CEMENT

INTRODUCTION
 Cement is a material which has cohesive and adhesive properties in the
presence of water.
 Cement is artificial building material used for imparting binding property
in the construction work that was being developed by JOSEPH ASPDIN
of UK in 1824.
 Cement is found to consist of Argillaceous and Calcareous compounds.

Argillaceous compounds Shale, clay, slate, ash,

(having silica, alumina, oxides in it)
blast furnace slag, marl
etc.
Calcareous compounds Limestone, chalk, marine
(having CaCO₃)
shells, alkali waste etc.

 When cement is mixed with water it forms a paste which hardens and
binds aggregates together to form a hard durable mass called concrete.
 Hydraulic cement set and harden in water and give a product which is
stable. Eg.-Portland cement.
 Non hydraulic cement does not set and harden in water such as non-
hydraulic lime or which are unstable in water, e g. Plaster of Paris.
MANUFACTURING OF CEMENT
Calcareous and argillaceous raw materials are used in the
manufacture of Portland cement. From these materials, others like lime,
silica, alumina, iron oxide and small quantities of other chemicals are
obtained.
Manufacturing of cement is carried out in following distinct
operations-
(i)mixing of raw ingredients;
(ii)Burning;
(iii)Grinding.
Manufacturing of cement can be done either by dry process or wet process.
 (1) Dry process
Calcareous materials Argillaceous materials
↓ ↓
Crushing(25mm) Crushing(25mm)
↓ Air currents ↓ Air current

Fine grinding in tube mill/ball mill Fine grinding in tube mill/ball mill
↓ ↓
Mixing of raw ingredients on corrected proportions
↓
Preheating @800 C by exhaust gases
↓
Storage of raw mix
↓
Feed to rotary kiln (1400 C-1600 C)
↓
Cement clinkers are formed (3-20mm)
↓
Fine grinding of clinkers in tube / ball mill (Add 2-3% of gypsum if required)
↓

Cement silos
 (2) Wet process
Calcareous materials Argillaceous materials
↓ ↓
Crushing(25mm) Crushing(25mm)
↓ Air currents ↓ Air current

Storage basin Storage basin

↓ ↓
Wet grinding in tube/ball mill to form slurry
↓
Blending of slurry to corrected proportions
↓
Storage of corrected slurry
↓
Feed to rotary kiln (1400 C-1600 C)
↓
Cement clinkers are formed (3-20mm)
↓
Fine grinding of clinkers in tube / ball mill (Add 2-3% of gypsum if required)
↓

Cement silos
CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF RAW MATERIALS
The three basic constituents of hydraulic cements are lime, silica and alumina.
The relative proportion of these oxide compositions are responsible for
influencing the various properties of cement.
Cement consist of:
Oxides Compositions (%)
Lime (CaO) 60-65
Silica (SiO2) 17-25
Alumina (Al2O3) 3-8
Calcium Sulphate (CaSO4) 3-4
Iron Oxide (Fe2O3) 0.5-6
Magnesia (MgO) 0.5-4
Sulphur Trioxide (SO3) 1-2
Alkalies (Na2O, K2O) 0.5-1
LIME: Lime imparts strength to the cement and is responsible for its
soundness. If it is in excess it makes cement unsound causes it to expand and
disintegrate. If it is in deficiency it reduces strength of cement and causes it to
set quickly.
CaO +H2 O Ca(OH)2
SILICA:
Silica also imparts strength to cement. If it is in excess strength of
cement is increased, but it also increases setting time of cement.
ALUMINA: Alumina imparts quick setting property of cement. It acts as flux and
helps in reducing the clinckering temperature. If it is in excess it weakens
cement.
CALCIUM SULPHATE: It is generally added in the form of gypsum (CaSO4 2H2O).
It helps in increasing the initial setting time of cement.
IRON OXIDE: It imparts strength, hardness and colour (red/brown) to the cement.
It helps in fusion of different ingredients.
MAGNESIA: It also imparts strength, hardness and colour to cement.
If it is in excess it makes the cement unsound. Colour of magnesia is
yellow.
SULPHUR: Sulphur in cement is also responsible for volume changes in it, hence
leads to its unsoundness.
Lime, Magnesia, Sulphur causes unsoundness.
ALKALI: Alkali in cement is responsible for staining and efflorescence in
structure in which it is used for construction.
Alkali also undergoes expansive reaction with aggregate (it is
termed as cancer of cement), and leads to cracking and destruction of structure
in which it is used for construction.
COMPOSITION OF CEMENT CLINKER AND THEIR SETTING
ACTION
When these raw materials of cement are burned they fuse with each other and
give complex chemical compounds and are referred as BOGUES
COMPOUNDS, which in actual are responsible for properties of cement.

