G D GOENKA PUBLIC SCHOOL

PHYSICS: CLASS 12 TH
TOPIC: CURRENT ELECTRICITY
ELECTRIC CURRENT:
The time rate of flow of charge through any cross section of a conductor is the measure of current.
total c h arge flowing
Electric Current=
time taken
∆ q dq
I = lim =
∆ t →0 ∆ t dt
Current is a scalar quantity.
1 coulomb −1
Its SI unit is Ampere, where 1 Ampere= =1 C s
1 second
Thus the current through a wire is said to be 1A, if 1C of charge is flowing per second through a section of the
wire.
ELECTROMOTIVE FORCE:
The external force which makes the current carriers to move in a definite direction is called electromotive force
(emf).
EMF of a cell is defined as the maximum potential difference between the two electrodes of a cell when no
current is drawn from the cell.
Also ε =∮ ⃗ E.⃗ dl
Where E is the electric field.
SI unit of emf is Volt or Joule/coulomb.
DRIFT VELOCITY:
The drift velocity is defined as the average velocity with which the free electrons get drifted towards the
positive end of the conductor under the influence of an external electric field applied.
If V is the potential difference applied across the conductor of length l, then
E=V /l
Force on each electron, ⃗
F =−e ⃗ E
Then acceleration on each electron, ⃗
a⃗ =−e E /m ……………(1)
At any instant of time, the velocity acquired by an electron having initial thermal velocity,
⃗v 1=⃗u1+ ⃗a τ 1
τ
Where 1 is the time elapsed since it has suffered the last collision. Similarly for other electrons,
⃗v 2=⃗u2 +⃗a τ 2
⃗v 3=⃗u3 +⃗a τ 3
The average velocity of all electrons is the drift velocity of these electrons.
⃗v 1 + ⃗v 2+ ⃗v 3 +… ⃗v n (⃗u ¿ ¿ 2+ ⃗a τ 2)+(⃗u3 +⃗a τ 3 )+…
⃗v d= =(⃗u1 +⃗a τ 1)+ ¿
n n

Or ⃗v d= ( ⃗u + ⃗u +n⃗u + … )+ ⃗a( τ +τ +nτ + … ) ……………………..(2)

1 2 3 1 2 3

But the average thermal velocity of electrons is

(⃗u1 +⃗u2 +⃗u3 +…

n
=0 )
Hence, ⃗v d=⃗a τ ………………………….(3)

Where (τ + τ + τ +…
τ= 1 2 3
n )
=relaxation time
(time that has elapsed since each electron suffered its last collision, is called relaxation time)
From 1 and 3, we get;
 Average velocity,
−e ⃗
Eτ
⃗v d=
m ……………….(4)

Average speed,
eEτ
v d=
m …..……………….(5)

 In metals, the number density of free electrons is about 1029 m-3

 The drift velocity of electrons is of the order of 10-4 m/s
 The value of relaxation time is of the order of 10-14 sec.

MOBILITY:
Mobility of a charge is defined as the magnitude of drift velocity of charge per unit electric field.
v d qEτ /m qτ
μ= = =
E E m
-1 -1
Its SI unit is ms N C.
RELATION BETWEEN CURRENT AND DRIFT VELOCITY:
If n is the number of electrons per unit volume of the conductor, then total number of free electrons in
conductor = Aln. Total charge in conductor will be, q=Alne.

l
Time taken by the free electrons to cross the conductor t=
vd
q Alne
Hence current, I = = ∨I = Ane v d
t l/v d

As v d=μ E , I = Ane μ E
Putting the value of vd,
2
An e τE
I=
m
OHM’S LAW:
Ohm’s law states that the current flowing through a conductor is directly proportional to the potential difference
across the ends of the conductor, provided physical conditions (temperature, strain etc.) are kept constant.
I ∝ V ∨V ∝ I
Or
V =IR
Where R is a constant and known as resistance of the conductor.
Deduction of Ohm’s law:
eEτ
We know that, v d= ………………. (1)
m
But E=V /l
eVτ
∴ v d= …………………..(2)
ml
Also I = Ane v d

( )( )
2
eV An e τ
∴ I = Ane τ = V ……………(3)
ml ml

Or
V
I
=
(
ml
2
Ane τ )
=R=a constant

This is Ohm’s law.

RESISTANCE:
The resistance is the property of a material, by virtue if which, it provides obstruction to the flow of current
through it. It is defined as the ratio of the potential difference across the conductor to the current through the
conductor.
V
R=
I
1V
SI unit of resistance is ohm (Ω), where 1 Ω=
1A
The resistance of a conductor is 1 Ω, if 1A current flows through the conductor, when a potential difference of
1V is applied across the conductor.
Dimensions : [M1L2T-3A-2]

