Characteristics of Research Design

A proper design sets your study up for success. Successful research studies
provide insights that are accurate and unbiased. We need to evaluate our
research studies that meet all of the main characteristics of a design. There are
four key characteristics:

▪ Neutrality

Design your research to be neutral for the best results. When you collect
data or choose sample groups, lowering the bias can positively affect
the research outcomes, making the findings more likely to be correct
and relevant. Although it's common for researchers to make
assumptions for testing during research, an effective design can help
ensure those assumptions are free from bias.

▪ Reliability

If research is conducted on a regular basis, the research involved

expects similar results to be calculated every time. research design
should indicate how the research questions can be formed to ensure
the standard of obtained results and this can happen only when the
research design is reliable.

▪ Validity

To be effective, researchers use valid measuring tools that offer reliable

results. With the right tools, you can accurately determine outcomes that
align with the research objectives to measure success or failure. For
example, designing questions for your survey based on your research's
original design helps to ensure validity.

▪ Generalization

A good design can make the research findings general enough to apply
to a broad group. Generalizing can allow you to apply the results to
different scenarios or audiences while remaining statistically valid.
Designing research that can apply to a broad group outside your initial
sample may also make it more likely that you get support for the
research study because it has a greater value from a business
perspective.

General Types of Research Design

We must have a clear understanding of the various types of research design
in order to effectively utilize the type of research design appropriate for our
research study. These research designs can be broadly classified into the
following:

▪ Quantitative Research Design

A quantitative approach to research is probably the most familiar

approach for the typical research student studying at the introductory
level. Arising from the natural sciences, the quantitative approach is
framed by the belief that there is one reality or truth that simply requires
discovery, known as realism. Therefore, asking the “right” questions is
key. Further, this perspective favors observable causes and effects and
is therefore outcome-oriented. Typically, aggregate data is used to see
patterns and “truth” about the phenomenon under study. True
understanding is determined by the ability to predict the phenomenon.

▪ Qualitative Research Design

This is generally considered to be the opposite of the quantitative

approach. Qualitative researchers are considered phenomenologists,
or human-centered researchers. Any research must account for
humanness, i.e., that they have thoughts, feelings, and experiences that
they interpret of the participants. Instead of a realist perspective
suggesting one reality or truth, qualitative researchers tend to favor the
constructionist perspective: knowledge is created, not discovered, and
there are multiple realities based on someone’s perspective.
Specifically, a researcher needs to understand why, how, and to whom
a phenomenon applies. These aspects are usually unobservable since
they are the thoughts, feelings, and experiences of the person. Most
importantly, they are a function of their perception of those things rather
than what the outside researcher interprets them to be. As a result, there
is no such thing as a neutral or objective outsider, as in the quantitative
approach. Rather, the approach is generally process-oriented. True
understanding, rather than information based on prediction, is based
on understanding action and on the interpretive meaning of that action.

▪ Mixed Method Research Design

Mixed methods research is a research method that combines and

integrates qualitative and quantitative research methods in a single
research study. It involves collecting and analyzing qualitative and
quantitative data to understand a phenomenon better and answer the
research questions. The central premise of using mixed methods
 research is that it makes the most of the strengths of each data type
while neutralizing their weaknesses. Researchers combine qualitative
and quantitative methods to expand their evidence, improve the
credibility of their findings, and illustrate the results from one method
with the results from the other one.

Probability Sampling Techniques

▪ Simple random sampling

A simple random sample is a randomly selected subset of a population.

In this sampling method, each member of the population has an exactly
equal chance of being selected. This method is the most straightforward
of all the probability sampling methods since it only involves a single
random selection and requires little advance knowledge about the
population. Because it uses randomization, any research performed on
this sample should have high internal and external validity, and be at a
lower risk for research biases like sampling bias and selection bias.
Simple random sampling works best if you have a lot of time and
resources to conduct your study, or if you are studying a limited
population that can easily be sampled.

▪ Stratified random sampling

In a stratified sample, researchers divide a population into

homogeneous subpopulations called strata based on specific
characteristics (e.g., race, gender identity, location, etc.). Every member
of the population studied should be in exactly one stratum. Each
stratum is then sampled using another probability sampling method,
such as cluster sampling or simple random sampling, allowing
researchers to estimate statistical measures for each subpopulation.
Researchers rely on stratified sampling when a population’s
characteristics are diverse and they want to ensure that every
characteristic is properly represented in the sample. This helps with the
generalizability and validity of the study, as well as avoiding research
biases.

▪ Cluster sampling

In cluster sampling, researchers divide a population into smaller groups

known as clusters. They then randomly select among these clusters to
form a sample. Cluster sampling is a method of probability sampling
that is often used to study large populations, particularly those that are
 widely geographically dispersed. Researchers usually use pre-existing
units such as schools or cities as their clusters.

