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BONDING AND
CHAPTER 2:
PROPERTIES

1
ISSUES TO ADDRESS...

1. What promotes bonding/bond?

2. What types of bonds are there?

3. What properties are inferred from bonding?

Bonding and properties 2

 Atomic Structure

• atom – electrons – 9.11 x 10-31 kg

protons
neutrons } 1.67 x 10 -27 kg

1. atomic number = number of protons in nucleus of atom C 12.011

= number of electrons of neutral species

• atomic mass unit = amu = dalton = 1/12 mass of 12C

1 amu/atom = 1g/mol

2. atomic wt = wt of 6.023 x 1023 molecules or atoms (1 mol)

Bonding and properties

 Electrons in Atom

• Electrons have wave and particle behaviors.

– This means that electrons are in orbitals defined by a probability.
– Each orbital/electron at discrete energy level determined by
quantum numbers.

Quantum number Designation

n = principal (energy level-shell) K, L, M, N, O (1, 2, 3, etc.)
l = subsidiary (orbitals) s, p, d, f (0, 1, 2, 3,…, n -1)
ml = magnetic 1, 3, 5, 7 (-l to +l)
ms = spin ½, -½

Bonding and Properties 4

 Electron Energy States
Electrons...
• have discrete energy states
• tend to occupy lowest available energy state.

4d
4p N-shell n = 4

3d
Adapted from Fig. 2.4,
Callister 7e.
4s

Energy 3p M-shell n = 3
3s

2p L-shell n = 2
2s

1s K-shell n = 1

Bonding and properties 5

 Survey of elements
Element Atomic # Electron configuration
Hydrogen 1 1s 1
Helium 2 1s 2 (stable)
Lithium 3 1s 2 2s 1
Beryllium 4 1s 2 2s 2
Boron 5 1s 2 2s 2 2p 1
Adapted from Table 2.2,
Carbon 6 1s 2 2s 2 2p 2 Callister 7e.
... ...
Neon 10 1s 2 2s 2 2p 6 (stable)
Sodium 11 1s 2 2s 2 2p 6 3s 1
Magnesium 12 1s 2 2s 2 2p 6 3s 2
Aluminum 13 1s 2 2s 2 2p 6 3s 2 3p 1
... ...
Argon 18 1s 2 2s 2 2p 6 3s 2 3p 6 (stable)
... ... ...
Krypton 36 1s 2 2s 2 2p 6 3s 2 3p 6 3d 10 4s 2 4p 6 (stable)

• Most elements: Electron configuration is not stable.

• Why??? Valence (outer) shell usually not filled completely.

Bonding and properties 6

 Electronic Configurations

Ex: Fe - atomic number = 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 3d 6 4s2

4d
4p N-shell n = 4
3d valence
4s electrons
Energy

3p M-shell n = 3
3s Adapted from Fig. 2.4,
Callister 7e.
2p L-shell n = 2
2s

1s K-shell n = 1

• Valence electrons – those in unfilled shells

• Filled shells more stable
• Valence electrons are most available for bonding and tend
to control the chemical properties
Bonding and properties 7
 Structure and properties of materials

Mechanical properties: Electrical properties

▪ elastic modulus ▪ conductivity
▪ shear modulus ▪ resistivity
▪ hardness ▪ capacitance

+ -

Thermal properties
▪ thermal expansion
▪ heat capacity
▪ thermal conductivity
Optical properties
▪ reflectivity
▪ absorbance
▪ emission

Bonding and properties 8

 Atomic Structure

Valence electrons determine all of

the following properties:
1) Chemical
2) Electrical
3) Thermal
4) Optical

Bonding and properties 9

 The Periodic Table
• Atoms in columns: Similar Valence Structure

inert gases
give up 1e
give up 2e

accept 2e
accept 1e
give up 3e

H He
Li Be O F Ne
Na Mg S Cl Ar Adapted from
Fig. 2.6,
K Ca Sc Se Br Kr Callister 7e.
Rb Sr Y Te I Xe
Cs Ba Po At Rn
Fr Ra

Electropositive elements: Electronegative elements:

Readily give up electrons Readily acquire electrons
to become + ions. to become - ions.
Bonding and properties 10
 Electronegativity

• Ranges from 0.7 to 4.0

• Large values: tendency to acquire electrons.

Smaller electronegativity Larger electronegativity

Adapted from Fig. 2.7, Callister 7e. (Fig. 2.7 is adapted from Linus Pauling, The Nature of the Chemical
Bond, 3rd edition, Copyright 1939 and 1940, 3rd edition. Copyright 1960 by Cornell University.

