio-video Optical fibre REPEATER
receiver AES BES transmitter
carrier
Signal AVS AES Modulator BES OS
[ Receiver
Cum
Transmitter ]
Output
Information De-Coder Optical
Audio-video Optical fibre
transmitter BES AES receiver
Signal carrier
AES AVS De- modulator OS BES

Note: AVS =audio/video signal. AES=analog electrical signal,

BES=binary electrical signal & OS = optical signal.
1. Information receiver-receives , convert input AVS in to AES & fed to coder.
2. Coder- receives, convert AES in to BES and fed in to optical transmitter after
modulating it with carrier signal.
3. Optical transmitter-receives, convert BES in to OS and fed in to carrier optical fibre.
4. Carrier optical fibre-receive OS and guide it along the fibre. Weakened OS is fed in to
repeater.
4. Re-peater( Receiver cum transmitter)-receives the Weakened OS, restore to original
strength and fed back in to carrier optical fibre again, which in turn guide OS and fed in
to optical receiver.
6. Optical receiver- receive ,convert OS in to BES & fed in to de-coder.
7. De-coder-receive, de-modulate & convert BES in to AES & fed in to
informationtransmitter.
8. Information transmitter-finally receive, convert AES in to AVS as output

Advantages of Optical Fiber communicationsystem(OFCS):

Merits of point to point Optical Fiber communication system are:

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1. Wide bandwidth-the bandwidth of OFCS is very large about 105 GHz compared
to cable communication band width 500MHz.
2. Electrical isolation- OFCS cables are electrically isolated as the optical fibers are
made of insulating glass and plastics.
3. No cross talk- OFCS works on the principle of total internal reflection as there is
no leakage of signal.
4. Economical ,light weight,strong,flexible & small size- optical fibers used in OFCS
are cheap, light weight and small size compared to conventional system.
5. Immune to electro-magnetic interference- Electrically neutral light signals in
OFCS are unaffected by external electromagnetic waves due to
current/magnetic field/lightning/electrical sparks.
6. High signal security- In OFCS the signals transmitted are highly secured as the
leakage can be easily detectable.
7. Low attenuation / transmission loss-In OFCS the transmission loss of the signal
is about 0.2dB/km.

Demerits of point to point Optical Fiber communication system:

Optical fibers used in OFCS :

1. are sensitive to temperature changes which leads to loss of signal.
2. may break easily due to bending or accidents.
3. re- connection of broken Optical fibers is skillful work and costly.

PROBLEMS ON LASERS
𝑛𝜆 𝑁2 ℎ𝐶
Formulae needed: L = ; = 𝑒 −(ℎ𝐶/𝜆𝑘𝑇) ; E= P.t and E =n. ;
2 𝑁1 𝜆
1. Find the number of modes of standing waves in the resonator cavity of length 1 m in
He-Ne temperature of laser operating at wavelength 632.8nm.
Given: L= 1 m ; λ = 632.8 nm = 632.8𝑥10−9 m. n = ?
𝑛𝜆 2𝐿
Using L = ,we get n =
2 𝜆
2𝑥1
=
632.8𝑥10−9
= 3.161 x 106 𝑚𝑜𝑑𝑒𝑠

2. Find the ratio of populations of two energy levels in a laser if the transition between
them produces light of wavelength 6493Å,assuming the ambient temperature as 27℃.
Given: λ = 6493Å = 6493x10−10 m, t=27℃⇨ T = 273+27 =300K; h=6.63x10−34 Js;
𝑁
k=1.38x10−23 J/K ;C=3x108 m/s ;𝑁2 = ?
1

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ℎ𝐶
𝑁2 −( )
Using =𝑒 𝜆𝑘𝑇
𝑁1
6.63𝑥10−34 𝑥3𝑥108
−( )
=𝑒 6493𝑥10−10 𝑥1.38𝑥10−23 𝑥300

= 𝑒 −79.99
= 7.33x10−33
3. A He-Ne gas laser is emitting a laser beam with an average power of 4.5 mW. Find the
number of photons emitted per second by the laser. The wavelength of the emitted
radiation is 6328Å.
Given: P=4.5mW = 4.5x10−3 𝑤 ,t= 1 S , C=3x108 m/s ; h=6.63x10−34 Js,
λ = 6328Å = 6328x10−10 m ; n = ?
ℎ𝐶 𝜆𝑃𝑡
Using E= Pxt and E =n. ⇨𝑛 =
𝜆 ℎ𝐶
−10
6328𝑥 10 𝑥4.5𝑥10−3 𝑥1
=
6.63𝑥10−34 𝑥3𝑥108
= 1.432x1016 photons.
4. Find the number of modes of standing waves and their frequency separation in the
resonant cavity of 1 m length of He-Ne operating at wavelength of 632.8 nm.
Given: L= 1 m ; λ = 632.8 nm = 632.8𝑥10−9 m. n = ? and
𝑛𝜆 2𝐿
Using L = , we get , n =
2 𝜆
2𝑥1
=
632.8𝑥10−9
= 3.161 𝑥 106 𝑚𝑜𝑑𝑒𝑠

5. The ratio of population of two energy states in a laser 1.059 x10−30 .If the temperature of
the system is 57°𝐶, 𝑤ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑤𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑒𝑟 ?
𝑁
Given: 𝑁2 = 1.059x10−30, t = 57°𝐶, ⇨ T =273+57=330K; h=6.63x10−34 Js; k=1.38x10−23
1

J/K ;C=3x108 m/s ; λ = ?

𝑁2 𝑁 𝑁
Using = 𝑒 −(ℎ𝐶/𝜆𝑘𝑇) ,we get , In(𝑁2) = −(ℎ𝐶/𝜆𝑘𝑇) 𝑆𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑒: 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑒 (𝑁2) = In(𝑁𝑁2)
𝑁1 1 1 1

𝑁2
λ = −(ℎ𝐶/𝐼𝑛 (𝑁 ) 𝑘𝑇)
1
−6.63𝑥10−34 𝑥3𝑥108
=
𝐼𝑛(1.059𝑥10−30 ) 𝑥1.38𝑥10−23 𝑥330
= 6.328x10−7 𝑚

6. Calculate on the basis of Einstein’s theory the number of photons emitted per second by
He-Ne laser source emitting light of wavelength 6328Å with an optical power 10mW.
Given: P=10mW = 10x10−3 𝑤 ,t=1 s , C=3x108 m/s ; h=6.63x10−34 Js, ,

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 RAMESH R 21PHY12/22

λ = 6328 Å = 6328 x 10−10 m ; n = ?

ℎ𝐶 𝜆𝑃𝑡
Using E= Pxt and E =n. , 𝑤𝑒 𝑔𝑒𝑡 𝑛 =
𝜆 ℎ𝐶
6328 𝑥 10−10 𝑥10𝑥10−3 𝑥1
=
6.63𝑥10−34 𝑥3𝑥108
= 3.18 x1016 /𝑚3

7. A 5W pulsed laser emits light of wavelength 694 nm. If the duration of each pulse is
20 ns, calculate the number of photons emitted per pulse.

Given: P=5W , λ =694 nm=694x10−9 m ,t=20 ns =20x10−9 s , C=3x108 m/s ;

h=6.63x10−34 Js, n =?
ℎ𝐶
Using E=P.t and E =n.
𝜆
,
𝑃𝑡𝜆
𝑤𝑒 𝑔𝑒𝑡 n =
ℎ𝐶
5𝑥20𝑥10−9 𝑥694𝑥10−9
=
6.63𝑥10−34 𝑥3𝑥108
=3.489x1011 photons/pulse.

8. The ratio of population of two energy levels out of which one corresponds to metastable
state is 1.059 x10−[Link] 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑤𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑙𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑒𝑚𝑖𝑡𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑎𝑡 330𝐾.

𝑁
Given: 𝑁2 = 1.059x10−30 , T =330K; h=6.63x10−34 Js; k=1.38x10−23 J/K ;
1

C=3x108 m/s ; λ = ?

𝑁2
Using = 𝑒 −(ℎ𝐶/𝜆𝑘𝑇)
𝑁1
𝑁2 𝑁
we get , In( ) = −(ℎ𝐶/𝜆𝑘𝑇) 𝑆𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑒: 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑒 (𝑁2 ) = In(𝑁𝑁2)
𝑁1 1 1

𝑁2
λ = −(ℎ𝐶/𝐼𝑛 (𝑁 ) 𝑘𝑇)
1
−6.63𝑥10−34 𝑥3𝑥108
=
𝐼𝑛(1.059𝑥10−30 ) 𝑥1.38𝑥10−23 𝑥330
= 6.328x10−7 𝑚

9. The average power output of a laser beam of wavelength 6500Å is 10 [Link]

the number of photon emitted per second by the laser source.
Given: P =10mW = 10x10−3 𝑤 ; t=1 s ; C=3x108 m/s ; h=6.63x10−34 Js ;
λ = 6500 Å = 6500 x 10−10 m ; n = ?

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 RAMESH R 21PHY12/22

ℎ𝐶
Using E= Pxt and E =n.
𝜆
𝜆𝑃𝑡
We get, 𝑛=
ℎ𝐶
6500 𝑥 10−10 𝑥10𝑥10−3 𝑥1
=
6.63𝑥10−34 𝑥3𝑥108
=3.268 x 1016 𝑝ℎ𝑜𝑡𝑜𝑛𝑠/𝑚3

[Link] the ratio of population of two energy levels in a medium at thermal equilibrium ,
if the wavelength of light emitted at 291 K is 6928 Å .

Given: λ = 6928Å = 6928x10−10 m, t=27℃⇨ T =291K; h=6.625x10−34 Js;

𝑁
k=1.38x10−23 J/K ;C=3x108 m/s ;𝑁2 = ?
1
ℎ𝐶
𝑁2 −( )
Using =𝑒 𝜆𝑘𝑇
𝑁1
6.625𝑥10−34 𝑥3𝑥108
−( )
=𝑒 6928𝑥10−10 𝑥1.38𝑥10−23 𝑥291

= 𝑒 −71.44
= 9.419x10−32 or = 9.441x10−32

11. A pulsed laser emits photons of wavelength 820 nm with 22 mW average

power/pulse. Calculate the number of photons contained in each pulse,if the
pulse duration is 12 ns.

Given: 𝝀 = 820 nm = 820 x 10−9 m , P = 22 mW = 22 x 10−3W ,

t = 12 ns = 12 x 10−9s , h = 6.625 x 10−34 JS , C = 3 x 108 𝑚𝑠 −1 , n = ?
ℎ𝐶
Using E = Pt and E = 𝑛 𝑥 𝜆
−9
𝜆𝑃𝑡 820 𝑥 10 𝑥 22 𝑥 10−3 𝑥 12 𝑥 10−9
We get , n = = = 1.089 x 109 electrons/𝑚3
ℎ𝐶 6.625 𝑥 10−34 𝑥 3 𝑥 108
12. A medium in thermal equilibrium at temperature 300K has two energy levels
with a wavelength separation of 1 µm. Find the ratio of population densities of
upper and lower levels.

Given: λ = 1µm = 1x10−6 m, T =300K; h=6.63x10−34 Js;

𝑁2
k=1.38x10−23 J/K ; C=3x108 m/s ; =?
𝑁1
ℎ𝐶
𝑁2 −( )
Using =𝑒 𝜆𝑘𝑇
𝑁1

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 RAMESH R 21PHY12/22

6.63𝑥10−34 𝑥 3𝑥108
−( )
=𝑒 1𝑥10−6 𝑥1.38𝑥10−23 𝑥300

= 𝑒 −48.044
= 1.364 x10−21
13. A laser operating at 632.8nm emits 3.182 x 1016 photons per second. Calculate the output
power of the laser if the input power is 100 watt. Also find the percentage power converted
into coherent light energy. ( 4 Marks)

Given: 𝑃𝑖 =100W ; t=1 s ; C=3x108 m/s ; h=6.625x10−34 Js ; c= 3 x 10m/s

𝑃𝑜
λ = 632.8 nm = 632.8 x 10−9 m ; n = 3.182 x 1016 photons per second, 𝑥100 =?
𝑃𝑖

ℎ𝐶
Using E= 𝑃𝑜 xt and E =n.
𝜆
𝑛ℎ𝐶
We get, 𝑃𝑜 =
𝜆𝑡
3.182 𝑥 1016 𝑥6.625𝑥10−34 𝑥3 𝑥 10
=
632.8 𝑥 10−9 𝑥1

= 9.99x10−3 W
𝑃𝑜
Fraction of input power converted to light = 𝑥100
𝑃𝑖

9.99𝑥10−3
𝑥100 = 9.99x10−3 % = 0.001 %
100

PROBLEMS ON OPTICAL FIBER PROBLEMS:

−𝛼𝐿
𝑛𝜆 10 𝑃𝑜
Formulae needed: L = ;𝛼 =− log[ ] ; 𝑃𝑜 = 𝑃𝑖 10 10 ;
2 𝐿 𝑃𝑖
√𝑛1 2 −𝑛2 2 𝜋𝑑 𝑉2 (𝑛1 −𝑛2 )
NA = ; Sin𝜃𝑜 = NA ; V = X NA ; N = ;∆=
𝑛𝑜 𝜆 2 𝑛1
1. Find the number of modes of standing waves in the resonator cavity of length 1 m in He-
Ne temperature of laser operating at wavelength 632.8nm.
Given: L= 1 m ; λ = 632.8 nm = 632.8𝑥10−9 m. n = ?
𝑛𝜆 2𝐿
Using L = ,we get n =
2 𝜆
2𝑥1
=
632.8𝑥10−9
= 3.161 x 106 𝑚𝑜𝑑𝑒𝑠

2. A fiber with an input power of 9μW has a loss of 1.5 dB/km. If the fiber is 3000 m long,
calculate the output power.

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 RAMESH R 21PHY12/22

Given: 𝑃𝑖 = 9𝜇𝑤 = 9𝑥10−6 𝑤 ,𝛼 = 1.5 𝑑𝐵/𝑘𝑚 ,L = 3000m = 3 km , 𝑃𝑜 = ?

