Chapter Two

Presentation of a Statistical Data

1. Introduction
2. Organizing Data
3. Histograms, Frequency Polygons, and Ogives
4. Other Types of Graphs
 Chapter Two
Presentation of a Statistical Data

1. Introduction
• Gathering data for a particular variable under study is the primary
task for presenting the data.
• The data must be organized in some meaningful way. The most
convenient method of organizing data is to construct a frequency
distribution.
• Then data must be presented to be understood by those who will
benefit from reading the study.
• The most useful method of presenting the data is by constructing
statistical charts and graphs.
2. Organizing Data
• Information can be obtained from looking at raw data (Table 1), the
data to be more understandable, they should be organized. One of the
comment statistic methods are using so called frequency distribution
(Table 2).
• A frequency distribution is the organization of raw data in a table form,
using classes and frequencies.
Table 2: Frequency distribution table.
Table 1: Raw data .

Classes Frequencies
 Grouped Frequency Distributions or Frequency Distributions Table
When the range of the data is large or huge, the data must be grouped
into classes with the frequency of each class as shown in Table 2.
 Procedure for Constructing the Frequency Distribution Table
There are some concepts need to be explained as shown in the following
distribution frequency table (Table 3).
• The values of the first class are called class limits such as (24-30). The lower
class limit (24) represents the smallest data value that can be included in the
class. The upper class limit (30) represents the largest data value that can be
included in the class. Table 3: Frequency distribution table.
• The numbers in the second
column are called class
boundaries. These numbers
are used to separate the
classes so that there are no
gaps in the frequency
distribution.
Note: The class limits should have the same decimal place value as the data, but
the class boundaries should have one additional place value and end in a 5.
For example: the boundaries limits for the classes (31–37) & (7.8–8.8), are:
Lower limit -0.5 = 31 - 0.5 = 30.5 lower boundary
Upper limit + 0.5 = 37 + 0.5 = 37.5 upper boundary
Lower limit -0.05 = 7.8 - 0.05 = 7.75 lower boundary
Upper limit +0.05 = 8.8 + 0.05 = 8.85 upper boundary
• Class width (Cw) is the range between upper and lower limit of the same
class.
Cw = the lower (or upper) class limit of one class - the lower (or upper) class
limit of the next class.
For example: the class width of Table 3 is:
31-24 = 7 OR 37-30 = 7 OR 23.5-30.5 = 7 OR 37.5-30.5 = 7
• Number of classes are between 5 and 20 classes.
• The class midpoint Xm is
𝒍𝒐𝒘𝒆𝒓 𝒃𝒐𝒖𝒏𝒅𝒂𝒓𝒚+𝒖𝒑𝒑𝒆𝒓 𝒃𝒐𝒖𝒏𝒅𝒂𝒓𝒚 Example:
𝑿 =
𝒎 𝟐
𝒍𝒐𝒘𝒆𝒓 𝒍𝒊𝒎𝒊𝒕+𝒖𝒑𝒑𝒆𝒓 𝒍𝒊𝒎𝒊𝒕
OR 𝑿𝒎 =
𝟐
Example 1: These data represent the record high temperatures in degrees
Fahrenheit (F) for each of the
50 states. Construct a grouped
Frequency distribution for the
data using 7 classes.
Solution:
1. Find the highest value and lowest value: H = 134 and L = 100.
2. Find the range: R = highest value - lowest value = H – L; R = 134 – 100 = 34
3. Select the number of classes (5-20); n = 7.
𝑹 𝟑𝟒
4. Find the class width; 𝑪𝒘 = = = 4.9 ≈ 5 OR 4.0
𝒏 𝟕
5. Select a starting point for the lowest class limit = lowest value or less
(100 or 99).
6. Determine the lower limits of the other class = Lower limit + 𝑪𝒘 = 100 + 5 =
105, 110, 115, etc.
7. Determine the Upper limits of the first class =
lower limit (2nd class) – 1 (one unit) = 105-1=104
8. Determine the upper limits of the other class = lower limit + 𝑪𝒘 = 104 + 5 =
109, 114, 119, etc.
9. Find the class boundaries: by subtracting 0.5 from each lower class limit
and adding 0.5 to each upper class limit: First class : 99.5–104.5, second
class: 104.5–109.5, etc.
10. Tally the data.
11. Find the numerical frequencies from the tallies.
Table 4: Frequency distribution table.