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Bonding and properties
 Ionic bonding

metal + nonmetal → Ionic bond

Donates Accepts
electrons electrons

• Atoms have to be dissimilar electronegativities → ionic bond

Ex: MgO Mg 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 O 1s2 2s2 2p4

[Ne] 3s2

Mg2+ 1s2 2s2 2p6 O2- 1s2 2s2 2p6

Bonding and properties 12

 Ionic Bonding

metal + nonmetal → Ionic bond

• Occurs between + and - ions.

• Requires electron transfer.
• Large difference in electronegativity required.

Example: NaCl
Na (metal) Cl (nonmetal)
unstable unstable
electron

Na (cation)
stable
+ - Cl (anion)
Coulombic stable
Attraction
Bonding and properties 13
 Ionic Bonding

• Energy – minimum energy most stable

– Energy balance of attractive and repulsive terms

-
A -
B
EN = EA + ER =
r rn
Repulsive energy ER

r0
Interatomic separation r

Net energy EN
Adapted from Fig. 2.8(b),
Callister 7e.

Attractive energy EA

Most atoms: r0 = 0.3 nm

Bonding and properties 14

 Ionic Bonding
• Predominant bonding in Ceramics

NaCl
MgO
CaF 2
CsCl

Give up electrons Acquire electrons

Adapted from Fig. 2.7, Callister 7e. (Fig. 2.7 is adapted from Linus Pauling, The Nature of the Chemical
Bond, 3rd edition, Copyright 1939 and 1940, 3rd edition. Copyright 1960 by Cornell University.

Bonding and properties 15

 Covalent Bonding

Example: CH4 shared electrons

H from carbon atom
C: has 4 valence e-, CH 4
needs 4 more
H: has 1 valence e-, H C H
needs 1 more
shared electrons
H from hydrogen
atoms

Adapted from Fig. 2.10, Callister 7e.

• similar electronegativity → share electrons

• bonds determined by valence – s & p orbitals dominate
bonding

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Bonding and properties
 Ionic-Covalent Mixed Bonding

• Ionic-Covalent Mixed Bonding

 (X A -X B )2 
 - 
% ionic character = 1- e 4
 x (100%)
 
 
where XA & XB are Pauling electronegativities

Ex: MgO XMg = 1.3

XO = 3.5
 (3.5 -1.3 )2 
 - 
% ionic character = 1 - e 4  x (100%) = 70.2% ionic
 
 

Bonding and properties 17

 Metallic bonding

+ + + + Electron
clouds
+ + + +
+ + + + Core Ions
+ + + +

Adapted from Fig. 2.11, Callister 7e.

• Delocalized electrons → electron cloud

• Nondirectional bonding

• Bonding may be weak or strong, depending on metals

Bonding and properties 18

 Secondary bonding
Arises from interaction between dipoles
• Fluctuating dipoles
asymmetric electron ex: liquid H 2
clouds H2 H2

+ - + - H H H H
secondary secondary
bonding Adapted from Fig. 2.13, Callister 7e. bonding
• Permanent dipoles-molecule induced
secondary
-general case: + - bonding
+ -
Adapted from Fig. 2.14,
Callister 7e.
secondary
-ex: liquid HCl H Cl bonding H Cl

-ex: polymer secondary bonding

Bonding and properties 19

 Bonding: Energy & Melting temperature of some substances

Adapted from table. 2.3, Callister 7e.

Bonding and properties 20

 Summary: Bonding

Type Bond Energy Comments

Ionic Large! Nondirectional (ceramics)

Covalent Variable Directional

large-Diamond (semiconductors, ceramics
small-Bismuth polymer chains)

Metallic Variable
large-Tungsten Nondirectional (metals)
small-Mercury
Secondary smallest Directional
inter-chain (polymer)
inter-molecular

Bonding and properties 21

 Properties From Bonding: Tm

• Bond length, r • Melting Temperature, Tm

Energy
r

• Bond energy, Eo ro
r
Energy smaller Tm

unstretched length
ro larger Tm
r
Eo = Tm is larger if Eo is larger.
“bond energy”

Bonding and properties 22

 Properties From Bonding: a

length, L o coeff. thermal expansion

unheated, T1
DL DL
= a (T2 -T1)
heated, T 2 Lo

• a ~ symmetry at ro
Energy
unstretched length
ro
r a is larger if Eo is smaller.

Eo
smaller a

Eo larger a https://www.e-
education.psu.edu/matse81/node/2154

Bonding and properties 23

 Summary: Bonding, Materials categories & properties

Ceramics Large bond energy

(Ionic & covalent bonding): large Tm
large E
small a

Metals Variable bond energy

(Metallic bonding): moderate Tm
moderate E
moderate a

Polymers Directional Properties

(Covalent & Secondary): Secondary bonding dominates
small Tm
small E
large a

Bonding and properties 24