10 𝑃 −𝛼𝐿
Using 𝛼=− log [ 𝑜 ] we get 𝑃𝑜 = 𝑃𝑖 10 10
𝐿 𝑃𝑖
−1.5𝑥3
= 9𝑥10−6 10 10

−6
𝑤 = 3019 𝑥 10
3. The numerical aperture of an optical fibre is 0.2 when surrounded by air. Determine the
R.I of its core, given the R.I of the cladding is [Link] find the acceptance angle when the
fibre is in water of R.I 1.33.
Given: 𝑛𝑜 𝑥 NA = 0.2 , 𝑛2 = 1.59 , 𝑛′𝑜 = 1.33 , 𝑛1 =? a𝑛𝑑 𝜃′𝑜 = ?
√𝑛1 2 −𝑛2 2
For air , Using NA = , we get 𝑛1 = √(𝑛𝑜 𝑥𝑁𝐴)2 + 𝑛22
𝑛𝑜
= √( 0.22 + 1.592 )
= 1.603
√𝑛1 2 −𝑛2 2 √1.6032 −1,592
Also 𝜃 ′ 𝑜 = 𝑆𝑖𝑛−1( ) = 𝑆𝑖𝑛−1 ( ) = 8.65°
𝑛′ 𝑜 1.33

4. The angle of acceptance of an optical fibre is 30° 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑛 kept in air. Find the angle of
acceptance when it is in a medium of refractive index 1.33.
Given: 𝜃𝑜 =30° , 𝑛′𝑜 =4/3=1.333 , 𝑛𝑜 = 1 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑎𝑖𝑟 , 𝜃′𝑜 =?
Using 𝑛′𝑜 𝑆𝑖𝑛 𝜃′𝑜 = 𝑛𝑜 Sin𝜃𝑜 = √𝑛1 2 − 𝑛2 2 = constsnt
We get , 𝜃′𝑜 = 𝑆𝑖𝑛−1 (𝑛𝑜 𝑆𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑜 ⁄𝑛′𝑜 )
= 𝑆𝑖𝑛−1 (1 𝑆𝑖𝑛30°⁄1.333)
=22.03°
5. Calculate the NA,V-number and number of modes in an optical fibre of core diameter
50μm,core and cladding refractive indices 1.41 and 1.4 at wavelength 820 nm.
Given: 𝑛1 = 1.41 ; 𝑛2 = 1.4 ; λ = 820 nm= 820 x 10−9 m ; d = 50μm =50x 10−6 m ;
𝑛𝑜 =1 for air NA = ? ; V = ? & N = ?
√𝑛1 2 −𝑛2 2 √(1.41)2 −(1.4)2
a. NA = = =0 .168
𝑛𝑜 1

𝜋𝑑 𝜋𝑥50𝑥 10−6 𝑥0 .168

b. V= X NA = = 32.18
𝜆 820 𝑥 10−9

𝑉2 (32.17)2
c. N= = = 517.5 = 518
2 2

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 RAMESH R 21PHY12/22

6. The refractive indices of the core and cladding of a step index fibre are 1.45 and 1.40
respectively and its core diameter is 45μ[Link] its relative refractive index
difference, V- number at wavelength 1000 nm and number of modes.
Given: 𝑛1 = 1.45 ; 𝑛2 = 1.4 ; λ = 1000 nm= 1000 x 10−9 m ; d = 45μm =45x 10−6 m ; 𝑛𝑜 = 1; ∆ = ? ;
V=?&N=?
(𝑛1 −𝑛2 ) (1.45−1.4)
1) ∆ = = = 0.0345
𝑛1 1.45
𝜋𝑑 √𝒏𝟏 𝟐 −𝒏𝟐 𝟐 3.14𝑥45𝑥 10−6 𝑥√1.452 −1.4 2
2) V = 𝑋 = = 53.34
𝜆 𝒏𝒐 1000 𝑥 10−9 𝑥1
𝑉2 (53.34)2
3) N= = = 1422.6 =1423
2 2

7. Find the number of modes of standing waves and their frequency separation in the
resonant cavity of 1 m length of He-Ne operating at wavelength of 632.8 nm.

Given: L= 1 m ; λ = 632.8 nm = 632.8𝑥10−9 m. n = ? and

𝑛𝜆 2𝐿
Using L = , we get , n =
2 𝜆
2𝑥1
=
632.8𝑥10−9
= 3.161 𝑥 106 𝑚𝑜𝑑𝑒𝑠

8. A signal with input power 200mW loses 10% of its power after travelling a distance of
3000 m. Find the attenuation coefficient of the fiber.

Given: 𝑃𝑖 = 200𝑚𝑊 = 200𝑥10−3 𝑤 , 𝑃𝑜 = 90% 𝑃𝑖 = 0.9𝑥200𝑥10−3 𝑤 ;

L = 3000 m = 3 km ; 𝛼 =? ,
10 𝑃 10 0.9𝑥200𝑥10−3
Using 𝛼= − 𝐿
log[ 𝑃𝑜] = − 3
log [ 200𝑥10−3
] = 0.1525 𝑑𝐵/𝑘𝑚
𝑖

9. An optical fiber has core R.I 1.5 and R.I of cladding is 3% less than the core index. Calculate
the numerical aperture, angle of acceptance and internal critical acceptance angle.

Given: 𝑛1 = 1.5 ; 𝑛2 =97% 𝑛1 = 0.97 x1.5 =1.455 ; 𝑛0 = 1 ; 𝑁𝐴 = ? ; 𝜃𝑜 = ? & 𝜃𝐶 = ?

√𝑛1 2 −𝑛2 2
Using 1) NA =
𝑛𝑜
√1.52 −1.4552
= = 0.365
1

2) 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃0= 𝑁𝐴 ⇨ 𝜃𝑜 = 𝑆𝑖𝑛−1 (𝑁𝐴) = 𝑆𝑖𝑛−1 (0.365) = 21.41°

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 RAMESH R 21PHY12/22

1.455
𝑛2 𝑛 −1( )
3) 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃𝐶 = ⇨ 𝜃𝐶 = 𝑆𝑖𝑛−1 ( 2) = 𝑆𝑖𝑛 1.5 = 75.93°
𝑛1 𝑛1
10. The angle of acceptance of an optical fiber kept in air is 30°.Find the angle of acceptance
when the fiber is in a medium of refractive index 4/3.

Given: 𝜃𝑜 =30° , 𝑛′𝑜 =4/3=1.333 , 𝑛𝑜 = 1 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑎𝑖𝑟 , 𝜃′𝑜 =?

Using 𝑛′𝑜 𝑆𝑖𝑛 𝜃′𝑜 = 𝑛𝑜 Sin𝜃𝑜 =constant (√𝒏𝟏 𝟐 − 𝒏𝟐 𝟐 ) for a fibre
𝑛𝑜 𝑆𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑜
We get 𝜃 ′ 𝑜 = 𝑆𝑖𝑛−1 ( )
𝑛′ 𝑜
1 𝑆𝑖𝑛30°
= 𝑆𝑖𝑛−1 ( )
1.333
= 22.03°
11. The refractive indices of the core and cladding of a step index fibre are 1.45 and 1.40
respectively and its core diameter is 45μ[Link] the refractive index change and
numerical Aperture.

Given: 𝑛1 = 1.45 ; 𝑛2 = 1.4 ; ; d = 45μm =45x 10−6 m ; 𝑛𝑜 = 1, ∆ = ? ; & NA = ?

(𝑛1 −𝑛2 )
1) ∆ =
𝑛1
(1.45−1.4)
= = 0.0345
1.45
√𝒏𝟏 𝟐 −𝒏𝟐 𝟐
2) NA =
𝒏𝒐
√1.452 −1.4 2
= = 0.3775
1

12. An optical signal propagating in a fiber retains 85% of input power after
travelling a distance of 500 m in the fiber. Calculate the attenuation coefficient.
Given: 𝑃𝑜 = 85% 𝑃𝑖 = 0.85 𝑃𝑖 ; L = 500m = 0.5 km; 𝛼 =? ,
10 𝑃
Using 𝛼 =− log[ 𝑜 ]
𝐿 𝑃𝑖
10 0.85 𝑃𝑖 10
=− log [ ] = − log [0.85]
0.5 𝑃𝑖 0.5
= 1.412 dB/km
13. The attenuation of light in an optical fiber is 2 dB/km. What fraction of its
intensity remains after (i) 2 km, (ii) 5 km ?
𝑑𝐵 𝑃 𝑃
Given: 𝛼 = 2 𝑘𝑚, ( 𝑃𝑜 ) =?, ( 𝑃𝑜 ) =?
𝑖 𝐿=2𝑘𝑚 𝑖 𝐿=5𝑘𝑚
−𝛼𝐿
𝑃
Using ( 𝑃𝑜 ) = 10 10
𝑖 𝐿

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 RAMESH R 21PHY12/22

−𝛼𝐿 −2𝑥2
𝑃
(𝑃𝑜 ) = 10 10 = 10 10 = 0.3981
𝑖 𝐿=2𝑘𝑚
−𝛼𝐿 −2𝑥5
𝑃
( 𝑃𝑜 ) = 10 10 = 10 10 = 0.1
𝑖 𝐿=5𝑘𝑚

14. The refractive indices of the core and cladding of a step-index optical fibre
are 1.45 and 1.40 respectively and its core diameter is 45μm. Calculate its
fractional refractive index change and numerical aperture.
Given: 𝑛1 = 1.45 ; 𝑛2 = 1.4 ; ; d = 45μm =45x 10−6 m ; ∆ = ? ; & NA = ?
(𝑛1 −𝑛2 ) (1.45−1.4)
1) ∆ = = = 0.0345
𝑛1 1.45
√𝒏𝟏 𝟐 −𝒏𝟐 𝟐 √1.452 −1.42
2) NA = 𝒏𝒐
= 1
= 0.3775
15. Calculate the numerical aperture and angle of acceptance for an optical fibe
having refractive indices 1.563 and 1.498 for core and cladding respectively.

Given: 𝑛1 = 1.563; 𝑛2 = 1.498 ,𝑛𝑜 = 1 ; 𝑁𝐴 =? a𝑛𝑑 𝜃𝑜 = ?

√𝑛1 2 −𝑛2 2 √1.5632 −1.4982
Using NA = = = 0.4461
𝑛𝑜 1
Also𝜃𝑜 = 𝑆𝑖𝑛−1 (𝑁𝐴 ) = 𝑆𝑖𝑛−1 (0.4461) = 26.49°
16. A glass clad fiber is made with core glass of refractive index 1.5 and cladding is
doped to give a fractional index difference of [Link] the cladding index
and numerical aperture.
Given: 𝑛1 = 1.5 ,∆ =0.0005 ,𝑛𝑜 = 1 , 𝑛2 = ? , 𝑁𝐴 =?
(𝑛1 −𝑛2 )
Using ∆ = 𝑛1
We get 𝑛2 = 𝑛1 − ∆ 𝑛1 = 1.5 – 0.0005𝑥 1.5 = 1.49925 (1.499)
√𝑛12 −𝑛22 √1.52 −1.499252
Also using NA = = = 0.0474 (0.054)
𝑛0 1

[Link] a slab waveguide made of AlGaAs having RI for core and clad 3.6 and 3.55
respectively. Find how many modes can propagate in this waveguide if d = 5 ( 4 Marks)
Given: 𝑛1 = 3.6 ; 𝑛2 = 3.55 ; d = 5λ =45x 10−6 m ; 𝑛𝑜 1; ∆ = ? ; V = ? & N = ?

