CICLO DE LICENCIATURA EN INGLÉS
TALLER DE COMPETENCIAS ACADÉMICAS
Dra. Ma. De las Mercedes Luciani
Lic. Adriana Díaz
Lic. Viviana Regodesebes
Universidad Nacional del Litoral Ciudad Universitaria. Paraje El Pozo
Facultad de Humanidades y Ciencias S3000ZAA Santa Fe.
Tel: (0342) 457 5105
Research is a combination of both experience and reasoning and must be regarded
as the most successful approach to the discovery of truth, particularly as far as the
natural sciences are concerned.” (Borg, 1963)
DISCOVERY OF TRUTH
The researcher aims at discovering the truth. There are two different conceptions
underlying the nature of research, which derive from two different conceptions of
social reality:
a) The established, traditional view holds that the social sciences are essentially the
same as the natural sciences and are therefore concerned with discovering natural
and universal laws regulating and determining individual and social behaviour
b) the interpretive view, however, while sharing the rigour of the natural sciences
and the same concern of traditional social science to describe and explain human
behaviour, emphasizes how people differ from inanimate natural phenomena and,
indeed, from each other.
The social sciences should be the same as the natural sciences:
o concern for discovery of universal laws,
o Based on experimental methodologies.
The social sciences should adhere to interpretive views:
o Emphasis on the diversity of human experience.
These views of social science represent strikingly different ways of looking at social
reality and are constructed on correspondingly different ways of interpreting it. We
will briefly examine the explicit and implicit assumptions underpinning them. Our
analysis is based on the work of Burrell and Morgan (1979), who identified four sets
of such assumptions: the ontological, epistemological, human and methodological
assumptions underlying two ways of conceiving social reality. We can observe the
two contrastive perspectives in the practices of researchers investigating human
behaviour (including language).
1. Ontological assumptions: assumptions which concern the very nature or
essence of the social phenomena being investigated. Questions: is social reality
external to individuals – imposing itself on their consciousness from without – or is
Universidad Nacional del Litoral Ciudad Universitaria. Paraje El Pozo
Facultad de Humanidades y Ciencias S3000ZAA Santa Fe.
Tel: (0342) 457 5105
it the product of individual consciousness? Is reality of an objective nature, or the
result of individual cognition? Is it a given ‘out there’ in the world, or is it created
by one’s own mind?
The nominalist view holds that objects of thought are merely words and that there
is no independently accessible thing constituting the meaning of a word. The realist
position, however, contends that objects have an independent existence and are
not dependent for it on the knower.
As a researcher, one may adopt differing ontological perspectives, or ways of
viewing social reality. On the one hand, this might involve adopting the belief that
the world of social interactions exists independently of what one perceives it to be,
it is a rational, external entity and responsive to scientific and positivist modes of
inquiry. This tradition has informed the ontological foundations of research for some
time, particularly in the domain of the physical sciences (Bitter-Davis & Parker,
1997; Gallagher, 2008). Alternatively, as researcher, one may view social reality as
being co-constructed by individuals who interact and make meaning of their world
in an active way, and as researcher, one can approach the search for truth in
people’s lived experiences through rigorous interpretation (Graue&Walsh, 1998;
Byrne-Armstrong et al, 2001). As Pring argues (2000a, p. 90), both of these ways
of coming to the research are informed by historical, cultural and philosophical
backgrounds which have to be addressed explicitly. Without such an examination,
as researcher, one may not become aware of the philosophical premises on which
arguments are based to justify one’s research processes and findings.
2. Epistemological assumptions concern the very bases of knowledge – its
nature and forms, how it can be acquired, and how communicated to other human
beings. A positivist view will uphold that knowledge is hard, objective and tangible
and will demand of researchers an observer role, together with an allegiance to the
methods of natural science. An anti-positivist view will see knowledge as personal,
subjective and unique, and will impose on researchers an involvement with their
subjects and a rejection of the ways of the natural scientist. Epistemology is about
issues having to do with the creation and dissemination of knowledge in particular
areas of inquiry.’
3. Human nature assumptions and, in particular, the relationship between
human beings and their environment. Two images of human beings emerge from
such assumptions: Determinism portrays them as responding mechanically and
deterministically to their environment, i.e. as products of the environment,
Universidad Nacional del Litoral Ciudad Universitaria. Paraje El Pozo
Facultad de Humanidades y Ciencias S3000ZAA Santa Fe.