OK.
12.Further Calculations:
 The cumulative frequency distribution: It is a distribution that shows the
number of data values less or higher than or equal to a specific value
(usually an upper or lower boundary).
 Ascending cumulative frequency (Less than X)
Ex: Less than 99.5 = 0
Less than 104.5 = 0 + 2 = 2
Less than 19.5 = 0+2+8+18+13 = 31

The cumulative
frequency Table 5: Ascending
cumulative frequency
distribution table.
Descending cumulative frequency (Greater than X)
Ex: Greater than 99.5 = 50
Greater than 104.5 = 50-2 = 48
Greater than 114.5 = 50 – 18 -8 -2 = 22
Note: Cumulative frequencies
are used to show how many
data values are accumulated
up or down to and including a Table 6 Descending
cumulative frequency
specific class. distribution table.
 Briefly
The following guides line steps can be used for constructing the frequency
distribution table:
 3. Histograms, Frequency Polygons, and Ogives

 Statistical graphs can be used to describe the data set or to analyze it.
 The purposes of using graphs are:
 to discuss an issue,
 reinforce a critical point
 summarize a data
 discover the trend or pattern in a situation over a period of time.
The three most commonly used graphs are:
1. The histogram.
2. The frequency polygon.
3. The cumulative frequency graph, or ogive.

1. Histogram
The histogram is a graph that displays the data by using contiguous vertical bars
(unless the frequency of a class is 0) of various heights to represent the
frequencies of the classes.
Example:

2. Frequency Polygon
The frequency polygon is a graph that
displays the data by using lines that
connect points plotted for the
frequencies at the midpoints of the
classes. The frequencies are
represented by the heights of the
points.
3. Ogive
This type of graph is called the cumulative
frequency graph, or Ogive. The cumulative
frequency is the sum of the frequencies
accumulated up to the upper boundary of a
class in the distribution.
Example:
Construct a histogram, polygon and Ogive to
Class boundaries Frequency
represent the data shown for the record high
temperatures. 99.5-104.5 2
104.5-109.5 8
Solution
1. Find the midpoints of each class. Recall that 109.5-114.5 18
midpoints are found by adding the upper and 114.5-119.5 13
lower boundaries and dividing by 2. 119.5-124.5 7
124.5-129.5 1
129.5-134.5 1
 Class Midpoints Frequency
2. Draw and label the x and y axes. boundaries

The x axis is always the horizontal 99.5-104.5 102 2

axis, and the y axis is always the 104.5-109.5 107 8
vertical axis. 109.5-114.5 112 18
3. Using the frequencies as the 114.5-119.5 117 13
heights (Y-axes), and midpoints or 119.5-124.5 122 7
boundary limits as (X-axis). 124.5-129.5 127 1
129.5-134.5 132 1

Boundaries limits Classes midpoint

4. Find the cumulative frequency Ascending cumulative Descending cumulative
for each class. frequency frequency
Class Midpoints Frequency Less than 99.5 0 Greater than 99.5 50
boundaries
Less than 104.5 2 Greater than 104.5 48
99.5-104.5 102 2
Less than 109.5 10 Greater than 109.5 40
104.5-109.5 107 8
Less than 114.5 28 Greater than 114.5 22
109.5-114.5 112 18
114.5-119.5 117 13 Less than 119.5 41 Greater than 119.5 9
119.5-124.5 122 7 Less than 124.5 48 Greater than 124.5 2
124.5-129.5 127 1 Less than 129.5 49 Greater than 129.5 1
129.5-134.5 132 1 Less than 134.5 50 Greater than 134.5 0
 Briefly :
The following guides line
steps can be used for
constructing the frequency
distribution table:

4. Relative frequency
• The histogram, the frequency polygon, and the ogive shown previously were
constructed by using frequencies in terms of the raw data. These distributions
can be converted to distributions using proportions instead of raw data as
frequencies. These types of graphs are called relative frequency graphs.
• Relative frequency (Fi) can be calculated by dividing the frequency for each
class (fi) by the total of the frequencies Ʃfi. The sum of the relative frequencies
will always be 1.
𝒇𝒊
𝑭𝒊 =
𝒇𝒊
 Class Midpoints Frequency Relative Ascending Descending
boundaries frequency C.R.F. C.R.F.
99.5-104.5 102 2 0.04 0.00 1.00
104.5-109.5 107 8 0.16 0.04 0.96
109.5-114.5 112 18 0.36 0.20 0.80
114.5-119.5 117 13 0.26 0.56 0.44
119.5-124.5 122 7 0.14 0.82 0.18
124.5-129.5 127 1 0.02 0.96 0.04
129.5-134.5 132 1 0.02 0.98 0.02
1.00 0.00
Relative frequency for histogram Relative Polygon for histogram

0.98 or 98%
Examples for calculation Greater than 118 =
= 0.98 – 0.75 = 0.23
1- 0.78 = 0.25 or 25%
or 23%
Relative frequency for Less than 118 =
0.75 or 75%
118<X<128
histogram
4. Distribution Shapes The shape of a distribution determines the appropriate
statistical methods used to analyze the data.
 5. Other Types of Graphs
(b) A Pareto chart is used to
represent a frequency
distribution for a categorical
variable, and the frequencies
are displayed by the heights
of vertical bars, which are
arranged in order from
highest to lowest.

(c) Pie graph

(a) Bar graph
(c) A pie graph is a circle that
is divided into sections or
(a) A bar graph represents wedges according to the
the data by using vertical or percentage of frequencies in
horizontal bars whose each category of the
heights or lengths represent distribution.
the frequencies of the data.
(b) Pareto graph
Thank You
Any Questions?