𝜋𝑑 √𝒏𝟏 𝟐 −𝒏𝟐 𝟐 𝜋𝑥5𝜆𝑥√3.62 −3.552

1. V = 𝑥 = = 9.39
𝜆 𝒏𝒐 𝜆 𝑥1
𝑉2 (9.39)2
2. N= = = 44.1 modes
2 2
@@end@

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MODULE-4
Blow up syllabus
5.1 Quantum free electron theory: Review of classical free electron theory (Just mention who No numerical problems
proposed it and what for it was proposed), mention the expressions for electrical conductivity
based on classical free electron theory, and explain the failures of classical free electron theory
(in terms of relation between conductivity and temperature, and relation between conductivity
and free electron density, with specific examples)
Assumptions of quantum free electron theory, definition of density of states and mention the Numerical
expression for density of states (No derivation) problems
Qualitative discussion of Fermi level, Fermi energy, Fermi-Dirac statistics, Fermi factor, Fermi Numerical
factor at different temperatures Fermi factor (3 cases). problems
Derivation of the expression for Fermi energy at zero Kelvin. Mention the expression Fermi Numerical
velocity and Fermi temperature. Expression for electrical conductivity in terms of problems
velocity, mean free path and effective mass [No derivation).
/'

Success of quantum free electron theory (in terms of relation between conductivity and No numerical problems
temperature, and relation between ~ conductivity and free electron density, with specific
examples)
5.2 Semiconductors: Fundamentals of semiconductor. Description of Fermi level in
I No numerical problems
intrinsic semiconductor. Mention of expression for electron and hole concentration in intrinsic
semiconductors. Derivation of relation between Fermi energy and energy gap for an intrinsic
semiconductor.
Derivation of the expression for electrical .conductivity of semiconductors, Explanation of Hall Numerical
effect with Hall voltage and Hall field, derivation of the expression for Hall coefficient. problems
5.3 Dielectrics: Fundamentals of dielectrics. Polarisation, mention the relation No numerical problems
between dielectric constant and polarization. Types of polarization. Polar and non-polar
dielectrics
Definition of internal field in case of solids and mention of its expression for one dimensional Numerical
case. Mention the expressions for internal field for three dimensional cases and Lorentz field. problems
internal field andDerivation of Clausius-Mossotti equation
Description of solid, liquid and gaseous dielectrics with one example each. Qualitative No numerical problems
explanation of applications of dielectrics in transformers.
Tutorial classes , ~ Involvement of students in respect of their doubts about the
module and numerical problems
Module-4
1. CFET and its failures.
2. Assumptions of QFET ,Success of QFET – relations between 𝝈 & 𝑇 , 𝝈 & 𝑛
3. Define Fermi energy, explain variation of Fermi factor with temperature.
4. Derive the expression for Fermi energy at 0k.
5. Derivation of relation between Fermi energy and Energy gap for an intrinsic semiconductor.
6. Derivation of an expression for electrical conductivity of semiconductor.
7. Derivation of an expression for Hall coefficient, express Hall voltage interms of Hall coefficient.
8. Relation between dielectric constant and Polarization, types of polarization and Polar and non-
polar dielectrics.
9. Internal field in solid dielectrics with one dimensional equation.
10. Derivation of Clausius- Mosotti equation.
11. Types of dielectrics -Solids, Liquids & gases with one example each. Qualitative explanation of
I/II SEM application of dielectric in Transformers. Page 67
 RAMESH R 21PHY12/22

MODULE-4
Concept of free electrons:
All the metals consists of atoms, the outermost electrons of these atoms are called
Valance electrons. These valance electrons are weakly bound to their atoms where as they
are freely moving within the body of the metal. These electrons are responsible for
number of properties of metals like electrical conductivity, thermal conductivity and these
electrons are called as conduction electrons.
Classical free electron theory(CFET)/ Drude-Lorentz theory.
CFET is a theoretical model given by [Link] and Lorentz to explain some of the
outstanding properties of metals.
Assumptions:
1. All the metals consists of free moving valance electrons called free electrons. When E.F
is applied these electrons move opposite to the direction of applied field.
2. The free electrons are treated equivalent to gas molecules and thus obey laws of
3 2 1
kinetic theory of gases. i.e., 2 kT =2 m𝑣𝑡ℎ
3. The electrical potential due to ionic cores is taken to be essentially constant
throughout the metal.
4. The attraction between electrons and lattice ions, and repulsion between electrons
themselves are considered insignificant.
Mean free path and Mean collision time:
When E.F is not applied to a metal, the free electrons are randomly moving and they are
colliding with lattice ions.
“ The average distance travelled by conduction electrons between two successive collisions
is called Mean free path (𝝀)".
“ The average time elapsed between two successive collisions is called mean collision
time(𝝉).
Drift velocity: The average velocity with which all free electrons drifts in the direction
opposite to that of applied E.F in a metal is called Drift velocity.
−𝒆𝝉𝑬
∴ 𝒗𝒅 =
𝒎
Mobility(μ) of electrons is defined as the drift velocity (𝒗𝒅 )acquired by the electrons per unit
𝒗𝒅 𝝈 𝒆𝝉
electric field(E). ie: μ = ⇨μ= ⇨μ=
𝑬 𝒏𝒆 𝒎
Q:Expression for electrical conductivity and hence electrical resistivity from CFET.
𝒏𝒆𝟐 𝝉
Electrical conductivity, 𝝈 = where n= concentration of electrons, e= charge on
𝒎
electron,𝜏 = mean collision time, m= mass of the electron.
1
Also, Electrical resistivity, 𝜌 =
𝜎

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 RAMESH R 21PHY12/22

𝒎
∴ 𝝆=
𝒏𝒆𝟐 𝝉

Failures of CFET are:-

1. Dependence of electrical conductivity (𝝈) on T:
1 3
According to CFET kinetic energy 𝑚𝑣 2 = 2 𝑘𝑇
2
∴ 𝑣 ∝ √𝑇 …(1)
1
But mean collision time 𝜏 ∝ 𝑣
1
∴𝜏 ∝ … . (2) ∵ 𝑣 ∝ √𝑇
√𝑇
𝑛𝑒 2 𝜏
Also from 𝜎 = ,we get 𝜎 ∝ 𝜏 … . (3)
𝑚
𝟏 𝟏
From eqns 2 & 3 we get 𝝈 ∝ ,but experimentally it has been observed that 𝝈 ∝ ,
√𝑇 𝑻
thus CFET fail to explain the dependence of 𝜎 𝑜𝑛 𝑇.
2. Dependence of ′𝝈′ 𝒐𝒏 𝒆𝒍𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒓𝒐𝒏 𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒄𝒆𝒏𝒕𝒓𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 ‘n’ :

Metal Valency/Atomicity Conductivity’𝜎 ′ .. X 107 Ω/m Concentration’n’…X1028 /𝑚3

Ag 1(Monoatomic) 6.30 5.85
Zn 2(Diatomic) 1.09 13.10
Al 3(Triatomic) 3.65 18.06

𝑛𝑒 2 𝜏
𝐹𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝜎 = , we get 𝜎 ∝ 𝑛 , according to CFET 𝝈 𝑜𝑓 tri-atomic metals must be more
𝑚
than that of di-atomic and mono-atomic metals but from experimental results as shown in
the tabular column, it has been found that 𝝈 of mono-atomic metals of low n are more than
that of di and tri-atomic metals of large n .Thus CFET fail to explain dependence of 𝝈 on
concentration n.
Q:State/Mention the assumptions of (Somerfield’s)quantum free electron theory(QFET)
The assumptions of QFET are:
[Link] energy of free electrons are quantized.
2. Free electrons obey Pauli’s exclusion principle.
3. The distribution of free electrons in energy levels is governed by Fermi-Dirac
statistics.
4. Free electrons move in uniform potential field due to ionic cores in a metal .
5. The electrostatic electron-ion attractions and electron-electron repulsions
are negligible.
Q:What is meant by Density of states ? Explain.

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 RAMESH R 21PHY12/22

Density of states g(E) is defined as the number of electronic states present in a unit energy
𝟖√𝟐𝝅𝒎𝟑/𝟐
range ,given by, g(E) 𝒅𝑬 = 𝑬𝟏/𝟐 𝒅𝑬. It is a continuous function and the
𝒉𝟑
product g(E)dE=dN gives the number of states per unit volume in an energy range
(dE)between E and E+dE The number of electrons per unit volume , n= ∫ 𝑔(𝐸)𝑓(𝐸)𝑑𝐸 and
the variation of g(E) with E is shown in the graph.

g(E)

0
E

Q:What is Fermi-Dirac statistics ? Explain.

Fermi –Dirac statistics is the statistical rule applied to the distribution of identical,
1
indistinguishable particles of spin 2 called fermions like electrons, which obey Pauli’s
exclusion principle. The probability of occupation of a state by an electron is given
by Fermi factor/Fermi- Dirac distribution function.

Fermi energy(𝑬𝑭 ): is defined as the energy of the highest occupied Fermi level in a metal at 0K.
(or)
“Fermi energy is the highest energy possessed by an electron at zero Kelvin and
corresponding level is Fermi level”. Therefore at absolute zero, all the energy levels
above Fermi level are empty and that of below are completely filled.
Q:What is meant by Fermi factor ?Explain the variation of Fermi factor with temperature & energy.

Fermi factor is the probability of occupation of a given energy state by an electron in a metal
𝟏
at thermal equilibrium. It is given by the relation f(E) = (𝑬−𝑬 ,where 𝐸𝐹 𝐹𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑖 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦,
𝟏+𝒆 𝑭 )/𝒌𝑻
E = energy of State, k = Boltzmann constant and T = temperature
The variation of f(E) with temperature and energy is discussed below:
When T = 0K
Case-1: If E < 𝐸𝐹 ⇨ (𝑬 − 𝑬𝑭 )𝑖𝑠 − 𝑣𝑒 ,then 𝒆(𝑬−𝑬𝑭)/𝒌𝑻 = 𝒆−∞ = 0
𝟏 𝟏
∴ f(E) = = =1,
𝟏+𝒆(𝑬−𝑬𝑭)/𝒌𝑻 𝟏+𝟎
Thus the probability of occupation up to Fermi level is 100%.
Case-2: If E > 𝐸𝐹 ⇨ (𝑬 − 𝑬𝑭 )𝑖𝑠 + 𝑣𝑒 ,then 𝒆(𝑬−𝑬𝑭)/𝒌𝑻 = 𝒆∞ = ∞
𝟏 𝟏 1
∴ f(E) = = = =0,
𝟏+𝒆(𝑬−𝑬𝑭)/𝒌𝑻 𝟏+∞ ∞

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Thus the probability of occupation above Fermi level is 0%.

𝟎
Case-3: If E = 𝐸𝐹 ⇨ (𝑬 − 𝑬𝑭 ) = 0 ,then 𝒆(𝑬−𝑬𝑭)/𝒌𝑻 = 𝒆𝟎 indeterminate.
f(E) Note: 𝑇1 = 500𝑘 < 𝑇2 =1000k
When T > 0K
𝟏
∴ f(E)=
𝟏+𝒆(𝑬−𝑬𝑭)/𝒌𝑻
1 T = 0K

𝑰𝒇 𝑬 = 𝑬𝑭 ⇨ (𝑬 − 𝑬𝑭 ) = 𝟎 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝒆(𝑬−𝑬𝑭)/𝒌𝑻 = 𝒆𝟎 = 1 0.5 𝑇1 < 𝑇2

𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
∴ f(E) = = 𝟏+𝟏 = 𝟐 Thus the probability 0 E
𝟏+𝒆(𝑬−𝑬𝑭 )/𝒌𝑻
of occupation of Fermi level is 50% above 0K. 𝐸𝐹
The variation of f(E) with temperature(T) and
energy(E)is shown in the graph .

Fermi velocity(𝒗𝑭 ): of an electron is defined as it’s velocity when it’s energy is equal to
1 𝟐𝑬
the Fermi energy. ie: 𝑚𝑣𝐹2 = 𝐸𝐹 ⇨𝒗𝑭 = (√ 𝒎𝑭 )
2

Fermi temperature(𝑻𝑭 ): is defined as the temperature at which the average thermal

𝑬𝑭
energy of the electron is equal to the Fermi energy at 0K. ie: 𝑻𝑭 = where k=Boltzmann
𝒌
constant.
Fermi level : is defined as the highest filled energy level in a metal at 0K.
Derivation of an expression for Fermi-energy at 0K
8√2𝜋𝑚3/2
WKT ,density of states g(E) = 𝐸1/2 ….(1)
ℎ3
𝟏
Fermi factor ,f(E) = 𝑬−𝑬𝑭 …….(2)
( )
𝟏+𝒆 𝒌𝑻
Then the number of electrons /unit volume in the material in energy range dE at E is given
by,
𝐸
n = ∫0 𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝑔(𝐸)𝑑𝐸 x f(E) …(3) ∵ g(E)dE x f(E) = N(E)dE,[Link] electrons in the range
dE at E
But at T = 0𝐾 , f(E) = 1 and 𝐸𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝐸𝐹0 ,Fermi energy…….(4)
∴ from eqns 1,2,3 &4, we get

𝐸 8√2𝜋𝑚3/2
n = ∫0 𝐹0 𝐸1/2 𝑑𝐸
ℎ3
8√2𝜋𝑚3/2 𝐸𝐹0
= ∫0 𝐸1/2
ℎ3

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8√2𝜋𝑚3/2 2 𝐸𝐹0
= [3 𝐸 3/2 ]
ℎ3 0
8√2𝜋𝑚3/2 2 3/2
= (𝐸𝐹0 )
ℎ3 3

3/2 ℎ3 3𝑛
(𝐸𝐹0 ) = 3/2
( )
(8𝑚) 𝜋

𝒉𝟐 𝟑 𝟐/𝟑
𝑬𝑭𝟎 = 𝟖𝒎 ( 𝝅 ) 𝒏𝟐/𝟑 or 𝑬𝑭𝟎 = 5.85 x𝟏𝟎−𝟑𝟖 𝒏𝟐/𝟑

Q: Expression for electrical conductivity and hence resistivity based on QFET.