Besides major compounds 2 minor compounds are also formed K2O and Na2O
(Alkalies) which play important role in alkali-aggregate reaction.
The mixing of cement and water formed various complicated chemical
compounds are not simultaneous.
BOGUES COMPOUNDS
Tricalcium aluminate (C3A) (5-11%) (Normally 10.5%)
It undergoes hydration within 24 hours of addition of water into
cement, hence is responsible for flash setting of cement. It produces maximum
heat during its hydration, hence leads to vapourisation of water added for
hydration during setting process only, thereby leads to development of crack
over the surface. Raising the C3A content reduces the setting time, weakens
resistance to sulphate attack and lowers the ultimate strength.
In mass concreting, we have to reduce C3A value in order to
reduce the heat produced due to exothermic reaction.
It is considered as harmful ingredient of cement.
C3A +MgSO4 C3SA

Tricalcium alumino-ferrite (C4AF) (8-14%) (Normally 9%)

 It also undergoes hydration within 24 hours of addition of water
into cement, hence responsible for flash setting of cement but generates less
heat. It has poorest cementing property among all BOGUES compounds. It also
reduces the resistance of cement against the attack of sulphur but is more inert
than C3A due to presence of Fe in it. Raising the C4AF content reduces the
strength slightly.
Flash setting of cement is due to Al, but False setting of cement is due to Gypsum.

Tricalcium silicate (C3S) (25-50%) (Normally 40%)

It undergoes hydration within a week or two week after the
addition of water into the cement, hence is responsible for early strength of
cement. It is considered to have best cementing property. It enables the clinker
easier to grind, increases resistance to freezing and thawing.
C3S+H2O C-S-H (gel) +Ca(OH)2
Ca(OH)2+S→CaSO4
Attack on lime and alumina and form calcium sulphoaluminate.

Raising of C3S content beyond the specified limits increases the heat of
hydration and solubility of cement in water.
Particle size of C3S is smallest among all, does not permit flow of water,
reduce frost actions.
*Early strength related to early use (cold weather concreting)
Rate of hydration is less, add more % of C3S.
*Prefabricated construction (Railway sleepers, Electric poles, Girders of bridges) →to increase speed
of construction.

Dicalcium silicate (C2S) (25-40%) (Normally 32%)

It undergoes hydration within a year or so after the addition of water into the
cement hence is responsible for progressive/ultimate strength of cement. It also
increases the resistance of cement against the attack of chemical & acid as it
liberates lesser Ca(OH)2 during its hydration thereby suitable to be in higher
proportion in hydraulic construction where leaching of Ca(OH)2 can cause
great damage.
C2S+H2O→C-S-H +Ca(OH)2
*Leaching of Ca(OH)2 in cement is approx (20-30%).
*The rate of setting in cement is regulated by adjusting the proportion of
 SiO2

Al2O3 +Fe2O3

 Final strength is due to C2S.