Tel: (0342) 457 5105
controlled like puppets. Voluntarism sees them as initiators of their own actions
with free will and creativity, producing their own environments.
4. The three sets of assumptions identified above have direct implications for the
methodological concerns of researchers. Investigators adopting an objectivist (or
positivist) approach to the social world and who treat it like the world of natural
phenomena as being hard, real and external to the individual will choose from a
range of traditional options – surveys, experiments, and the like. Others favouring
the more subjectivist (or antipositivist) approach and who view the social world as
being of a much softer, personal and humanly created kind will select from a
comparable range of recent and emerging techniques – accounts, participant
observation and personal constructs, for example.
Where one subscribes to the view that treats the social world like the natural world
– as if it were a hard, external and objective reality – then scientific investigation
will be directed at analysing the relationships and regularities between selected
factors in that world. It will be predominantly quantitative and will be concerned
with identifying and defining elements and discovering ways in which their
relationships can be expressed.
However, if one favours the view of social reality which stresses the importance of
the subjective experience of individuals in the creation of the social world, then the
search for understanding focuses upon different issues and approaches them in
different ways. The principal concern is with an understanding of the way in which
the individual creates, modifies and interprets the world in which he or she finds
himself or herself. The approach now takes on a qualitative as well as quantitative
aspect. As Burrell and Morgan (1979) and Kirk and Miller (1986, p. 14) observe,
emphasis here is placed on explanation and understanding of the unique and the
particular individual case rather than the general and the universal; the interest is
in a subjective, relativistic social world rather than an absolutist, external reality.
This could be described as an idiographic approach.
The ontological, epistemological and human nature assumptions relate directly to
the conception of truth that the researcher upholds: Is it negotiable or external?
Universidad Nacional del Litoral Ciudad Universitaria. Paraje El Pozo
Facultad de Humanidades y Ciencias S3000ZAA Santa Fe.
Tel: (0342) 457 5105
TRUTH
Truth depends on Negotiable External Researcher observes
and varies according from the outside. His
to the historical function is to uncover
context within which the existing truth.
a phenomenon is
observed and
interpreted.
Naturalisticecological Qualitative- Positivism
hypothesis phenomenologicalhypot Hardsciences
hesis
Generativism
No phenomenon can My interpretation of the
be studied isolated data will always be
from the context in affected by my beliefs
which it occurs. E.g. and experience
learner talk:
recorded in the
classroom
Universidad Nacional del Litoral Ciudad Universitaria. Paraje El Pozo
Facultad de Humanidades y Ciencias S3000ZAA Santa Fe.
Tel: (0342) 457 5105
The figure below summarises the assumptions along a subjective – objective
dimension.
Negotiable ASSUMPTIONS External
N O
Nominalism Ontology Realism
Objects of thought are Refers to the nature of object of Objects have an
merely words and study. The principles underlying independent existence and
there is no its existence. Is it external or are not dependant for it on
independent thing negotiable? the knower.
constituting the This gives rise to the nominalist
meaning of a word. – realist debate in philosophy
Objects exist because
of the language. They
do not have an
independent existence
A E
Anti –positivism Epistemology Positivism
Knowledge is Refers to how knowledge is Knowledge is hard,
subjective; it can be acquired or perceives and objective, tangible
constructed. passed on to others. Demands of the researcher
Soft research, How one align oneself in this and observer role.
qualitative, particular debate profoundly Hard sciences, sometimes
interpretative. affects how one will go about called pure research.
Researcher is involved uncovering knowledge of social
with the subjects. behaviour.
V H
Voluntarism HumanNature Determinism
Man is the initiator of is Refers to the relationship Man responds mechanically
own actions. He has a between human beings and to the environment. He is
creative role; he is the their environment. Man is both conditioned by the
creator or controller of subject and object of study. environment
his environment. Two images of human beings
The individual shapes emerge from this assumption.
the context There are two extremes, but
most social scientists adopt a
position in the midst.
I M
Idiographic: Methodology Nomothetic
Refers to the The previous three sets of Refers to hard research
intervention of the assumption determine the view (science, maths, lab
researcher. Uses adopted as to methodology research) whose aim is to
accounts, participant uncover the rules that
observation. govern the world. It is
normative research, based
on experiments.
Universidad Nacional del Litoral Ciudad Universitaria. Paraje El Pozo
Facultad de Humanidades y Ciencias S3000ZAA Santa Fe.