𝒏𝒆𝟐 𝝀
Electrical conductivity, 𝝈 =
𝒎 ∗ 𝑣𝒇
𝒎∗ 𝑣 𝒇
Electrical resistivity, 𝝆= where, n= concentration of electrons, e= charge on
𝒏𝒆𝟐 𝝀
electron,𝜏 = mean collision time, 𝑚∗ is called effective electron mass.
Q:What is meant by effective mass? Explain.
When a metal is subjected to the E.F , a free electron in the metal moves under the
influence of applied E.F and that of periodic potential due to lattice ions. Because of this
effect, electron responds as if it possess a infinite mass called effective mass denoted by
𝒎∗ .Effective mass is equal to the true mass if the electron is in vacuum.
Q:Explain the success of QFET.
QFET explained the following experimental facts which were not explained by CFET.
[Link] of electrical Conductivity ′𝝈′ on ‘T’(temperature):
𝒏𝒆𝟐 𝝉 𝜆
We know that(WKT) 𝝈 = and 𝜏 = where 𝑣𝐹 =Fermi velocity, λ=wavelength
𝒎∗ 𝑣𝐹
𝒏𝒆𝟐 𝝀
∴ 𝝈= ∴ 𝝈 ∝ 𝝀 … . . (1)
𝒎∗ 𝒗 𝑭
1 1 1 1
Also it has been shown that λ ∝ ∝ ∝ ⇨ λ ∝ …(2)
𝐴 𝑟2 𝑇 𝑇
where A=area, r=radius/amplitude of ionic cores & T=temperature.
𝟏
∴ 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑒𝑞𝑛𝑠 1&2,we get 𝝈 ∝ which is the experimentally determined relation.
𝑻
[Link] of ′𝝈′ 𝒐𝒏′ 𝒏′ :
𝒏𝒆𝟐 𝝀 𝝀
WKT conductivity 𝝈 = , thus 𝝈 𝑑𝑒𝑝𝑒𝑛𝑑𝑠 𝑏𝑜𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑛 𝒏 𝑎𝑛𝑑 .With the decreases of
𝒎 ∗ 𝒗𝑭 𝒗𝑭
𝝀 .𝝀
atomicity, n decreases and increases so that n . increases ,so that 𝝈 is more for
𝒗𝑭 𝒗𝑭
monoatomic metals than that of di&tri-atomic [Link] explains the conductivity of
mono-atomic metals is more than that of di & tri-atomic metals.

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PROBLEMS

1 𝑚 1 𝑛𝑒 2 𝜏
Formulae needed : f(E) = 𝐸−𝐸𝐹 ; 𝜌 = ; 𝜎= ;𝜎 = ;
𝑛𝑒 2 𝜏 𝜌 𝑚
1+𝑒 𝑘𝑇
𝑥𝐷𝑁𝐴 1 𝑒𝐸𝜏 𝜎 1
n= ;𝜇 = ;½ m𝑉𝐹 2 = 𝐸𝐹 ; 𝑉𝑑 = ; λ = 𝑉. 𝜏 ; n = =
𝑀 𝑛𝑒𝜌 𝑚 𝜇𝑒 𝜌𝜇𝑒

1. Find the relaxation time of conduction electrons in a metal of resistivity 1.54 x10−8 Ω-m, if
the metal has 5.8 x1028 Conduction electrons per 𝑚3 .

Given: 𝜌 = 1.54 x10−8 Ω-m ; n = 5.8 x1028 /𝑚3 ; 𝑚 = 9.1𝑥10−31 𝑘𝑔 ;

𝑒= 1.6𝑥10−19 𝐶 ; 𝜏𝑟= 𝜏 =?
𝑚 𝑚
Using 𝜌= ,we get 𝜏=
𝑛𝑒 2 𝜏 𝜌𝑛𝑒 2
9.1𝑥10−31
=
1.54 𝑥10−8 𝑥5.8 𝑥1028 𝑥(1.6𝑥10−19 )2
= 3.98 𝑥10 −14 S
2. Calculate the mobility and relaxation time of an electron in copper assuming that each
atom contributes one free electron ,whose density is 8.92 x 103 kg/𝑚3 , 𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑚𝑖𝑐 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 =
63.5 and 𝑁𝐴 =6.02 x 1026 /kg mole.
Given: 𝜌 = 1.73 x 10−8 Ω-m ; M = 63.5 ; D = 8.92 x 103 kg/𝑚3 ; 𝑁𝐴 =6.02 x 1026 /kg mole ; 𝑚 =
−19
9.1𝑥10−31 𝑘𝑔 ; 𝑒 = 1.6𝑥10 𝐶 ; 𝑥 = 1 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑛/𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑚, 𝑛 = ? ; 𝜇 = ? & 𝜏 = ?
𝑥𝐷.𝑁𝐴
𝑈𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔 n =
𝑀
1𝑥8.92 𝑥 103 𝑥.6.02 𝑥 1026
=
63.5
28
= 8.456x10 atoms.
1
𝜇=
𝑛𝑒𝜌
1
𝜇= = 4.27x10−3
8.456𝑥1028 𝑥1.6𝑥10−19 𝑥1.73 𝑥 10−8
𝑒𝜏 𝜇𝑚
also 𝜇= , we get 𝜏=
𝑚 𝑒
4.27𝑥10−3 𝑥9.1𝑥10−31
=
1.6𝑥10−19
= 2.43 x10−14 S

3. Find the temperature at which there is 1.0% probability that a state with an energy 0.5eV
above Fermi energy will be occupied.

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Given: (𝐸 − 𝐸𝐹 ) = 0.5 𝑒𝑉 = 0.5𝑥1.6𝑥10−19 J , k=1.38x10−23 J/K ; f(E) = 1 % = 1/100 =0.01 ;

T= ?
1 (𝐸−𝐸𝐹 )
Using f(E)= ,we get T = 1
1+𝑒 (𝐸−𝐸𝐹 )/𝑘𝑇 𝑘.𝐼𝑛( –1)
𝑓(𝐸)
0.5𝑥1.6𝑥10−19
= 1
1.38𝑥10−23 .𝐼𝑛( –1)
0.01
0.5𝑥1.6𝑥10−19
=
1.38𝑥10−23 .𝐼𝑛(100 –1)
= 1262 K =1.262x103 K
4. Calculate the conductivity of sodium given 𝜏𝑚 =2 x 10−14 S. Density of sodium is 971 kg/𝑚3 ,its
atomic weight is 23 and has one conduction electron/atom.
Given: M = 23 ; D = 971 kg/𝑚3 ; 𝑁𝐴 =6.02 x 1026 /kg mole ; 𝑚 = 9.1𝑥10−31 𝑘𝑔 ; 𝜏 = 𝜏𝑚 =2 x 10−14 S
𝑒 = 1.6𝑥10−19 𝐶 ; 𝑥 = 1𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑛/𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑚, 𝑛 = ? ; 𝜎 = ?
𝑥𝐷.𝑁𝐴
𝑈𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔 n=
𝑀
1𝑥971𝑥.6.02 𝑥 1026
=
23
= 2.54x1028 atoms.

𝑛𝑒 2 𝜏
Also, 𝜎 =
𝑚
2.54𝑥1028 𝑥( 1.6𝑥10−19 )2 𝑥2 𝑥 10−14
=
9.1𝑥10−31
= 1.42x107 Ωm.

5. Calculate the Fermi velocity and the mean free path for the conduction electrons in silver,
given that its Fermi energy is 5.5 eV and relaxation time for electrons is 3.97 X10−14S.

Given: 𝐸𝐹 = 5.5 𝑒𝑉 = 5.5 𝑥 1.6𝑥10−19 𝐽 ; 𝜏 = 𝜏𝑟 = 3.97 X10−14 S ; 𝑚 = 9.1𝑥10−31 𝑘𝑔 𝑉𝐹 = ? :

λ=?
2𝐸𝐹
Using ½ m𝑉𝐹 2 = 𝐸𝐹 ,we get 𝑉𝐹 = √
𝑚

2𝑥5.5 𝑥 1.6𝑥10−19
=√
9.1𝑥10−31
= 1.391x 106 m/s and
Also, λ =𝑉𝐹 . 𝜏𝑟 = 1.391x 106 x 3.97 X10−14 = 5.522𝑥 10−8 m

6. The Fermi level of potassium is 2.1eV. What are the energies for which the probabilities of
occupancy at 300 K are 0.99 and 0.5 ?

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Given: 𝐸𝐹 =2.1 eV = 2.1x1.6x10−19 𝐽 ;T = 300K ; f(𝐸1 ) =0.99 ; f(𝐸2 ) =0.5 ;

K =1.38x10−23 J/K ; 𝐸1 =? ; 𝐸2 =?
1
Using f(E)= ,
1+𝑒 (𝐸−𝐸𝐹 )/𝑘𝑇
1
we get E = 𝐸𝐹 + 𝑘𝑇 𝐼𝑛 [ 𝑓(𝐸) – 1]
1
∴ 𝐸1 = 2.1𝑥1.6𝑥10−19 + 1.38x10−23 𝑥300 𝐼𝑛 [ 0.99 – 1]
= 3.36 𝑥10−19 − 0.1902 𝑥10−19
= 3.17x10−19 𝐽
3.17𝑥10−19
= eV
1.6𝑥10−19
= 1.98eV

1
Also, 𝐸2 = 2.1𝑥1.6𝑥10−19 + 1.38x10−23 𝑥300 𝐼𝑛 [ 0.5 – 1]
= 3.36 𝑥10−19 −0
−19
= 3.36 𝑥10 𝐽
3.36 𝑥10−19
= eV
1.6 𝑥10−19
= 2.1 eV
7. The Fermi level for a metal is 2.1eV, calculate the energies for which the probability of
occupancy at 300 K are 98% and 50%.

Given: 𝐸𝐹 =2.1 eV = 2.1x1.6x10−19 𝐽 ;T = 300K ; f(𝐸1 ) =98%=0.98 ; f(𝐸2 )=50%=0.5

k =1.38x10−23 J/K ; 𝐸1 ? , 𝐸2 =?

1
Using f(E)= ,
1+𝑒 (𝐸−𝐸𝐹 )/𝑘𝑇
1
we get E = 𝐸𝐹 + 𝑘𝑇 𝐼𝑛 [ 𝑓(𝐸) – 1]
1
∴ 𝐸1 = 2.1𝑥1.6𝑥10−19 + 1.38x10−23 𝑥300 𝐼𝑛 [ 0.98 – 1]
= 3.36 𝑥10−19 − 0.16 𝑥10−19
= 3.2x10−19 𝐽
3.2𝑥10−19
= eV
1.6𝑥10−19
=2eV
1
Also , 𝐸2 = 2.1𝑥1.6𝑥10−19 + 1.38x10−23 𝑥300 𝐼𝑛 [ 0.5 – 1]
= 2.1𝑥1.6𝑥10−19 −0
−19
2.1𝑥1.6𝑥10
= eV
1.6𝑥10−19

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= 2.1 eV

8. A uniform silver wire has resistivity 1.54 x10−8 𝛺𝑚 at room temperature for an electric
field 2 V/m. Calculate relaxation time and drift velocity of the electrons, assuming that
there are 5.8 X 1022 conduction electrons per 𝑐𝑚3 of the material.

Given: 𝜌 = 1.54 x 10−8 Ω-m ; E = 2 V/m ; 𝑛 = 5.8 𝑋 1022 /𝑐𝑚3 = 5.8 𝑋 1022 𝑥10−6 /
𝑚3 ; 𝑚 = 9.1𝑥10−31 𝑘𝑔 ; 𝑒 = 1.6𝑥10−19 𝐶 ; 𝜏 = ? & 𝑉𝑑 = ?

𝜌𝑚
𝑈𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔: 𝜏 =
𝑛𝑒 2
1.54 𝑥 10−8 𝑥9.1𝑥10−31
=
5.8 𝑋 1022 𝑥10−6 ( 1.6𝑥10−19 )2
= 9.44 x10−18 S

𝑒𝐸𝜏
𝑉𝑑 =
𝑚
1.6𝑥10−19 𝑥2𝑥9.44 𝑥10−18
=
9.1𝑥10−31
= 3.32 x 10−6 m/s

9. Calculate the probability of an electron occupying an energy level 0.02 eV above the Fermi
level at 300K.

Given: (𝐸 − 𝐸𝐹 ) = 0.02 𝑒𝑉 = 0.02𝑥1.6𝑥10−19 J , k=1.38x10−23 J/K and T=300K

1
Using f(E) =
1+𝑒 (𝐸−𝐸𝐹 )/𝑘𝑇
1
= −19 )/1.38𝑥10−23 𝑥 300
1+𝑒 (0.02𝑥1.6𝑥10
1
=
1+𝑒 0.773
1
=
1+2.166
1
=
3.166
=0.32 or 32 %

10. Calculate the concentration at which the acceptor atoms must be added to a germanium
sample to get a P-type semiconductor with conductivity 0.15 per Ohm-metre. Given the
mobility of holes=0.17 𝑚2 /Vs.

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Given: 𝜎 =0.15 /Ωm ,𝜇 = 0.17 𝑚2 /𝑉𝑠 , e=1.6x10−19 C, n= ?