HYDRATION OF CEMENT
The chemical reaction between cement and water is known as hydration
of cement. Heat liberated during this chemical reaction is known as heat of
hydration. The significant product of hydration is (CaO SiO2 H2O) which is
called as tobermorite gel because of its structural similarity to a natural
occurring mineral Tobermorite and commonly it is referred C-S-H gel.
Bogues compounds Heat of hydration (cal/gram)
3days 90days
C3 A 210 310
C4AF 70 100
C3S 60 105
C2S 10 40

→Rate of hydration decreases with time.

→Total heat of hydration =aA + bB + cC + Dd
Where A, B, C and D are respective heat of hydrations &
a, b, c and d are percentage of compounds.

→Heat of hydration of the compounds if equal amount of each considered:

C3A > C3S > C4AF > C2S
→The rate of hydration is increased by an increase in fineness of cement.
However total heat evolved is the same. The rate of hydration of principal
compounds are
C4AF > C3A > C3S > C2S
 Fig. Rate of hydration of pure cement compounds

→Binding property or compressive strength: C3S > C2S > C3A > C4AF

Fig. Contribution of cement compounds to strength of cement.

WATER REQUIREMENT FOR HYDRATION
About an average 23 per cent (24 per cent C3S, 21 per cent C2S) of
water by weight of cement is required for complete hydration of Portland
cement. This water combines chemically with the cement compounds and is
known as bound water. Some quantity of water, about 15 per cent by weight of
cement, is required to fill the cement gel pores and is known as gel water.
Therefore, a total of 38 per cent of water by weight of cement is required for
hydration.
Water added in cement assumes any of the following forms:
  Combined water- It is the water which is chemically combined with the
products of hydration and is not easily evaporable.
 Gel water-It is the water which is adsorbed over surface of cement
particle or physically held by cement particle and is not available for
hydration.
 Capillary water- It is the water which occupy the capillary pores and
easily evaporable.
Note:
 1 bag of cement =50 kg of cement and its volume 34.7 litre.
 Specific gravity of cement =3.15 (true sp. Gravity of cement solid)
 Mass specific gravity of cement =1.5
 1 cubic metre of cement =30 bags of cement
 Size of cement particle is less than 90 micron.

PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF OPC

The important physical properties of a cement are as follows:
 fineness;
 standard consistency;
 setting time;
 compressive strength &
 soundness.

Fineness: The fineness of cement is a measure of the size of cement

particle and it refers to the surface area of cement particles per unit weight.
The degree of fineness of cement is the measure of the mean size
of the grain in it.
CONDITIONS AFFECTING FINENESS:

→The chemical composition and the degree of calcination influence the

hardness of the clinker and consequently the fineness to which the
cement is ground. Hard-burnt clinker and clinker high in iron or silica,
is likely to be hard and difficult to grind.
→ Fineness is also influenced by the time of grinding and the character of
 the pulverizing machinery
→ Cement becomes finer with age provided it does not absorb too much
moisture. This is probably due to the decrepitation of the coarser grains
resulting from the hydration of the embedded lime particles.
IMPORTANCE

Finer the cement, more is the strength since surface area for hydration will
be large. With increase in fineness, the early development of strength is
enhanced but the ultimate strength is not affected.
An increase in the fineness of the cement increases the cohesiveness
of the concrete mix and thus reduces the amount of water which separates to
the top of a lift (bleeding), particularly while compacting with vibrators.
If cement is grounded beyond a certain limit, the prehydration by
atmoshpheric moisture will affect the cementative properties.
Finer cement reacts more strongly in alkali reactive aggregate. Also,
the water requirement and workability will be more leading to higher
shrinkage and cracking.
Particle should have uniformity of fineness. specific surface area of
Cement particle gives idea of fineness. SSA of cement should not be less than
2250 cm2/gm.