▪ Systematic sampling

Systematic sampling is a probability sampling method where the

researcher chooses elements from a target population by selecting a
random starting point and selecting sample members after a fixed
‘sampling interval.’ For example, in school, while selecting the captain
of a sports team, most of our coaches asked us to call out numbers such
as 1-5 (1-n) and the students with a random number decided by the
coach. For instance, three would be called out as team captains. It is a
non-stressful selection process for both the coach and the players.
There’s an equal opportunity for every member of a population to be
selected using this sampling technique.

Nonprobability Sampling Techniques

▪ Convenience sampling

Convenience sampling is a non-probability sampling method where

units are selected for inclusion in the sample because they are the
easiest for the researcher to access. This can be due to geographical
proximity, availability at a given time, or willingness to participate in the
research. Sometimes called accidental sampling, convenience
sampling is a type of non-random sampling. For example, suppose you
are researching public perception towards the city of Cebu. You have
determined that a sample of 100 people is sufficient to answer your
research question. To collect your data, you stand at a subway station
and approach passersby, asking them whether they want to participate
in your research. You continue to ask until the sample size is reached.

▪ Judgmental or Purposive sampling

Purposive sampling refers to a group of non-probability sampling

techniques in which units are selected because they have characteristics
that you need in your sample. In other words, units are selected “on
purpose” in purposive sampling. Also called judgmental sampling, this
sampling method relies on the researcher’s judgment when identifying
and selecting the individuals, cases, or events that can provide the best
information to achieve the study’s objectives. Purposive sampling is
common in qualitative research and mixed methods research. It is
particularly useful if you need to find information-rich cases or make the
most out of limited resources, but is at high risk for research biases like
 observer bias. The main goal of purposive sampling is to identify the
cases, individuals, or communities best suited to help you answer your
research question. For this reason, purposive sampling works best when
you have a lot of background information about your research topic.
The more information you have, the higher the quality of your sample.

▪ Consecutive sampling

Consecutive sampling is defined as a non-probability sampling

technique whereby samples are picked by the researcher at
convenience. It is sometimes confused with convenience sampling but
they are not the same. This technique can be used to obtain information
or opinions from people or a target population without having any prior
information about them. It is a research methodology in which people,
things, or events are not chosen from a larger population on the basis
of whether they are statistically representative. This method is used to
reduce bias or by researchers who wish to collect data quickly and
easily. For example, let us assume that your company sells soap bars
and wants to determine the quality of customer service in its stores. As
this is a simple task that doesn’t require any specialized knowledge, you
decide to send your interns to the stores and have them perform the
customer satisfaction survey. You have 100 stores in your city and want
to survey 20 of them (which means 20% of all stores). So you send two
interns on a Saturday morning (Saturday is chosen because it’s usually
one of the busiest shopping days) to do the survey. They head over to
the first store on their list and start surveying customers by asking them
a couple of questions about their current shopping experience at the
store. When they are done with a customer, they proceed to another
customer. They do not have to come up with pre-listed names. They will
only conduct the survey consecutively based on the customers available
and willing to participate.

▪ Quota sampling

In quota sampling, you select a predetermined number or proportion

of units, called a quota. Your quota should comprise subgroups with
specific characteristics (e.g., individuals, cases, or organizations) and
should be selected in a non-random manner. Your subgroups, called
strata, should be mutually exclusive. Your estimation can be based on
previous studies or on other existing data, if there are any. This helps
you determine how many units should be chosen from each subgroup.
In the data collection phase, you continue to recruit units until you reach
your quota. Take this tip in using this sampling, your respondents should
be recruited non-randomly, with the end goal being that the
 proportions in each subgroup coincide with the estimated proportions
in the population.

▪ Snowball sampling

Snowball sampling is used when the population you want to research is

hard to reach, or there is no existing database or other sampling frames
to help you find them. Research about socially marginalized groups
such as drug addicts, homeless people, or sex workers often uses
snowball sampling. To conduct a snowball sample, you start by finding
one person who is willing to participate in your research. You then ask
them to introduce you to others. Alternatively, your research may involve
finding people who use a certain product or have experience in the area
you are interested in. In these cases, you can also use networks of
people to gain access to your population of interest. For example, you
are studying homeless people living in your city. You start by attending
a housing advocacy meeting and striking up a conversation with a
homeless woman. You explain the purpose of your research and she
agrees to participate. She invites you to a parking lot serving as
temporary housing and offers to introduce you around. In this way, the
process of snowball sampling begins. You started by attending the
meeting, where you met someone who could then put you in touch with
others in the group.