𝜎
Using, n =
𝜇𝑒
0.15
=
0.17𝑥1.6𝑥10−19
= 5.515 x1018 electrons
11. Calculate the mobility of electrons in copper assuming that each atom
Contribute one free electron for conduction. Resistivity of copper=1.7 X 10−8
Ωm, atomic weight =63.54,density =8.96 X 103 kg/𝑚3 ( CBCS-Jun/Jul16)

Given: 𝜌 = 1.7 x 10−8 Ω-m ; M = 63.54 ; D = 8.96 x 103 kg/𝑚3 ; 𝑁𝐴 =6.025 x 1026 /kg mole
; 𝑚 = 9.11𝑥10−31 𝑘𝑔 ; 𝑒 = 1.6𝑥10−19 𝐶 ; 𝑥 = 1𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑛/𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑚, 𝑛 = ? ; 𝜇 = ?

𝑥𝐷.𝑁𝐴
𝑈𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔 n =
𝑀
1𝑥8.96 𝑥 103 𝑥.6.025 𝑥 1026
=
63.54
28
= 8.5x10 atoms.
1
𝜇=
𝑛𝑒𝜌
1
= = 4.325x10−3 𝑚2 /vs
8.5𝑥1028 𝑥1.6𝑥10−19 𝑥1.7 𝑥 10−8
12. For intrinsic gallium arsenide, the room temperature electrical conductivity is
10−6 /Ω[Link] electron and hole mobilities are respectively 0.85 𝑚2 /𝑉𝑠 and
0.04 𝑚2 /𝑉𝑠. 𝐶alculate the intrinsic carrier concentration at room temperature.

Given: 𝜎𝑖 = 10−6 /Ωm ; 𝜇𝑒 = 0.85 𝑚2 /𝑉𝑠 𝜇𝑒 = 0.04 𝑚2 /𝑉𝑠; 𝑛𝑖 =?

𝑈𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔, 𝜎𝑖 = 𝑛𝑖 e (𝜇𝑒 + 𝜇ℎ ),
𝜎𝑖
𝑤𝑒 𝑔𝑒𝑡 , 𝑛𝑖 =
𝑒 (𝜇𝑒 +𝜇ℎ )
10−6
𝑛𝑖 =
1.6𝑥10−19 (0.85+0.04)
= 7.023𝑥1012 /𝑚3
13. The effective mass for the electron in germanium is 0.55 𝑚𝑜 ,where 𝑚𝑜 𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒
free electron mass. Find the electron concentration in Germanium at 300 K,
assuming that the Fermi level lies exactly in the middle of the energy gap,
given that the energy gap for Germanium is 0.66 eV.

Given: 𝑚𝑜 = 9.1 x 10−31kg ; 𝑚𝑒∗ = 0.55x 9.1 x 10−31 kg ; T= 300K ; 𝐸𝑔 = 0.66𝑒𝑉;

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𝐸𝑔 0.66
𝐸𝐹 = = = 0.33 𝑒v
2 2
𝜋𝑚∗𝑒 𝑘𝑇 3/2
𝐸 −𝐸𝑔
( 𝐹 )
Using ; 𝑛𝑒 = 4√2 ( 2 ) 𝑒 𝑘𝑇
ℎ
(0.33−0.66)𝑥1.6𝑥10−19 )
𝜋𝑥0.55𝑥 9.1 𝑥 10−31 𝑥1.38𝑥10−23 𝑥300 3/2
= 4√2 ( ) x𝑒 1.38𝑥10−23 𝑥300
(6.625𝑥10−34 )2
= 5.657x1.807x1024 x2.892x10−6
𝑛𝑒 = 2.956x1019 /𝑚3

14. For intrinsic Gallium Arsenide , the electric conductivity at room temperature
is 10−6 𝑜ℎ𝑚−1 𝑚−1 . The electron and hole mobilities are respectively 0.85 𝑚2 /𝑉𝑆 𝑎𝑛𝑑
0.04 𝑚2 /𝑉𝑆. Calculate the intrinsic carrier concentration at room temperature.

Given: 𝜎𝑖 = 10−6 /Ωm ; 𝜇𝑒 = 0.85 𝑚2 /𝑉𝑠 𝜇𝑒 = 0.04 𝑚2 /𝑉𝑠; 𝑛𝑖 =?

𝑈𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔, 𝜎𝑖 = 𝑛𝑖 e (𝜇𝑒 + 𝜇ℎ ),
𝜎𝑖
𝑤𝑒 𝑔𝑒𝑡 , 𝑛𝑖 =
𝑒 (𝜇𝑒 +𝜇ℎ )
10−6
𝑛𝑖 =
1.6𝑥10−19 (0.85+0.04)
= 7.023𝑥1012 /𝑚3
15. Calculate the probability of finding an electron at an energy level 0.02 eV above
Fermi level at 200 K .
Given: (𝐸 − 𝐸𝐹 ) = 0.02 𝑒𝑉 = 0.02𝑥1.602𝑥10−19 J , k=1.38x10−23 J/K and T=200K

1
Using f(E) =
1+𝑒 (𝐸−𝐸𝐹 )/𝑘𝑇
1
= −19 )/1.38𝑥10−23 𝑥 200
1+𝑒 (0.02𝑥1.602𝑥10
1
=
1+𝑒 1.161
1
=
1+3.193
1
=
4.193
= 0.2385 or 23.85 %
16. Gold has one free electron/[Link] density,atomic weight and resistivity are
19300 kg/𝑚3 ,197 and 2.21 x 10−8 Ω𝑚 . Calculate the free electron concentration
and mobility of conduction electron.
Given : D=19300 kg/𝑚3 , M =197 , 𝜌 = 2.21 x 10−8 Ω𝑚 , 𝑥 = 1 electron/atom,
𝑁𝐴 = 6.02 x 1028 /Kmol , e=1.6 x 10−19 C , n =? , 𝜇 = ?
𝑥 𝐷 𝑁𝐴
Using, n = 𝑀

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1𝑥 19300𝑥 6.02𝑥 1028

∴ 𝑛 = = 5.898 x 1030 electrons/𝑚3
197
1
𝐴𝑙𝑠𝑜 , using 𝜇 =
𝜌𝑛𝑒
1
∴ 𝜇= = 4.795x10−5 𝑚2 /Vs
2.21 𝑥 10−8 𝑥5.898 𝑥 1030 𝑥1.6 𝑥 10−19
17. Calculate the drift velocity and thermal velocity of conduction electrons in copper
at a temperature of 300K,when a copper wire of length 2 mand resistance 0.02 Ω carries
a current of 15 A. Given the mobility of free electrons in copper is 4.3x10−3 𝑚2 /Vs.
Given: T = 300𝐾 ,L = 2 𝑚 , 𝑅 = 0.02 Ω , I = 15 A , 𝜇 = 4.3x10−3 𝑚2 /Vs,
m= 𝑚𝑒 = 9.1 x 10−34 kg , k = 1.38 x 10−23 J/K , 𝑣𝑑 =? , 𝑣𝐹 =?
𝑉
Using 𝑣𝑑 = 𝜇E but E = 𝐿 and V= IR
𝜇𝐼𝑅 4.3𝑥10−3 𝑥 15 𝑥 0.02
we get 𝑣𝑑 = = = 6.45 x 10−4 m/s
𝐿 2
3 1
Also using 𝑘𝑇 = 2 𝑚𝑣𝐹2
2
3𝑘𝑇 3𝑥1.38 𝑥 10−23 𝑥300
We get , 𝑉𝐹 = √ =√ =1.168x105 m/s
𝑚 9.1 𝑥 10−34

18. The electron concentration in a semiconductor is 5 x 1017 𝑚−3 . Calculate the conductivity
of the material if the drift velocity of electron is 350 m𝑠 −1 in an electric field of 1000 V𝑚−1 .
Given: 𝑛 =5 x 1017 𝑚−3, 𝑉𝑑 = 350 m𝑠 −1, 𝐸 = 1000 V𝑚−1. 𝜎 =?

𝑛𝑒 2 𝜏 𝑒𝐸𝜏
Using 𝜎 = and 𝑉𝑑 =
𝑚 𝑚
𝑛𝑒𝑉𝑑 5 𝑥 10 𝑥1.6𝑥10−19 𝑥350
17
We get 𝜎 = = =0.028/Ωm.
𝐸 1000

19. Calculate the Fermi velocity and the mean free path for the conduction electrons
in silver, given that its Fermi energy is 5.5V and the relaxation time for electrons
is 3.83 x 10−14 S.
Given: 𝐸𝐹 = 5.5 𝑒𝑉 = 5.5 𝑥 1.6𝑥10−19 𝐽 ; 𝜏 = 𝜏𝑟 = 3.83 X10−14 S ; 𝑚 = 9.1𝑥10−31 𝑘𝑔 𝑉𝐹 = ? :
λ=?
2𝐸𝐹
Using ½ m𝑉𝐹 2 = 𝐸𝐹 ,we get 𝑉𝐹 = √
𝑚

2𝑥5.5 𝑥 1.6𝑥10−19
=√
9.1𝑥10−31
= 1.391x 106 m/s and
Also, λ =𝑉𝐹 . 𝜏𝑟 = 1.391x 106 x 3.83 X10−14 = 5.328𝑥 10−8 m

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PHYSICS OF SEMICONDUCTORS
Semiconductors have conductivity in the range intermediate between those of good
conductors and insulators. Elements such as Silicon, Germanium are the examples of
semiconductors.
Q: Mention of expression for electron & hole concentration in an intrinsic
semiconductor.
We know that the number of energy levels between the energy interval E and E+dE
8√2𝜋(𝑚𝑒∗ )3/2
is given by g(E)dE = (
ℎ3
) 𝐸1/2 𝑑𝐸 ,where 𝑚𝑒∗ = effective mass of
electron. Also, the probability of occupation of an energy level is given by Fermi factor
1
f(E) = 𝐸−𝐸𝐹 where 𝐸𝐹 = 𝐹𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑖 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 & 𝑘 = 𝐵𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑧𝑚𝑎𝑛𝑛 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
( )
1+ 𝑒 𝑘𝑇

Then ,the concentration of electron charge carriers is given by

𝑬 −𝑬𝒈
𝝅𝒎∗𝒆 𝒌𝑻 𝟑/𝟐 ( 𝑭 )
𝒏 𝒆 = 𝟒√ 𝟐 ( ) 𝒆 𝒌𝑻
𝒉𝟐

Similarly, the concentration of hole charge carriers is given by

𝟑/𝟐 −𝑬𝑭
𝝅𝒎∗𝒉 𝒌𝑻 ( )
𝒏 𝒉 = 𝟒√ 𝟐 ( ) 𝒆 𝒌𝑻
𝒉𝟐
Describe Fermi level in intrinsic semiconductor and hence obtain the expression .
(Or)
Relation between Fermi energy and Energy gap for an intrinsic semiconductor.
At 0K, all the energy levels of valence band are completely filled and all the levels of
conduction band are empty. But at ordinary room temperature and above some of the
electrons from valence excite and fill bottom levels of conduction band. As a result bottom
levels of conduction band and top levels of valence band are filled. Due to this the average
1
energy of the conduction electrons is 2 𝐸𝑔 ,where 𝐸𝑔 is the energy gap.
Thus for an intrinsic semiconductor the Fermi Level lies at the middle of the energy
gap/band.
WKT,
The concentration of electron charge carriers is given by
𝐸 −𝐸𝑔
𝜋𝑚𝑒∗ 𝑘𝑇 3/2 ( 𝐹 )
𝑛𝑒 = 4√2 ( ) 𝑒 𝑘𝑇 ….(1)
ℎ2

Similarly, the concentration of hole charge carriers is given by

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 RAMESH R 21PHY12/22

∗ 3/2 −𝐸𝐹
𝜋𝑚ℎ 𝑘𝑇 ( )
𝑛ℎ = 4√2 ( ℎ2
) 𝑒 𝑘𝑇 …….(2)
But for an intrinsic semiconductor, 𝑛𝑒 = 𝑛ℎ …….(3)
𝐸 −𝐸𝑔 −𝐸𝐹
( 𝐹 ) ( )
From equations 1,2 &3,we get ( 𝑚∗𝑒 3/2
) 𝑒 𝑘𝑇 =( 𝑚∗ℎ 3/2
) 𝑒 𝑘𝑇

2𝐸𝐹−𝐸𝑔
( ) 𝑚∗ℎ 3/2
𝑒 𝑘𝑇 =( )
𝑚∗𝑒

Taking logarithms on both sides ,we get

2𝐸𝐹 −𝐸𝑔 2 𝑚∗ℎ

( 𝑘𝑇
) = 3 ln( 𝑚∗𝑒
)

3 𝑚∗ℎ 𝐸𝑔
𝐸𝐹 = kT ln( ∗
)+
4 𝑚𝑒 2

𝑬𝒈
Practically, 𝑚𝑒∗ = 𝑚ℎ∗ , ln= 0 ∴ 𝑬𝑭 = , Thus ,the Fermi level is in the middle of the band gap
𝟐
for an intrinsic semiconductor.

Q:Derive an expression for electrical conductivity of a semi-conductor.