Standard consistency- It is defined as the consistency of cement

test that permits vicat plunger of diameter 10 mm and height 50 mm
to penetrate into mould upto (33-55) mm from top {5 to 7 mm from
bottom}.
Setting time of cement is computed in order to check its deterioration
due to storage.
Initial setting time – When water is added to cement and mixed properly, the
chemical reaction soon starts and the cement paste remains plastic for a short
period. During this period it is possible to remix the paste and this period is
called initial setting time.
IST for OPC -30 minutes.
The intial setting time is the interval between the addition of water to cement
and the stage when the square needle of vicat apparatus ceases to penetrate
completely.
IST is important to know because of loss of useful properties of cement if
the cement mortar or concrete is placed in moulds after this time.
Final setting time -It is assumed that no hardening will start before intial
setting time. As the time passes, the reaction is continued and cement begins to
hardening and time elapse at the time of mixing water to hardened is known as
final setting time.
FST for OPC is 10 hours.
Final Setting Time is the difference between the time at which water was added
to cement and the time required for needle with annular collars of vicat
apparatus ceases to make an impression on test block.
The importance of final setting time lies in the fact that the moulds can
be removed after this time.
Initial setting time defines the limit of handling and the Final setting
time defines the beginning of development of machanical strength.

Strength - The ability of a material to resist failure under the action of

stresses caused by a load is known as its strength. The load to which a material
is commonly subjected to are compression, tension and bending. The
corresponding strength is equal to the ultimate load divided by cross - sectional
area of specimen.
Cements hydrates when water is added to it and cohesion and
solidity is experienced. It binds together the aggregates by adhesion.
Strength of concrete or mortar depends upon type and nature of
cements. Therefore it should develop at least a minimum specified strength if it
is to be used in structures.
1. The compressive strength at end of three days should not be less than
11.5 N/ mm2.
2. The compressive strength at end of seven days should be not less than
17.5 N/mm2.
3. The tensile strength at end of three days should not be less than
2.0 N/ mm2.
 4. The tensile strength at end of seven days should be not less than
2.5 N/mm2.

Soundness- Soundness of cement describes the ability of the cements to

retain its original volume after hardening process or in process of setting and
hardening.

Importance: An unsound cements produces cracks, distortion and

disintegration, ultimately leading to failure.
Testing for soundness is done by using Le-Chatelier apparatus
which detect the presence of uncombined lime is cement. The expansion of
cements after heating cooling the mould should be less than 10 mm.
 TESTING OF CEMENT

Field test
(i)Colour
Lab test
(ii)Physical
Physical test Chemical test
properties
(iii)Presence of (i)Fineness test (i)Loss on ignition
lumps (ii)Consistency (ii)Chemical
(iv)Strength test composition test
(iii)IST&FST
(iv)Soundness
test
(v)Determination
of strength
(vi)Heat of
hydration
(vii)Specific
gravity

FIELD TESTS FOR CEMENT

(a)Physical property test
 The given sample of cement is to be tested should have gray
colour with a light greenish shade.
 Given sample of cement must be free from presence of air set
lumps.
 Given sample of cement should feel smooth when rubbed
between fingers.
 When sample of cement thrown in water should sink not float on
the surface of water.
  A thin paste of cement with water should feel sticky between the
fingers.
 The given sample of cement must feel cool not warm.
If there will be too much clay or silt in cement
then that cement will give earthy smell.
(b)Strength test:
Strength of cement can be roughly ascertained in following ways.
(i)Prepare a block of 25mm × 25mm × 200mm from given sample of cement
and immerse it in water for 7 days. Remove the block from water and place it
over supports having spacing of 150mm and subject the sample to center point
loading of [Link] the given loading the sample must not show any sign of
failure. 340N

25mm
150mm 25mm
200mm

This tells about the minimum strength only.