RESISTIVITY:
The resistance of a conductor depends on following Factors;
1. Length of the conductor, i.e. R ∝l ……….(1)
2. Area of cross section of conductor, i.e. R ∝1/ A ……(2)
3. The nature of material and temperature of conductor. From above two equations, we get
l
R∝
A
¿
l
R=ρ --------------(3)
A
Where ρ is the resistivity or specific resistance of the conductor.
If l = 1, A = 1, then from (3); R=ρ
Thus specific resistance of a conductor is defined as the resistance offered by a wire of unit length and unit area
of cross section. SI unit is Ωm.
A
ρ=R
l
 As
V
R= =
I (ml
2
An e τ
=
)( )
m
2
ne τ
×
l
A
l
And also R=ρ
A
∴ ρ=
( )
m
2
ne τ
CURRENT DENSITY:
It is the amount of current flowing per unit cross section area of conductor .
I Ane v d
J= =
A A
Or
J=ne v d
Current density is a vector quantity, and its SI unit is Ampere/m2.
I =∫ ⃗J . ⃗
ds

CONDUCTANCE:
The inverse of resistance is called conductance. Its unit is mho or siemen or ohm-1.
1
G=
R

ELECTRICAL CONDUCTIVITY:
The inverse of resistivity is called conductivity. Its unit is mho-m-1 or siemen-m-1.

( )
2
1 ne τ
σ= =
ρ m
RELATION BETWEEN J , σ AND E:
2
An e τE
We know that, I=
m
2
I ne τ
Or J= = E
A m
1
Or J= E
ρ
∴ J=σE
EFFECT OF TEMPERATURE ON RESISTANCE:
The resistance of all pure metals increases linearly with increase in temperature over a limited temperature
range. With increasing temperature, the vibration in ions of metals about their mean position also increases.
That decreases the number of collisions. Due to this, the relaxation time also decreases. As we know that,
1
ρ∝
τ
The resistivity and hence the resistance also decreases.
Consider a conductor having resistance Ro at 0°C and Rt at t°C. The change in the resistance i.e. (Rt – Ro) is
1. Directly proportional to the initial resistance Ro
2. Directly proportional to the rise in temperature t°C.
3. Depends on the nature of the material for conductor metals and alloy.
Hence
 Rt −R0 ∝ R 0 t
Rt −R0 =α 0 R0 t
Rt =R0 (1+ α 0 t)
Where α 0 is constant and called as the temperature coefficient of resistance at 0°C and its value depends upon
the nature of material and temperature.

Important:
 The value of α is different at different temperature. Temperature coefficient of resistance averaged over
the temperature range t1oC to t2oC is given by,
R 2−R1
α=
R1 (t 2−t 1 )
 Temperature coefficient for metals is positive.
 Temperature coefficient for semiconductors is negative.

(for metals) (for Nichrome / Manganin / Constantan)

COLOUR CODE FOR CARBON RESISTORS:

RESISTANCES IN SERIES:
In series combination of resistances, the current through each resistance remains same.
According to Ohm’s law,
V 1=I R 1 , V 2=I R2 , V 3 =I R3
Here, by Kirchhoff’s voltage law, V =V 1+V 2+V 3
¿ I R1 + I R 2+ I R3
¿ I (R1 + R2 + R3 )………………….(1)
If R s is the equivalent resistance of the given circuit, then,
V =I Rs ……………………………….(2)
By comparing equation no. 1 and 2, we get,
R s=R1 + R2 + R3
RESISTANCES IN PARALLEL:

In parallel combination of resistances, the potential difference across each resistance remains same and is equal
to the applied potential difference.
Here, by Kirchhoff’s current law, I =I 1+ I 2 + I 3 ……………………….(1)
As the potential difference across each resistor is same, therefore,
V =I 1 R 1=I 2 R2=I 3 R 3
Or
V V V
I 1= , I 2= , I 3= …………………..(2)
R1 R2 R3
By replacing above values in equation no. 1, we get,
V V V
I= + +
R 1 R2 R3

Or (
I =V
)
1 1 1
+ +
R1 R2 R 3
………………….(3)

If R p is the equivalent resistance of the given circuit, then,

V
I = ………………….…………….(4)
Rp
By comparing eqn. 3 and 4, we get,
 1 1 1 1
= + +
R p R 1 R 2 R3
INTERNAL RESISTANCE AND TERMINAL POTENTIAL DIFFERENCE OF A CELL:
Internal resistance of a cell is defined as the resistance offered by a electrolyte and electrodes of a cell when the
electric current flows through it.
Internal resistance depends on;
a. The distance between the electrodes
b. The nature of the electrolyte
c. The nature of the electrodes
d. Area of the electrodes, immersed in the electrolyte.

Consider a cell with internal resistance r, is connected with an external resistance R through a key. When key is
closed, the current through the circuit is,
ε
I= ………………(1)
R +r
The potential difference across the terminals of the cell is called terminal potential difference and is given by,
V = ( ε−Ir )………………(2)
Also, from the circuit,
V =IR ………………….....(3)
From 1 and 3, we get
V=( )R+r
ε
R ………………(4)
From eqn 2, we have
r=
ε−V
I (=
ε−V
V ) × R ……(5)

Note: During charging of cell, the terminal potential difference is given by,
V = ( ε + Ir )
Hence terminal potential difference becomes greater than the emf of the cell.