In a semiconductor the net current is due to both electrons and holes .
The current due to electrons is 𝐼𝑒 = 𝑛𝑒 𝑒𝑎𝑣𝑒 ,where 𝑛𝑒 = 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦, 𝑎 = 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 ,
𝑣𝑒 = 𝑑𝑟𝑖𝑓𝑡 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 & 𝑒 = 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒
Also current due to holes is 𝐼ℎ = 𝑛ℎ 𝑒𝑎𝑣ℎ
But the total current I= 𝐼𝑒 + 𝐼ℎ
= ea(𝑛𝑒 𝑣𝑒 + 𝑛ℎ 𝑣ℎ )
𝐼
= e (𝑛𝑒 𝑣𝑒 + 𝑛ℎ 𝑣ℎ )
𝑎
𝐼
𝑊𝐾𝑇, 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝐽 =
𝑎
∴ J= e (𝑛𝑒 𝑣𝑒 + 𝑛ℎ 𝑣ℎ )
but from Ohm’s law J=𝜎𝐸
ie: 𝜎𝐸 = 𝑒 (𝑛𝑒 𝑣𝑒 + 𝑛ℎ 𝑣ℎ )
𝑣𝑒 𝑣ℎ
𝜎 = 𝑒 (𝑛𝑒 + 𝑛ℎ )
𝐸 𝐸
𝝈 = e(𝒏𝒆 𝝁𝒆 +𝒏𝒉 𝝁𝒉 )
where 𝜇𝑒 &𝜇ℎ mobilities of electrons and holes respectively.
For an intrinsic semiconductors 𝑛𝑒 = 𝑛ℎ = 𝑛𝑖 called the density of intrinsic charge
carriers.
For n-type semiconductor 𝑛𝑒 ≫ 𝑛ℎ ⇨ 𝝈 = e𝒏𝒆 𝝁𝒆

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For p-type semiconductor, 𝑛𝑒 ≪ 𝑛ℎ ⇨ 𝝈 = e𝒏𝒉 𝝁𝒉

Hall Effect:

When magnetic field is applied perpendicular to the direction of the current in a conductor,
a potential difference develops along a direction perpendicular to both current and
magnetic field. This effect is known as Hall effect. The potential difference developed is
known as Hall voltage. (Or)

When a material/ semiconductor carrying current is placed in magnetic field, an E.F, is

produced across the material in a direction perpendicular to both the direction of magnetic
field and the direction of the current flow. This phenomenon is called Hall Effect.
Hall voltage and Hall coefficient:

Y 1

d I

0 w X

Z B 2

Consider a rectangular conductor of cross section w x d =a in which current “I” flows along
x-axis. when a magnetic field ‘B’ is applied along z-axis, Hall voltage 𝑉𝐻 develops along y-
axis between the terminals 1&2.
If 𝐸𝐻 be the Hall electric field and ‘ 𝑣 ’be the drift velocity (of charges)
Then under equilibrium conditions,
Force on charges due to Hall electric field = Force on charges due to magnetic field
ie: 𝑞𝐸𝐻 = q 𝑣B
𝑉𝐻
∴ 𝐸𝐻 = 𝑣B also 𝐸𝐻 = 𝑑
𝑉𝐻
∴ = 𝑣B or 𝑉𝐻 = 𝑣Bd ……..(1)
𝑑
𝐼
Wkt, I = nqa𝑣 or 𝑣 = 𝑛𝑞𝑎 …..(2)
𝐼𝐵𝑑
∴ from eqns 1&2 ,we get 𝑉𝐻 = 𝑛𝑞𝑎 but a = w x d
𝐼𝐵
∴ 𝑉𝐻 = 𝑛𝑞𝑤 ……..(3)
1
The quantity 𝑛𝑞 is the reciprocal of charge density and is called the Hall coefficient ‘𝑅𝐻 ’
𝟏
𝑖𝑒; 𝑹𝑯 = 𝒏𝒒 …..(4)

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𝑰𝑩
From eqns 3&4 we get 𝑽𝑯 = 𝑹𝑯 ( 𝒘 ) ………(5)

𝑅𝐻 and charge density can be determined as 𝑉𝐻 ,B,d and a are all measurable quantities.
Uses of Hall effect:
[Link] effect is used to find the nature of the charges( Positive or Negative) which in turn determine
whether the semiconductor is N-type or P-type.
2. Hall effect is used to find the density of charge carriers.
[Link] effect is used to find the mobility of charge carriers.
[Link] effect is used to find Hall voltage, Hall angle & Hall coefficient.
[Link] effect sensors work on the principle of Hall effect used to detect/sense magnetic fields
ranging from 1𝜇𝑇 𝑡𝑜 1 𝑇. (𝐸𝑎𝑟𝑡ℎ′ 𝑠 𝑚𝑎𝑔. 𝑓𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑 50𝜇𝑇)
6. Hall effect device is used as multipliers as Hall voltage is the product of current and
magnetic field.
PROBLEMS ON SEMICONDUCTORS
1. Calculate the Fermi velocity and the mean free path for the conduction electrons in
silver, given that its Fermi energy is 5.5 eV and relaxation time for electrons is 3.97
X10−14 S. (𝐷𝑒𝑐 2011)

Given: 𝐸𝐹 = 5.5 𝑒𝑉 = 5.5 𝑥 1.6𝑥10−19 𝐽 ; 𝜏 = 𝜏𝑟 = 3.97 X10−14 S ; 𝑚 = 9.1𝑥10−31 𝑘𝑔 𝑉𝐹 = ? :

λ=?
2𝐸𝐹
Using ½ m𝑉𝐹 2 = 𝐸𝐹 ,we get 𝑉𝐹 = √
𝑚

2𝑥5.5 𝑥 1.6𝑥10−19
=√
9.1𝑥10−31
= 1.391x 106 m/s and
Also, λ =𝑉𝐹 . 𝜏𝑟 = 1.391x 106 x 3.97 X10−14 = 5.522𝑥 10−8 m

2. Calculate the concentration at which the acceptor atoms must be added to a

germanium sample to get a P-type semiconductor with conductivity 0.15 per Ohm-
metre. Given the mobility of holes=0.17 𝑚2 /Vs. ( 4 marks)

Given: 𝜎 =0.15 /Ωm ,𝜇 = 0.17 𝑚2 /𝑉𝑠 , e=1.6x10−19 C, n= ?

𝜎
Using, n =
𝜇𝑒
0.15
=
0.17𝑥1.6𝑥10−19
= 5.515 x1018 electrons

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3. For intrinsic gallium arsenide, the room temperature electrical conductivity is

10−6 /Ω[Link] electron and hole mobilities are respectively 0.85 𝑚2 /𝑉𝑠 and
0.04 𝑚2 /𝑉𝑠. 𝐶alculate the intrinsic carrier concentration at room temperature.

Given: 𝜎𝑖 = 10−6 /Ωm ; 𝜇𝑒 = 0.85 𝑚2 /𝑉𝑠 𝜇𝑒 = 0.04 𝑚2 /𝑉𝑠; 𝑛𝑖 =?

𝑈𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔, 𝜎𝑖 = 𝑛𝑖 e (𝜇𝑒 + 𝜇ℎ ),
𝜎𝑖
𝑤𝑒 𝑔𝑒𝑡 , 𝑛𝑖 =
𝑒 (𝜇𝑒 +𝜇ℎ )
10−6
𝑛𝑖 =
1.6𝑥10−19 (0.85+0.04)
= 7.023𝑥1012 /𝑚3
4. The effective mass for the electron in germanium is 0.55 𝑚𝑜 ,where 𝑚𝑜 𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒
free electron mass. Find the electron concentration in Germanium at 300 K,
assuming that the Fermi level lies exactly in the middle of the energy gap,
given that the energy gap for Germaium is 0.66 eV.

Given: 𝑚𝑜 = 9.1 x 10−31kg ; 𝑚𝑒∗ = 0.55x 9.1 x 10−31 kg ; T= 300K ; 𝐸𝑔 = 0.66𝑒𝑉;

𝐸𝑔 0.66
𝐸𝐹 = = = 0.33 𝑒𝑉
2 2

𝜋𝑚∗𝑒 𝑘𝑇 3/2
𝐸 −𝐸𝑔
( 𝐹 )
Using ; 𝑛𝑒 = 4√2 ( 2 ) 𝑒 𝑘𝑇
ℎ
(0.33−0.66)𝑥1.6𝑥10−19 )
𝜋𝑥0.55𝑥 9.1 𝑥 10−31 𝑥1.38𝑥10−23 𝑥300 3/2
= 4√2 ( ) x𝑒 1.38𝑥10−23 𝑥300
(6.625𝑥10−34 )2
= 5.657x1.807x1024 x2.892x10−6
𝑛𝑒 = 2.956x1019 /𝑚3

5. For intrinsic Gallium Arsenide , the electric conductivity at room temperature

is 10−6 𝑜ℎ𝑚−1 𝑚−1 . The electron and hole mobilities are respectively 0.85 𝑚2 /𝑉𝑆 𝑎𝑛𝑑
0.04 𝑚2 /𝑉𝑆. Calculate the intrinsic carrier concentration at room temperature.
(04 Marks)

Given: 𝜎𝑖 = 10−6 /Ωm ; 𝜇𝑒 = 0.85 𝑚2 /𝑉𝑠 𝜇𝑒 = 0.04 𝑚2 /𝑉𝑠; 𝑛𝑖 =?

𝑈𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔, 𝜎𝑖 = 𝑛𝑖 e (𝜇𝑒 + 𝜇ℎ ),
𝜎𝑖
𝑤𝑒 𝑔𝑒𝑡 , 𝑛𝑖 =
𝑒 (𝜇𝑒 +𝜇ℎ )
10−6
𝑛𝑖 =
1.6𝑥10−19 (0.85+0.04)
= 7.023𝑥1012 /𝑚3

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[Link] Hall coefficient of a specimen of a doped silicon is found to be 3.66 x 10−4 𝑚3 /

𝑐𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑜𝑚𝑏.
The resistivity of the specimen is 9.93 x 10−3Ωm. Find the mobility and density of charge
carrier ,assuming single carrier conduction.
Given:𝑅𝐻 = 3.66 x 10−4 𝑚3 /𝑐𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑜𝑚𝑏, 𝜌 = 9.93 x 10−3 Ωm, 𝑒 = 1.6 𝑥 10−19 𝐶, 𝜇 = ? & n = ?
1.18
Using 𝑅𝐻 = 𝑛𝑒
1.18 1.18
we get 𝑛 = 𝑒𝑅 = = 2.015 x 1022 charges/𝑚3
𝐻 1.6 𝑥 10−19 𝑥3.66 𝑥 10−4
𝑅𝐻 3.66 𝑥 10−4
Also 𝜇 = = = 0.0369 𝑚2 /𝑉𝑠
𝜌 9.93 𝑥 10−3
[Link] n-type semiconductor specimen has Hall coefficient = 3.65 x 10−4 𝑚3 /𝐶.The
conductivity of specimen = 112/Ωm. Calculate the charge carrier density and electron
mobility at room temperature.
Given:𝑅𝐻 = 3.65 x 10−4 𝑚3 /𝐶, 𝜎 = 112/Ωm, 𝑒 = 1.6 𝑥 10−19 𝐶, 𝜇 = ? & n = ?
1.18
Using 𝑅𝐻 = 𝑛𝑒
1.18 1.18
we get 𝑛 = 𝑒𝑅 = = 2.026 x 1022 charges/𝑚3
𝐻 1.6 𝑥 10−19 𝑥3.65 𝑥 10−4
−4
Also 𝜇 = 𝜎𝑅𝐻 = 112 𝑥 3.65 𝑥 10 = 0.04088 𝑚2 /𝑉𝑠

[Link] the Hall coefficient and electron mobility of germanium for a given sample( length=
1cm, breadth = 5mm, and thickness =1 mm).A current of 5 ma flows from a 1.35V supply
and develops a Hall voltage of 20 mV across the specimen in a magnetic field of 0.45Wb/𝑚2
Given: I=5mA=5x10−3 A,V=1.35V,L=1cm =1x 10−2m, w =5mm=5x10−3 𝑚,
d =1mm=1x10−3 𝑚, 𝑉𝐻 = 20𝑚𝑉 = 20𝑥10−3 𝑉, B= 0.45 𝑊𝑏/𝑚2, 𝑅𝐻 = ? , 𝑛 = ?
𝑅𝐴 𝑉
Using 𝜌 = , R = 𝐼 and A = w x d ,we get
𝐿
𝑉𝑤𝑡 1.35𝑥5𝑥10−3 𝑥1𝑥10−3
𝜌= = = 0.135 Ω-m.
𝐼𝐿 5𝑥10−3 𝑥1𝑥 10−2
1.18𝑉𝐻 𝑤 1.18𝑥20𝑥10−3 𝑥5𝑥10−3
𝑅𝐻 = = = 0.0524 𝑚3 /𝐶
𝐼𝐵 5𝑥10−3 𝑥0.45
𝑅𝐻 0.0524
Also, 𝜇 = = = 0.3882 𝑚2 /𝑉𝑠
𝜌 0.135

9.A rectangular plane sheet of a semiconductor material has dimensions 2 cm along Y-

direction and 1 mm along Z-direction. Hall probes are attached on its two surfaces parallel
to X-Z plane and a magnetic field of flux density of 1 weber/𝑚2 is applied along z-direction.
A current of 3 mA is flowing in it in the X-direction. Calculate the Hall voltage measured by
the probes, if the Hall coefficient of the material is 3.66 x 10−4 𝑚3 /𝐶. Also calculate the
charge carrier concentration.
Given: I=3mA=3x10−3 A,V=1.35V, w =1mm=1 x10−3 𝑚, 𝑅𝐻 = 3.66 x 10−4 𝑚3 /𝐶
d =2cm =2x10−2 𝑚, 𝑉𝐻 , B= 1 𝑊𝑏/𝑚2 , 𝑉𝐻 = ? , 𝑛 = ?