Tel: (0342) 457 5105
To sum up, and as a convenient summary of terms to bear in mind in social science
research (which includes educational research), two paradigms or models can be
used: Normative model vs Interpretative model.
Dimensions for Subjectivist Conception of Social Objectivist Conception of Social
comparison Reality: Interpretative model Reality: Normative model
Philosophical Idealism: the world exists but Realism: the world exists and is
basis different people can construe it in knowable as it really is.
different ways. Organizations are Organizations are real entities with a
invented social reality. life of their own.
Truth Negotiable – Anti-Positivist view External - Positivist
The role of Concerned with the individual. Aims Assumptions: Human behaviour is
social science to understand the subjective world rule governed.
of human experience. It should be investigated by methods
Aims to understand the individual. of natural science.
Aims to understand Society and
social system
Concept of It focuses on action, on intentional It refers to responses to external
behaviour behaviour (Why does x do y?) It environmental stimuli or to internal
focuses on human actions stimuli (hunger, for e.g.) so it
continuously recreating social life. studies impersonal & anonymous
forces regulating behaviour.
Object of study Focuses on micro-concepts: Focuses on macro-concepts: society,
individual perspective, personal institutions, norms, positions, roles.
constructs, negotiated meanings,
definitions of situations.
Research The search for meaningful Experimental or quasi-experimental
relationships and the discovery of validation of theory.
their consequences for action. Explaining behaviours / seeking
Understanding actions / meanings sources
rather the causes
Methodology It’s non-statistical - Subjective – Uses model of natural sciences -
Personal involvement of the Objective - Research is conducted
researcher from the outside.
Interpretation of the specific Generalising from the specific
Approaches Qualitative: Phenomenologists, Structuralists
symbolic interactionists,
ethnomethodologists
A Third paradigm: Critical theory and critical educational research:
An emerging approach to educational research is the paradigm of critical
educational research. This model considers that the two previous paradigms are
Universidad Nacional del Litoral Ciudad Universitaria. Paraje El Pozo
Facultad de Humanidades y Ciencias S3000ZAA Santa Fe.
Tel: (0342) 457 5105
incomplete in that their accounts of social behaviour do not include political and
ideological contexts of educational research. The paradigm of critical educational
research is heavily influenced by the early work of Habermas (1984). Here the
expressed intention is political: the emancipation of individuals and groups in an
egalitarian society.
Critical theory’s intention is not solely to present and understand social behaviour,
but to change them to accomplish a fairer and more egalitarian society. In
particular it seeks to emancipate the disempowered, to redress inequality and to
promote individual freedoms within a democratic society. Critical theory analyses
situations to bring to light the vested interests at work and to question the
legitimacy of those interests. Its intention is transformative: to transform society
and individuals to social democracy. In this respect the purpose of critical
educational research is intensely practical.
A fourth paradigm: Complexity theory
An emerging fourth paradigm in educational research is that of complexity theory
(Morrison 2002a). It aims to take a more ‘holistic’ view of the world; to break away
of the cause-and-effect model. It studies relations within interconnected networks.
The key terms are feedback, recursion, emergence, connectedness and self-
organization. They leave aside concepts such as linear causality, the ability to
predict, control and manipulate, and take up notions such as networks and
connection, and self-organization. Complexity theory suggests that to separate
phenomena into a restricted number of variables and then to focus only on certain
factors is to miss the necessary dynamic interaction of several parts. More
fundamentally, complexity theory suggests that the conventional units of analysis
in educational research (as in other fields) should move away from, for example,
individuals, institutions, communities and systems (cf. Lemke, 2001). “These
should merge, so that the unit of analysis becomes a web or ecosystem.” (Capra
1996, p. 301).
As a holistic approach, complexity theory makes use of case study methodology,
action research, and participatory forms of research, based on interactionist,
qualitative accounts, i.e. looking at situations through the eyes of as many
participants or stakeholders as possible. This enables multiple causality, multiple
perspectives and multiple effects to be charted. Self-organization leads to
participatory, collaborative and multi-perspectival approaches to educational
research, bring together internal and external researchers and research
partnerships.
Universidad Nacional del Litoral Ciudad Universitaria. Paraje El Pozo
Facultad de Humanidades y Ciencias S3000ZAA Santa Fe.
Tel: (0342) 457 5105