DISTINCTION BETWEEN EMF AND POTENTIAL DIFFERENCE:

EMF OF CELL POTENTIAL DIFFERENCE

1. The emf of the cell is the maximum potential 1. The potential difference between two points is
difference between the two electrodes of a cell, the difference of potential between those two
when the cell is in the open circuit. points in a close circuit.
2. It is independent of the resistance of the circuit 2. It depends upon the resistance between the two
and depends upon the nature of electrodes and points of the circuit and current flowing
the nature of electrolyte of the cell. through the circuit.
3. The term emf is used for the source of the 3. The potential difference is measured between
electrical current. any two points of the electric circuit.
4. It is a cause. 4. It is an effect.
Two cells in series:

From the figure, the terminal potential difference across first cell is,
V AB=V 1=( ε 1 −I r 1 ) ….. (1)
The terminal potential difference across 2nd cell is,
V BC =V 2=( ε 2−I r 2 ) ….. (2)
The total terminal potential difference across points A and C,
V AC =V =V 1+ V 2 .
Or .
V = ( ε 1−I r 1 ) + ( ε 2−I r 2 ) .
⟹ V =( ε 1 +ε 2 ) −( I r 1 + I r 2) .
⟹ V =( ε 1 +ε 2 ) −I (r 1+ r 2) ………………. (3)
Now the terminal potential difference for equivalent circuit,
V = ( ε eq −I r eq ) ……………………...…(4)
By comparing eqn 3 and 4 we get,
ε eq=( ε 1 +ε 2 )
And r eq =(r ¿ ¿ 1+r 2)¿
For n number of cells connected in series,
ε eq=( ε 1 +ε 2 +… ε n )
And r eq =(r ¿ ¿ 1+r 2 +… r n )¿
Note: if two cells are connected in series in opposite manner, then
ε eq=( ε 1−ε 2 )
And r eq =(r ¿ ¿ 1+r 2)¿
Two cells in parallel:

In parallel connection, the potential difference across all branches remains same, but current divides.
From the circuit, I =( I 1+ I 2 ) ……………….(1)
For first cell, V =( V B −V B ) =( ε 1−I 1 r 1 )
1 2

ε 1−V
Or I 1= ………………(2)
r1
For second cell, V =( V B −V B ) =( ε 2−I 2 r 2 )
1 2

ε 2−V
Or I 2= ………………(3)
r2
From eqns. 1,2 and 3, we get
ε 1−V ε 2−V
I= +
r1 r2
 I=
) (
ε1 ε2
+ −V
r1 r2 ( 1 1
+
r1 r2 )
( )( )
1 1 ε1 ε2
I+V + = +
r1 r2 r1 r 2

( )
ε1 ε2
+

( ))
r1 r2 1
V= −I ………………..(4)
+
(
1 1
r1 r2
1 1
+
r1 r 2 ) (
For equivalent circuit, V = ( ε eq −I r eq ) ……………………...…(5)
By comparing 4 and 5, we get,

ε eq=
ε1 ε2
+
r 1 r2 ( )
1 1
+
r1 r2 ( )
1
¿ r eq =
1 1
+
r1 r2 ( )
r1 r2
r eq =
Or ( r 1 +r 2 )
And
ε1 ε2
(
ε eq= + r eq
r1 r 2 )
Or
= +
(
ε eq ε 1 ε 2
r eq r 1 r 2 )
In general,
1
( 1 1
= + +…
r eq r 1 r 2
1
rn )
(
ε eq ε 1 ε 2
= + +…
r eq r 1 r 2
εn
rn )
GROUPING OF A NUMBER OF IDENTICAL CELLS:

A. Cells in series;
For n identical cells in series,
 ε eq= ( ε +ε + … ε )=nε
And r eq =r +r + … r=nr
Hence
ε eq nε
I= =
R +r eq R+nr
B. Cells in parallel;
For m identical cells in parallel,

1
( 1 1
= + +… =
r eq r r
1 m
r r )
r
Or r eq =
m

( ε ε
And ε eq= + + … r eq
r r
ε
r)
ε r
ε eq=m× ×
r m
Or ε eq=ε
Hence
ε eq ε mε
I= = =
R +r eq r mR +r
R+
m

C. Mixed Grouping;
 As from the figure, ε eq=n ε

nr
And r eq =
m

Hence

ε eq nε mnε
I= = =
R +r eq nr mR + nr
R+
m
And I will be maximum, if

nr
R=
m

KIRCHHOFF’S LAWS:

1. KIRCHHOFF’S CURRENT LAW:

“In an electric circuit, the sum of currents entering a junction is equal to the sum of currents leaving
that junction.” (Based on law of conservation of charges)
I 1+ I 4 + I 5=I 2 + I 3

1. KIRCHHOFF’S VOLTAGE LAW:

Around any closed loop of a network, the algebraic sum of all voltages must be zero. Or the algebraic sum of
all emfs in a loop is equal to the sum of the products of currents and resistances in it. (Based on law of
conservation of energy)

Σ △ V =0∨Σ ε =Σ IR