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𝐼 3.66 𝑥 10−4 𝑥3𝑥10−3 𝑥1

𝐸𝐻 = 𝑅𝐻 𝐽𝐵 = 𝑅𝐻 1 𝑥10−3𝑥𝑑 𝐵 = = 0.0549 N/C
1𝑥10−3 𝑥2𝑥10−2
𝑉𝐻 = 𝐸𝐻 𝑑 = 0.0549𝑥 2𝑥10−2 = 1.098𝑥10 −3
V
1.18 22
Also 𝑛 = 1.6 𝑥 10−19 𝑥3.66 𝑥 10−4 = 2.015 𝑥 10 charges/𝑚3
DIELECTRICS
DIELECTRIC MATERIALS are the non-conducting materials.
Ex: Glass, Ceramics, Polymers, Paper etc
Insulators are the dielectric/non-conducting materials whose main function is to provide
electrical insulation.
Dielectrics are the non-conducting materials whose main function is to store electrical
charges.
Dielectric constant/Relative permittivity(𝜺𝒓 ) is defined as the ratio of the permittivity of
the medium to the permittivity of the free space is known as Dielectric constant. , 𝜀𝒓
describes the ability of the dielectric material to store charges.
𝜺𝒓 = 𝜺/𝜺𝒐 , where, 𝜺𝒐 = 𝑷𝒆𝒓𝒎𝒊𝒕𝒊𝒗𝒊𝒕𝒚 𝒐𝒇 𝒇𝒓𝒆𝒆 𝒔𝒑𝒂𝒄𝒆,
𝜺𝒓 = dielectric constant/Relative permittivity of the medium,
𝜺 = 𝑷𝒆𝒓𝒎𝒊𝒕𝒕𝒊𝒗𝒊𝒕𝒚 𝒐𝒇 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒎𝒆𝒅𝒊𝒖𝒎

The permittivity of the medium ( 𝜺 ) is given by = 𝜺𝟎 𝜺𝒓 , 𝜀𝟎 = 8.854x10−12F/m ,called

permittivity of free space.
Dielectric materials are the insulating materials used to store electrical charges.
In Insulators all the states are completely occupied by electrons.
Dielectric materials has very few electrons for electrical conductivity.
Electric dipole is defined as any two equal and opposite charges separated by a small
distance.
l
Θ Note: −𝒒 𝒂𝒏𝒅 + 𝒒 charges separated by a small distance ‘ l ’ form electric
dipole.
The dipole is represented by an arrow which starts from – 𝒗𝒆 𝒄𝒉𝒂𝒓𝒈𝒆
𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒆𝒏𝒅𝒔 𝒂𝒕 +ve charge.
Electric dipole moment is defined as the product of the either of the charge and distance
between the charges of the dipole.
Electric dipole moment , 𝝁 = Q.l …..C m (Coulomb metre)
Electric field strength(E) :is defined as the force experienced by a unit positive charge at a
𝑭
point in an electric field. E = …. N/C or V/m
𝒒

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Dielectric polarizability(𝜶) is defined as the induced dipole moment of an atom per unit
𝝁 𝑷
electric field intensity. 𝜶 = 𝑬 = where N = 𝑵𝒖𝒎𝒃𝒆𝒓 𝒐𝒇 𝒅𝒊𝒑𝒐𝒍𝒆𝒔 𝒑𝒆𝒓 𝒖𝒏𝒊𝒕 𝒗𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒎𝒆.
𝑵𝑬
POLAR DIELECTRICS and NON-POLAR DIELECTRICS
Polar dielectrics are the dielectric material doesn’t possess any free electrons. All the
electrons are bound very strongly to the respective nuclei of the parent molecule. Each
molecule or atom in the normal state consists of equal amount of positively and negatively
charges. In polar dielectrics effective center of positively and negatively charges doesn’t
coincide. Ex: HCL, nitrobenzene, hence polar dielectrics has permanent dipole..
Non-Polar dielectrics are the dielectric materials in which effective center of positively and
negatively charges coincide., which results in zero dipole in the absence of an external
electric field. Ex: Paraffin, Symmetric molecules like (monoatomic)He, Ne, Ar, Xe etc and
𝐻2 , 𝑁2 , 𝐶𝑙2 etc
The application of an electric field tends to displace these charges ,creating dipoles(and
hence polarization)
Polarisation(P) : The process of producing electric dipoles, which are oriented along the
field direction is called Polarization in dielectrics. Or It is defined as the electric dipole
moment per unit volume.
𝑬𝒍𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒓𝒊𝒄 𝒅𝒊𝒑𝒐𝒍𝒆 𝒎𝒐𝒎𝒆𝒏𝒕 𝝁
P= = 𝑽 … C/𝒎𝟐
𝑽𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒎𝒆
𝜶𝑬
P= ∵ 𝝁 = 𝜶𝑬
𝑽
𝑷 = N 𝜶𝑬 where N = 𝑵𝒖𝒎𝒃𝒆𝒓 𝒐𝒇 𝒅𝒊𝒑𝒐𝒍𝒆𝒔 𝒑𝒆𝒓 𝒖𝒏𝒊𝒕 volume.
Relation between Polarization and dielectric constatnt is given by,
𝑷 = 𝜺𝒐 (𝜺𝒓 − 𝟏)𝑬

Types of Polarization:
There are mainly three types of dielectric polarization namely,
1) Electronic polarization 𝑃𝑒 = 𝑁𝛼𝑒 𝐸
2) Ionic polarization 𝑃𝑖 = 𝑁𝛼𝑖 𝐸
3) Orientation polarization 𝑃𝑜 = 𝑁𝛼𝑜 𝐸

1. Electronic polarization: It occurs due to displacement of the positive and negative charges in
a dielectric material owing to the application of an E.F, The separation created between the
charges leads to the development of a dipole [Link] process occurs throughout the
material. Thus the material as a whole will be polarized.

The electronic polarizability, is given by,

𝜺𝒐 (𝜺𝒓 − 𝟏)
𝛼𝑒 = where,
𝑁

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E=0 E>0 N- no of atoms/unit volume

2. Ionic polarization: This is exhibited by ionic compounds. When ionic compounds are kept in a
E.F, displacement of +ve and –ve ions occurs developing a dipole moment. Ionic polarization
occurs only in those dielectric materials which possess ionic bonds such as Nacl.

+ - + +- +

- + - - + -

+ - + +- +

Ion displacement due to applied E.F

E= 0 E>0
3. Orientational polarization: It occurs in those dielectric materials, whether liquids or solids
which possess molecules with permanent dipole moments(i.e., polar dielectrics). The
orientation of these molecules will be random normally due to thermal agitation. Because of
randomness in orientation, the material has net zero dipole moment. But under the influence
of E.F, each of the dipole undergoes rotation so as to re-orient along the direction of the field.
Thus the material itself develop electrical polarization.
The orientational polarization is strongly temperature dependent and decreases with increase
of temperature.
𝝁2
𝛼𝑜 =
3𝑘𝑇

E=0 E>0 dipole alignment due to the applied E.F

The total polarization α of a material is given by , α = 𝜶𝒆 + 𝜶𝒊 + 𝜶𝒐

INTERNAL FIELDS IN SOLID:

“ The internal field/Local field is the E.F that acts at the site of any given atom of a solid
dielectric subjected to an external E.F, and the resultant of the applied field and the field
due to all the surrounding dipoles”.

OR

“The total electric field at an atom site in a dielectric material due to applied external
electric field and induced various fields is called internal field”.

Consider a dielectric material kept in an applied E.F Ea, then internal field is given by

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𝟏.𝟐 µ
Ei = Ea + where µ = α E
𝜫𝜺𝒐 𝒅𝟑
In 3-D case, (1/𝒅𝟑 ) could be replaced by N, the number of atoms per unit volume and
(1.2/ 𝜫) by a constant γ which depends on the crystal structure.
𝜸𝑵µ 𝜸
Hence, Ei = Ea + = Ea +[ ] P since Nµ = P
𝜺𝒐 𝜺𝒐
Where 𝜸 is the proportionality constant which is known as the internal field constant.
Expression for internal field by Lorentz method / Lorentz field:

In the 3-D case , if it is a cubic lattice, then it can be shown that γ = 1/3 in which event, the
internal field is named Lorentz field given by,

𝑷
𝑬𝑳𝒐𝒓𝒆𝒏𝒕𝒛 = 𝑬 +
𝟑𝜺𝟎
This equation is known as Lorentz relation
INTERNAL FIELD(LOCAL FIELD)/LORENTZ FIELD IN SOLIDS
Internal(Local) field is the resultant field experienced by a molecule/an atom in a solid due to
the external field and the fields produced by dipoles.
Internal field is the sum of the applied field and the induced field.
CLAUSIUS-MOSOTTI EQUATION:
Consider an elemental solid dielectric which exhibits only electronic polarizability. Solids such as
diamond , silicon and germanium crystals are made up of single type of atoms.
If 𝛼𝑒 is the electronic polarizability per atom,
𝑃
∴ 𝛼𝑒 = 𝑁 𝐸 where N – no of atoms per m3
𝑖
𝜸 𝑃
WKT, Ei = E +[𝜺 ] P , 𝛼𝑒 = 𝜸
𝒐 𝑁[𝑬 +[
𝜺𝒐 ] 𝑷]
𝑷
And also wkt, E = 𝜺 (𝜺 −𝟏) and also , If the internal field is assumed to be Lorentz field, 𝜸 =
𝒐 𝒓
𝑷
𝟏/𝟑. ∴ 𝜶𝒆 = 𝑷 𝑷
𝑵 [( (𝜺 + )]
𝜺𝒐 𝒓 −𝟏) 𝟑𝜺𝒐

𝑷
N𝜶𝒆 = 𝑷 𝟏 𝟏
[ + ]
𝜺𝒐 (𝜺𝒓 −𝟏) 𝟑
𝜺𝒐
N𝜶𝒆 = 𝟏 𝟏
+
(𝜺𝒓 −𝟏) 𝟑
𝑵𝜶𝒆 𝟏 𝟏
= 𝟏 𝟏 = 𝜺𝒓 + 𝟐
𝜺𝒐 +
(𝜺𝒓 −𝟏) 𝟑 𝟑(𝜺𝒓 −𝟏)
𝟑(𝜺𝒓 −𝟏) 𝑵𝜶𝒆
=
𝜺𝒓 + 𝟐 𝜺𝒐

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(𝜺𝒓 −𝟏) 𝑵𝜶𝒆

∴ =
𝜺𝒓 + 𝟐 𝟑𝜺𝒐
The above equation is known as Clausius-Mosotti equation which is valid for non- polar
solids having cubic crystal structure.

DIELECTRIC MATERIALS:
1. Dielectric materials are mainly used as Insulating materials and to store electrical
charges in capacitors.
2. The dielectrics in general must have high resistivity, high/low dielectric constant,
low dielectric loss, adequate chemical stability, high moisture resistance and
suitable mechanical properties.
Dielectrics may be solids, liquids or gasses .
Solid dielectrics:
1. Solid dielectrics are used as dielectric materials in capacitors for storing electrical
charges. Ex:Polymers, ceramics, mica, barium titanate etc
2. Quartz crystal is used in ultrasonic transducer, crystal oscillator, filters etc
3. Lead zirconate titanate is used in the –preparation of microphone, spark generator,
ear phones etc
Liquid dielectrics(LDs):
1. Liquid dielectrics are used as a cooling medium in transformers and some electronic
equipments.
2. Liquid dielectrics are used as filling medium in capacitors, bushings etc
3. LDs are used as an insulating and arc-quenching medium in switchgear.
4. LDs impregnated with solid materials like paper etc are used in transformers,
switch gears, capacitors and cables.
Gaseous dielectrics:
1. Compressed air is used as a dielectric insulation in air blast circuit breaker.
2. Air is used as arc-extinguishing medium.
Application of dielectrics in Transformers
1. Transformer oil is special mineral oil with high dielectric strength used for
insulation and cooling of transformer.
2. It transfer heat by convection from windings and core to cooling surface.
3. It also maintains the insulation of the windings.
Sludge formation takes place in the oil due to moisture, dirt or some foreign matter in the
oil which is harmful. Sludge formation reduce the rate of heat transfer ,Ducts are clogged
and operating temperature increases. The oil must undergo dehydration periodically and
tested at regular intervals.