(ii) A thick faster/paste of cement with water is prepared over a thick glass plate
and it is kept in water for 24 [Link] cement must set and does not crack.
(iii) Briquettes (75mm × 25mm × 12mm) with a lean or weak mortar (cement:
sand-1:6) are made. The briquettes are immersed in water for a period of 3 days.
if cement is of sound quality, then briquettes will not be broken easily and
difficult to convert them into powder form.
PHYSICAL LAB TESTS
FINENESS TEST
Fineness of cement is tested in order to check its grinding, which
controls the rate of hydration that governs the rate of setting, rate of gain of
strength, rate of evolution of heat, rate of alkali-aggregate reaction.
Fineness of cement can be tested by any of the following methods :-
(a) Sieve test,
(b)Air-Permeability method-Nurse and Blanie`s Method,
(c)Sedimentation method-Wagner Turbidimeter method.

(a) Sieve test

In this test 100g cement sample is placed over IS Sieve number 9 [90μ]
and sieving is done continuously for at least 15 minutes along with breaking of
air set lumps if formed.
The weight of residue left over sieve should be noted. For OPC it
should not be greater than 10%.
(b)Air-Permeability test
The principle of this test is based upon relationship between flow of air
through the bed of cement particles and surface area of particles forming the
cement bed.
In this cement`s fineness is expressed in terms of specific surface area
i.e., surface area per unit weight. For OPC it must not be less than 2250cm2/gm.
Sieve test: Tells about under grinding of cement.
Air-permeability test: Tells about both under grinding and over
grinding of cement.
Permeability apparatus consist of
(i)A permeability test cell- where cement is placed and air pressure is applied.
(ii)Flow meter-to determine the quantity of air passing per second through its
capillary tube per unit difference of pressure.
(iii)A manometer-To measure air pressure.
 Fig-Permeability apparatus
Procedure:
(i) Cement sample of 20 mm height is placed on a perforated plate (40 micron
perforations) and air pressure is applied. The manometer is connected to the top
of the permeability cell and the air is turned on.
(ii)The lower end of the permeability cell is then slowly connected to the other
end of the manometer.
(iii) Adjust the flowmeter to show a pressure difference (h2) of 30-50cm and
the manometer reading (h1) in is recorded.
(iv)The process is repeated till the ratio h1/h2 is constant.
The specific surface is given by
(c) Wagner Turbidimeter method
 In this test the cement is dispersed uniformly in a rectangular glass tank
filled with kerosene.
 Then, parallel light rays are passed through the solution which strike the
sensitivity plate of a photoelectric cell.
 The turbidity of the solution at a given instant is measured by taking
readings of the current generated by the cell.
 By recording the readings at regular intervals while the particles are
falling in the solution, it is possible to secure information regarding the
grading in surface area and in size of particle.
Readings are expressed in cm2/gm.
CONSISTENCY TEST
This test is to estimate the quantity of mixing water to form a paste of
normal consistency.

Vicat Apparatus
 Vicat apparatus consists of a frame to which it attached a movable rod
weighing 300gm, diameter 10mm and length [Link] indicator is attached
to the movable rod, which indicator moves on a vertical scale and it gives the
[Link] mould is placed on a non-porous plate.
There are three attachments:
Attachment Use
10mm ϕ Plunger Consistency test
1 mm2 needle Initial setting time
5mm ϕ annular collar Final setting time

