Biostatistics Outline Notes
1. Introduction to Biostatistics
Definition: Application of statistical methods to biological, medical, and health sciences.
Purpose:
o Summarize data.
o Make inferences about populations.
o Guide decision-making in healthcare & research.
2. Types of Data
Qualitative (Categorical)
o Nominal (no order: e.g., blood group, gender).
o Ordinal (ordered: e.g., disease stage).
Quantitative (Numerical)
o Discrete (countable: e.g., number of patients).
o Continuous (measurable: e.g., height, blood pressure).
Scales of Measurement
o Nominal, Ordinal, Interval, Ratio.
3. Data Presentation
Tabular: Frequency tables.
Graphical:
o Bar chart (categorical data).
o Histogram (continuous data).
o Pie chart (proportions).
o Frequency polygon.
o Stem-and-leaf plot.
4. Descriptive Statistics
Measures of Central Tendency:
o Mean, Median, Mode.
Measures of Dispersion (Variability):
o Range, Variance, Standard Deviation, Coefficient of Variation.
Shape of Distribution:
o Skewness (left/right skew).
o Kurtosis (peakedness).
5. Probability Concepts
Definition: Likelihood of an event occurring.
Probability Rules:
o P(A)=Favorable outcomesTotal outcomesP(A) = \frac{\text{Favorable outcomes}}{\
text{Total outcomes}}.
o Addition rule: P(A∪B)=P(A)+P(B)−P(A∩B)P(A \cup B) = P(A) + P(B) - P(A \cap B).
o Multiplication rule: P(A∩B)=P(A)⋅P(B)P(A \cap B) = P(A) \cdot P(B) (if independent).
Probability Distributions:
o Binomial Distribution (discrete).
o Poisson Distribution (rare events).
o Normal Distribution (continuous, bell-shaped).
6. Sampling Methods
Probability Sampling: Simple random, stratified, cluster, systematic.
Non-probability Sampling: Convenience, purposive, quota.
Sample Size Determination: Ensures reliable estimates.
7. Inferential Statistics
Goal: Make conclusions about a population from sample data.
(a) Estimation
Point Estimate (single value).
Interval Estimate (confidence interval).
(b) Hypothesis Testing
Steps:
1. State null (H₀) and alternative (H₁).
2. Choose significance level (α, usually 0.05).
3. Select test statistic.
4. Decision rule (compare p-value with α).
5. Conclusion.
Errors:
o Type I Error (rejecting true H₀).
o Type II Error (failing to reject false H₀).
8. Common Statistical Tests
t-test: Compare means.
o One-sample t-test.
o Independent samples t-test.
o Paired t-test.
Chi-square test (χ²): Compare proportions, test independence.
ANOVA (Analysis of Variance): Compare means of 3+ groups.
Correlation (r): Strength & direction of linear relationship (-1 to +1).
Regression: Predict dependent variable (Y) from independent (X).
Non-parametric Tests: Mann-Whitney U, Wilcoxon signed-rank, Kruskal-Wallis.
9. Regression & Correlation
Correlation (r): Measures association (not causation).
Simple Linear Regression:
o Equation: Y=β0+β1X+ϵY = \beta_0 + \beta_1X + \epsilon.
o β0\beta_0 = intercept, β1\beta_1 = slope.
Multiple Regression: More than one predictor variable.
Assumptions: Linearity, independence, homoscedasticity, normality.
10. Epidemiological Measures
Rates & Ratios:
o Incidence rate.
o Prevalence rate.
o Mortality rate.
Risk Measures:
o Relative Risk (RR).
o Odds Ratio (OR).
o Attributable Risk (AR).
11. Survival Analysis
Time-to-event data.
Methods: Kaplan-Meier curve, Cox proportional hazards model.
12. Ethics in Biostatistics
Accuracy & honesty in data analysis.
Avoid data manipulation.
Protect participant confidentiality.
📌 Summary:
Biostatistics involves collecting, analyzing, interpreting, and presenting health-related data. It combines
descriptive methods (summarizing data) and inferential methods (making predictions & decisions).