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PROBLEMS ON DIELECTRICS

1. If NaCl crystal is subjected to an electric field of 1000 V/m and the resulting
polarization is 4.3 x 𝟏𝟎−𝟖 C/𝒎𝟐 , calculate the dielectric constant of NaCl.
Ans: Given E = 1000 V/m , P = 4.3 x 𝟏𝟎−𝟖 C/𝒎𝟐 , 𝜺𝟎 = 𝟖. 𝟖𝟓𝟒 x 𝟏𝟎−𝟏𝟐 F/𝒎𝟐 , 𝜺𝒓 = ?
Using P = 𝜺𝟎 (𝜺𝒓 − 𝟏)𝑬 , we get
𝑷
𝜺𝒓 = 1+ 𝜺𝟎 𝑬
𝟒.𝟑 𝒙 𝟏𝟎−𝟖
= 𝟏 + 𝟖.𝟖𝟓𝟒 𝒙 𝟏𝟎−𝟏𝟐 𝒙𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎
= 𝟏 + 4.857
= 𝟓. 𝟕𝟓𝟕
2. What is the polarization produced in sodium chloride by an electric Field of 600
V/mm if it has a dielectric constant of 6 ?
Ans: Given E = 𝟔𝟎𝟎 𝑽/𝒎𝒎 = 600 x 𝟏𝟎𝟑 V/m , 𝜺𝒓 = 𝟔 , 𝜺𝟎 = 𝟖. 𝟖𝟓𝟒 x 𝟏𝟎−𝟏𝟐 F/𝒎𝟐 , 𝑷 = ?
Using P = 𝜺𝟎 (𝜺𝒓 − 𝟏)𝑬
= 𝟖. 𝟖𝟓𝟒 𝒙 𝟏𝟎−𝟏𝟐 (𝟔 − 𝟏)𝟔𝟎𝟎 x 𝟏𝟎𝟑
= 2.656 x 𝟏𝟎−𝟓 C/𝒎𝟐
3. The dielectric constant of sulphur is 3.4. assuming a cubic lattice for its structure,
calculate the electronic polarizability of sulphur. Given sulpher density =
𝟐. 𝟎𝟕𝒈𝒎/𝒄𝒄,Atomic weight = 𝟑𝟐. 𝟎𝟕
Ans: Given D = 𝟐. 𝟎𝟕𝒈𝒎/𝒄𝒄 = 𝟐. 𝟎𝟕 x 𝟏𝟎𝟑 kg/𝒎𝟑 , 𝜺𝒓 = 𝟑. 𝟒 , 𝑴 = 𝟑𝟐. 𝟎𝟕, 𝜶𝒆 = ?
𝑵𝑨 = 𝟔. 𝟎𝟐𝟓 𝒙 𝟏𝟎𝟐𝟔 atoms/K mole, 𝜺𝟎 = 𝟖. 𝟖𝟓𝟒 x 𝟏𝟎−𝟏𝟐 F/𝒎𝟐
𝑵𝑨 𝑫 𝟔.𝟎𝟐𝟓 𝒙 𝟏𝟎𝟐𝟔 𝒙 𝟐.𝟎𝟕 𝒙 𝟏𝟎𝟑
Number of atoms per unit volume, N = =
𝑴 𝟑𝟐.𝟎𝟕
= 3.889 x 𝟏𝟎 atoms/𝒎𝟑 𝟐𝟖

For cubic sulphur crystal using Clausius-Mossotti equation

𝑵𝜶𝒆 (𝜺𝒓 −𝟏)
= (𝜺𝒓 +𝟐)
on rearranging we get
𝟑𝜺𝟎
𝟑𝜺𝟎 (𝜺𝒓 −𝟏) 𝟑𝒙𝟖.𝟖𝟓𝟒 𝒙 𝟏𝟎−𝟏𝟐 (𝟑.𝟒−𝟏)
𝜶𝒆 = =
𝑵(𝜺𝒓 +𝟐) 𝟑.𝟖𝟖𝟗 𝒙 𝟏𝟎𝟐𝟖 𝒙(𝟑.𝟒+𝟐)
−𝟒𝟎 𝟐
= 3.036 x 𝟏𝟎 F𝒎
4. An elemental solid containing 2 x 𝟏𝟎𝟐𝟖 atoms/𝒎𝟑 shows an electronic polarisability
of

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2 x 𝟏𝟎−𝟒𝟎 F𝒎𝟐 . Assuming a Lorentz force field to be operative,calculate the dielectric

constant of the material.
𝑭
Ans: Given 𝜶𝒆 = 2 x 𝟏𝟎−𝟒𝟎 F𝒎𝟐 , 𝜺𝟎 = 𝟖. 𝟖𝟓𝟒 𝒙 𝟏𝟎−𝟏𝟐 𝒎𝟐 , 𝑵 = 𝟐 𝒙 𝟏𝟎𝟐𝟖 𝒂𝒕𝒐𝒎𝒔/𝒎𝟑 , 𝜺𝒓 =??
Using Clausius-Mossotti equation
𝑵𝜶𝒆 (𝜺𝒓 −𝟏)
= (𝜺𝒓 +𝟐)
on rearranging we get,
𝟑𝜺𝟎
𝑵𝜶𝒆
(𝟏+𝟐 ) 𝑵𝜶𝒆 𝟐 𝒙 𝟏𝟎𝟐𝟖 𝒙𝟐 𝒙 𝟏𝟎−𝟒𝟎
𝟑𝜺𝟎
𝜺𝒓 = 𝑵𝜶𝒆
but = = 0.1506
(𝟏− ) 𝟑𝜺𝟎 𝟑𝒙𝟖.𝟖𝟓𝟒 𝒙 𝟏𝟎−𝟏𝟐
𝟑𝜺𝟎
(𝟏+𝟐𝒙𝟎.𝟏𝟓𝟎𝟔)
= (𝟏−𝟎.𝟏𝟓𝟎𝟔)
= 1.532
5. An elemental solid dielectric material has polarizability 7x 𝟏𝟎−𝟒𝟎 F𝒎𝟐 . Assuming
the internal field to be Lorentz field,calculate the dielectric constant for the material
if the material has 3 x 𝟏𝟎𝟐𝟖 atoms/𝒎𝟑 .
𝑭
Ans: Given 𝜶𝒆 = 7 x 𝟏𝟎−𝟒𝟎 F𝒎𝟐 , 𝜺𝟎 = 𝟖. 𝟖𝟓𝟒 𝒙 𝟏𝟎−𝟏𝟐 𝒎𝟐 , 𝑵 = 𝟑 𝒙 𝟏𝟎𝟐𝟖 𝒂𝒕𝒐𝒎𝒔/𝒎𝟑 , 𝜺𝒓 =??
Using Clausius-Mossotti equation
𝑵𝜶𝒆 (𝜺𝒓 −𝟏)
= (𝜺𝒓 +𝟐)
on rearranging we get,
𝟑𝜺𝟎
𝑵𝜶𝒆
(𝟏+𝟐 ) 𝑵𝜶𝒆 𝟑 𝒙 𝟏𝟎𝟐𝟖 𝒙𝟕 𝒙 𝟏𝟎−𝟒𝟎
𝟑𝜺𝟎
𝜺𝒓 = 𝑵𝜶
but = = 0.7906
(𝟏− 𝒆 ) 𝟑𝜺𝟎 𝟑𝒙𝟖.𝟖𝟓𝟒 𝒙 𝟏𝟎−𝟏𝟐
𝟑𝜺𝟎

(𝟏 + 𝟐𝒙𝟎. 𝟕𝟗𝟎𝟔)
= = 𝟏𝟐. 𝟑𝟐𝟕 = 𝟏𝟐. 𝟑𝟑
(𝟏 − 𝟎. 𝟕𝟗𝟎𝟔)
6. The dielectric constant of He gas at NTP is 1.0000684. Calculate the electronic
polarizability of He atoms if the gas contains 2.7 x 𝟏𝟎𝟐𝟓 atoms/𝒎𝟑 and hence
evaluate the radius of He atoms.
𝑭
Ans: Given, 𝜺𝟎 = 𝟖. 𝟖𝟓𝟒 𝒙 𝟏𝟎−𝟏𝟐 𝒎𝟐 , 𝑵 = 𝟐. 𝟕 𝒙 𝟏𝟎𝟐𝟓 𝒂𝒕𝒐𝒎𝒔/𝒎𝟑 , 𝜺𝒓 = 𝟏. 𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟔𝟖𝟒, 𝜶𝒆 = ?
& R =?
𝜺𝟎 (𝜺𝒓 −𝟏) 𝟖.𝟖𝟓𝟒 𝒙 𝟏𝟎−𝟏𝟐 (𝟏.𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟔𝟖𝟒−𝟏)
Using , 𝜶𝒆 = = = 2.243 x 𝟏𝟎−𝟒𝟏 F𝒎𝟐
𝑵 𝟐.𝟕 𝒙 𝟏𝟎𝟐𝟓
𝟏/𝟑 𝟏/𝟑
𝜶 𝟐.𝟐𝟒𝟑 𝒙 𝟏𝟎−𝟒𝟏
Also Radius ,R = (𝟒𝝅𝜺𝒆 ) = (𝟒𝝅𝒙𝟖.𝟖𝟓𝟒 𝒙 𝟏𝟎−𝟏𝟐 ) = 𝟓. 𝟖𝟔𝟒 𝒙 𝟏𝟎−𝟏𝟏 𝒎
𝟎

7. The dielectric constant of Helium at 𝟎𝟎 C is [Link] density of atoms is 2.7 x

𝟏𝟎𝟐𝟓 atoms/𝒎𝟑 .Calculate the dipole moment induced in each atom when the gas is
in an electric field of 3 x 𝟏𝟎𝟒 V/m
𝑭
Ans: Given, 𝜺𝟎 = 𝟖. 𝟖𝟓𝟒 𝒙 𝟏𝟎−𝟏𝟐 𝒎𝟐 , 𝑵 = 𝟐. 𝟕 𝒙 𝟏𝟎𝟐𝟓 𝒂𝒕𝒐𝒎𝒔/𝒎𝟑 , 𝜺𝒓 = 𝟏. 𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟕𝟒, 𝜶𝒆 = ? &
R =?
𝜺𝟎 (𝜺𝒓 −𝟏) 𝟖.𝟖𝟓𝟒 𝒙 𝟏𝟎−𝟏𝟐 (𝟏.𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟕𝟒−𝟏)
Using , 𝜶𝒆 = = = 2.427 x 𝟏𝟎−𝟒𝟏 F𝒎𝟐
𝑵 𝟐.𝟕 𝒙 𝟏𝟎𝟐𝟓

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Dielectric constant, 𝜺𝒓 = 𝜶𝒆 𝑬 = 2.427 x 𝟏𝟎−𝟒𝟏 𝒙 3 x 𝟏𝟎𝟒 = 7.281 x 𝟏𝟎−𝟑𝟕 Cm

8. Find the polarization produced in a crystal by an electric Field of 500 V/mm if it has
a dielectric constant of 5 ?
Ans: Given E = 𝟓𝟎𝟎 𝑽/𝒎𝒎 = 500 x 𝟏𝟎𝟑 V/m , 𝜺𝒓 = 𝟓 , 𝜺𝟎 = 𝟖. 𝟖𝟓𝟒 x 𝟏𝟎−𝟏𝟐 F/𝒎𝟐 , 𝑷 = ?
Using P = 𝜺𝟎 (𝜺𝒓 − 𝟏)𝑬
= 𝟖. 𝟖𝟓𝟒 𝒙 𝟏𝟎−𝟏𝟐 (𝟓 − 𝟏)𝟓𝟎𝟎 x 𝟏𝟎𝟑
= 1.771 x 𝟏𝟎−𝟓 C/𝒎𝟐
9. A solid contains 𝟓 𝒙 𝟏𝟎𝟐𝟖 𝒊𝒅𝒆𝒏𝒕𝒊𝒄𝒂𝒍 𝒂𝒕𝒐𝒎𝒔/𝒎𝟑 ,each with a polarizability of 2 x
𝟏𝟎−𝟒𝟎 F𝒎𝟐 .Assuming that the internal field is given by the Lorentz relation.
Calculate the ratio of the internal field to the applied field.
𝑭 𝑬𝒊
Ans: Given 𝜶𝒆 = 2 x 𝟏𝟎−𝟒𝟎 F𝒎𝟐 , 𝜺𝟎 = 𝟖. 𝟖𝟓𝟒 𝒙 𝟏𝟎−𝟏𝟐 𝒎𝟐 , 𝑵 = 𝟓 𝒙 𝟏𝟎𝟐𝟖 𝒂𝒕𝒐𝒎𝒔/𝒎𝟑 , =?
𝑬
𝑷
Using 𝑬𝒊 = 𝑬 + 𝟑𝜺 and P = N𝜶𝒆 𝑬𝒊
𝟎
𝑬𝒊 𝟏 𝟏
𝒘𝒆 𝒈𝒆𝒕, = 𝑵𝜶𝒆 = 𝟓 𝒙 𝟏𝟎𝟐𝟖 𝒙𝟐 𝒙 𝟏𝟎−𝟒𝟎
= 1.6038
𝑬 𝟏− 𝟏−
𝟑𝜺𝟎 𝟑𝒙 𝟖.𝟖𝟓𝟒 𝒙 𝟏𝟎−𝟏𝟐

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