Procedure:
In order to perform consistency test 500gm of cement sample is gauged
with 24% of water by weight in first trial and paste formed is filled in mould
within 3-5 minute. After completely filling the mould, shake the mould to expel
air. Then standard plunger is attached and brought down to touch the surface of
the paste in the mould and quickly release it to penetrate into the paste by its
own weight. Depth of penetration of plunger in it is noted.
This test is repeated at different water content upto an extent depth of
penetration of 33-35mm is observed. This water content is noted and
represented as P. This test is performed at humidity of 90% and temperature of
27+ 20 C.
SETTING TIME TEST
Setting time of cement is computed in order to check its deterioration due
to storage.
INITIAL SETTING TIME TEST: It is the time which is measured from the
instant water is added in cement upto time it starts loosing its plasticity.
In order to perform this test 500gm of cement sample is gauged with 0.85P
and paste formed is filled in mould. The surface of filled paste is levelled
smooth with the top of the mould. The test is conducted at room temperature of
27± 2°[Link] mould with the cement paste is placed in the Vicat’s apparatus and
the square needle of 1mm2 is lowered gently in contact with the test block and
is then quickly released. The needle thus penetrates the test block and the
reading on the Vicat’s apparatus graduated scale is recorded. Initial setting time
in this test is referred as time in which the square needle penetrates into the
mould upto depth of 33-35mm from top.
FINAL SETTING TIME TEST: It is referred as the time which is measured
from instant water is added into the cement upto the time it completely looses
its plasticity and attains sufficient firmness to resist definite loading.
In order to perform this test mould is prepared same as above and final
setting time is referred as the time in which needle at centre of angular collar is
able to make impression over mould, but annular collar fails to do so.
For OPC initial setting time is 30 minutes.
For OPC final setting time is 10 hours.
STRENGTH TEST
Compressive strength test: This test is conducted to know compressive
strength of cement.
In order to perform this test cement mortar of cement and standard sand
(Ennore sand) is prepared in proportion of 1:3 ( generally 185gm of cement and
555gm of sand is taken) and mix with water in proportion of [(P/4)+3%] by
combined weight of cement and sand .Paste formed is filled in cubical mould of
size 70.6mm [having area of 5000mm2] and compacted in vibrating machine for
two minutes. Mould is immersed in water for curing for specified duration. It is
then removed from water and tested for its compressive strength in universal
testing machine [UTM] by application of gradual load of 35N/mm 2 per minute
upto failure. Compresive strength is considered to be average of 3 results,
having maximum deviation of + 15%.

Minimum specified strength of cement in N/mm2

Tensile Strength Test:

This test is performed in order to find the tensile strength of cement.
In order to perform this test mortar of cement and sand is prepared
same as above with the only difference that water is added in
proportion of [(P/5)+2.5 %] by combined weight of cement and sand
and paste is filled in standard briquette 12 in [Link] sample is
then subjected to uniform tensile loading of 3.5 N/mm 2 /minute.
Average of 12 samples are taken.

Figure:- Standard Briquette

SOUNDNESS TEST
This test is performed in order to find the volume changes in cement that may
occur after its setting which effects the durability of structure in which it is used
for construction. Unsoundness of cement is due to Lime, Magnesia and Sulphur.
a. Unsoundness due to Lime:
Unsoundness due to Lime is measure using “Le Chatelier's test” . Le
Chatelier's apparatus consists of a split cylinder of dia. and height 30 mm and
indicator arms of length 165mm, which are provided on either side of the split.

In order to perform this test 100gm of cement sample is taken and gauged
with 0.78P, and the paste formed is filled, in the split cylinder of dia. and height
30mm and is covered from top and bottom with the help of glass plates. The
entire assembly is immersed in water for 24 hours at temp. of 27℃-32°C. The
assembly is removed from water and distance between the indicator arm. is
noted [X]. The assembly is again immersed in water, temp. of which is
increased up to boiling point in 25-30 minutes and it is maintained for next 3
hours. The assembly is removed from water and allowed to cool and distance
b/w the indicator arm is again noted [Y].
For OPC, difference b/w two readings. Y-X must not exceed 10mm.
[Link] due to Magnesia
Unsoundness due to Magnesia is measured using “Autoclave test”. This
test is sensitive to both unsoundness due to Lime and Magnesia.
In order to perform this test mould of 25mm*25mm*282 mm cube is
prepared and is placed in an Autoclave.
Steam pressure in Autoclave is increased at such a rate that gauge pressure of
21kg/cm² is attained with an hour and is maintained for next 3 hours. This
sample is removed from Autoclave and size of each side is measured/noted.
For OPC, increase in size of any side must not exceed 0.8%.